THE  NEW  WORLD 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A  LIBRARY  OF  REFERENCE 


Superbly  and  Profusely  Illustrated  with  Hundreds  of  Subjects 
in  Full  Color,  Monotone,  and  Text  Cuts 


WITH  A  VALUABLE  APPENDIX 

Of  often  sought  for  facts  in  almost  every  department 

of  human  knowledge,  a 

CHRONOLOGICAL   HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD 

Showing  the  most  important  events  in  history 
from  the  earliest  times,  and 

A  Most  Comprehensive  Narrative  of  the  Great  War 

Editor-in-Chief 
GEORGE  J.  HAGAR 

Editor  of  Harper's  Encyclopedia  of  United  States  History;  compiler  of  the 

Chronology  of  the  World  in  the  New  Standard  Dictionary;  a  reviser 

of  Appleton's  New  Practical,  Standard  American,  New  International, 

Columbian,  Imperial,  and  other  Cyclopedias 


Assisted  by  many  Associate  Editors,  Special  Contributors, 
and  United  States  and  Canadian  Government  Officials 


NEW  YORK 
THE  CHRISTIAN  HERALD 


Copyright  1911,  by  F.  E.  Wright 
Copyright  1912,  by  F.  E.  Wright 
Copyright  1914,  by  F.  E.  Wright 
Copyright  1918,  by  F.  E.  Wrigh; 
Copyright  1919,  by  F.  E.  Wright 


FOREWORD 

For  a  cyclopedia  to  attain  the  dignity  of  a  standard  work  of 
reference,  and  to  maintain  that  position,  certain  distinctive  features  are 
essential.  The  chief  of  these,  outside  variety  of  topics  and  accuracy,  are 
independence,  originality,  progressiveness,  convenience,  lucidity,  and 
brevity. 

Independence  and  originality  cannot  be  acquired  without  departing  from 
the  old-time  methods  of  pedantic  Latinity,  unfamiliar  scientific  and 
technical  terms,  and  diffusiveness,  which,  even,  in  modern  times,  still 
seek  to  make  knowledge  the  prerogative  of  a  privileged  class.  Progress- 
iveness is  obtained  by  adopting  up-to-date  methods  of  organization,  prep- 
aration, and  production,  and  employing  the  ingenious  principle  of  the 
expansive  card-index,  so  that  the  latest  data  may  be  added  until  the  very 
day  of  printing  each  edition.  Convenience  is  found  in  the  concise  disposition 
of  matter,  and  its  arrangement  in  the  form  of  compact  Volumes,  of  handy 
size  for  ready  reference,  in  place  of  large  and  clumsy  volumes,  inconvenient 
to  handle  on  account  of  their  size  and  weight,  which  are  by  many  supposed 
to  represent  the  correct  style  for  all  cyclopedic  works  of  reference. 
Lucidity  and  brevity  are  attained  by  the  development,  through  the  patient 
and  laborious  work  of  editors  and  compilers,  of  the  fine  and  difficult 
art  of  condensation,  in  which  the  constant  aim  is  to  synthesize  or  crystallize 
the  ever-growing  mass  of  ancient  and  modern  information  into  the  con- 
crete and  attractive  form  of  "race  knowledge."  This  term  was  introduced 
by  Professor  Patton,  of  Princeton  University,  to  distinguish  the  sifted 
and  verified  knowledge  of  a  subject  useful  to  the  whole  world  from  the 
detailed  knowledge  required  by  specialist  or  expert,  and  indicates  a  simple 
and  concise  handling  which,  while  meeting  all  reasonable  demands  of 
scholarship,  brings  the  profoundest  learning  within  the  comprehension  of 
any  attentive  or  thoughtful  mind. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  there  has  been  enormous 
activity  among  the  publishers  of  leading  nations  to  produce  new  cyclopedias, 
with  the  purpose  of  presenting  the  whole  range  of  universal  information 
according  to  modern  standards  and  requirements,  and  of  exhibiting  the 
wonderful  progress  made  in  all  departments  of  human  knowledge  and 
endeavor  during  the  previous  century. 

In  the  making  and  distribution  of  cyclopedias,  the  need  of  a  popular 
reference  work  of  more  compact  form  than  those  in  ordinary  use  was 
made  strikingly  apparent  both  to  editors  and  publishers,  by  the  thousands 
of  questions  poured  daily  into  the  offices  of  magazines  and  journals,  which, 
by  arrangement  were  referred  to  the  cyclopedists  for  reply.  In  the 
majority  of  instances,  the  answers  could  have  been  found  by  reference  to 
the  venerable  and  ponderous  types  of  cyclopedias.  But  these,  wherever 
possessed,  apparently  had  been  relegated  to  the  repose  of  library  shelves, 
after  the  novelty  of  possession  had  worn  off,  while  the  trouble  attendant 
on  disturbing  them  for  research  was,  apparently,  greater  than  the  slight 
inconvenience  caused  by  writing  and  waiting  for  a  brief  answer  to  a  simple 
question. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  conviction  grew  that  a  more  convenient 
form  of  reference  work  was  necessary  for  ordinary  use,  one  which,  if  kept  in 
the  home  on  the  reading-table,  in  the  student's  room  on  a  handy  shelf, 


FOREWORD 


or  in  the  office  or  store  on  the  work-desk,  would  become  an  indispensable 
and  authoritative  source  of  the  information  needed  in  connection  with 
the  current  news  of  every- day  life. 

The  ordinary  skip  method  of  reading  newspapers,  magazines,  etc.,  is  not 
conducive  to  self-culture.  Every  day  interesting  information  is  given 
about  places  and  subjects  of  which  most  people  know  very  little  and  re- 
member less  from  the  knowledge  acquired  in  school  days.  But  a  ready 
glance  into  a  convenient  reference  work  will  put  one  in  possession  of  the 
necessary  information,  and  if  the  knowledge  is  acquired  at  the  time  when 
the  subject  is  a  topic  of  general  discussion,  it  is  likely  to  be  permanently 
retained. 

The  "reference  habit'  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  and  profitable  that 
can  be  inculcated  in  young  persons  or  cultivated  by  men  and  women  for 
the  worthy  purpose  of  extending  education  throughout  the  whole  of  adult 
life.  The  more  convenient  the  form  of  reference  work  at  hand,  the  oftener 
it  will  be  used,  and  when  this  can  be  done  with  the  least  possible  waste 
of  time,  the  reference  habit  frequently  changes  the  whole  mental  attitude, 
transforming  an  ordinary  into  a  well-informed  person. 

With  the  conviction  fully  confirmed  that  such  a  convenient  work  of 
reference  was  urgently  needed,  the  publishers  of  the  present  work,  after 
mature  deliberation,  decided  upon  a  striking  departure  and  a  revolution 
in  the  ordinary  methods  of  cyclopedia  making.  Adopting  a  novel  and 
original  plan  which  would  allow  them  to  make  use  of  the  latest  sources 
of  information  right  up  to  the  date  of  publication,  they  determined  to 
build  a  work  which  should  present  the  modern,  solid,  alive,  and  up-to-date 
American  view  of  everything  worth  knowing  in  the  fewest  possible  words; 
a  work  for  the  use  of  students  and  others  which  would  fit  them  to  take 
part  in  the  conversation  or  enjoy  the  society  of  any  well-informed  circle. 

The  result,  as  embodied  herein,  exhibits  the  truly  American  character- 
istic of  the  exact  knowledge  sought;  giving  the  pith  of  each  subject,  the 
essential  facts,  condensed  to  the  plainest  terms  consistent  with  accuracy 
and  clearness,  and  presented  in  a  convenient  form  for  ready  reference. 
The  salient  features  of  each  topic  treated  and  its  modern  aspect  follow 
the  title  and  impress  themselves  at  once  upon  eye  and  mind.  The  old, 
stereotyped,  pompous,  so-called  cyclopedic  style  gives  way  to  a  bright, 
modern  presentment  of  knowledge  and  facts.  Without  needless  wading 
through  a  mass  of  words,  the  reader  immediately  grasps  the  knowledge 
sought.  Every  subject  is  condensed  or  distilled  to  an  essence  of  crystal 
clearness,  in  order  to  secure  the  compact  and  convenient  size  aimed  at. 
Moreover,  this  plan  of  condensation  or  crystallization  has  allowed  the  in- 
clusion of  a  greater  number  of  titles  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  larger 
works  of  reference,  for  over  150,000  separate  titles  will  be  found  in  the 
various  volumes  of  this  work,  as  compared  with  the  50,000  or  60,000 
subjects  in  the  ordinary  cyclopedias. 

The  publishers  have  also  aimed  at  making  the  work  doubly  attractive 
by  reason  of  its  illustrations.  Text-cuts,  half-tones  and  artistic  three- 
color  page  plates,  considerably  beyond  the  plane  of  the  average  cyclopedic 
illustrations,  contribute  largely  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  crisp  de- 
scriptive matter.  Special  attention  was  also  directed  towards  providing 
a  clear  type,  easy  for  reading  and  restful  to  the  eyes,  instead  of  the  small, 
fatiguing,  eye-straining  type,  so  frequently  complained  of  in  the  larger 
forms  of  cyclopedic  dictionaries. 

The  whole  work,  modern  in  conception  and  treatment,  accurate,  clear, 
concise,  and  up-to-date  in  a  thoroughly  practical  sense,  is  a  standard,  ideal 


FOREWORD 


reference  library,  providing  a  short  cut  to  all  knowledge.  No  work  on  a 
similar  scale  of  convenience  has  been  attempted  hitherto,  and  the  pub- 
lishers, gratified  by  its  comprehensive  scope  and  reliability,  feel  confident 
that  its  compact  form  will  make  it,  though  small,  a  powerful  rival  for 
preferential  and  general  use  in  school,  home,  store,  or  office,  over  the 
larger  types  of  cyclopedias,  gazetteers,  or  dictionaries. 

When  the  present  work  was  projected  the  world  war  had  not  assumed 
its  monstrous  proportions.  Hence,  the  editors  gave  special  attention  to  a 
presentation  of  the  countries,  states,  provinces,  departments,  and  cities  of 
the  world  under  their  most  advanced  economic,  educational,  and  philan- 
thropic conditions.  To  this  was  added  the  inclusion  of  brief  sketches  of 
the  men  and  women  whose  achievements  in.  various  directions  had  given 
them  a  far-reaching  reputation. 

With  the  enlargement  of  the  world  war  area  and  the  enforced  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  it,  the  original  plan  of  the  cyclopedia  was  en- 
larged to  make  it,  in  addition  to  its  other  features,  a  thorough  exposition 
of  the  unparalleled  struggle  for  human  freedom  and  a  reign  of  popular 
rights. 

As  a  result,  a  very  large  number  of  cities,  towns,  villages,  and  other 
localities  that  have  experienced  the  horrors  of  war,  and  sketches  of  numerous 
high  military,  naval,  and  civic  officers  of  the  belligerent  nations,  have  been 
introduced.  Note  has  also  been  made  of  war  activities  in  cities,  towns, 
and  places  already  "in  the  books."  These  various  subjects,  geographical 
and  personal,  have  then  been  referred  to  an  exceedingly  comprehensive 
chronology  of  the  war  in  a  special  Appendix. 

Part  II  of  this  Appendix  treats  exclusively  of  the  activities  of  the  United 
States  in  the  war,  and  Part  III  of  the  general  progress  of  the  war,  inde- 
pendently of  the  United  States.  These  two  parts,  in  connection  with  maps 
of  the  belligerent  countries,  will  enable  the  reader  to  trace  with  clearness 
and  accuracy  the  various  campaigns,  their  progress,  and  special  activities. 

Part  I  of  this  Appendix  is  confined  to  the  American  campaign  in  Mexico 
— the  futile  quest  of  Villa. 

The  editor  and  publishers  wish  to  acknowledge  here  the  most  cordial 
and  efficient  co-operation  in  their  task  by  a  very  large  number  of  dis- 
tinguished specialists  and  of  representatives  of  the  United  States  and 
Canadian  Governments. 

Among  them  should  be  especially  mentioned,  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  Government:  Hon.  William  Gibbs  McAdoo,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury;  Hon.  Newton  Diehl  Baker,  Secretary  of  War; 
Hon.  Josephus  Daniels,  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  Hon.  Franklin  Knight 
Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior;  Hon.  David  Franklin  Houston,  Secretary 
of  Agriculture;  Hon.  William  Cox  Redfield,  Secretary  of  Commerce;  Hon. 
William  Bauchop  Wilson,  Secretary  of  Labor;  Hon.  Albert  Sidney  Burleson, 
Postmaster-General;  Hon.  George  Otis  Smith,  Director  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey;  Hon.  Sam.  L.  Rogers,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census;  Hon.  E.  E.  Pratt,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 
Commerce;  and  Hon.  John  Barrett,  Director-General  of  the  Pan-American 
Union. 

On  the  part  of  the  Canadian  Government:  Hon.  George  E.  Foster, 
M.  P.,  Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce;  Hon.  J.  D.  Hazen,  Minister  of 
Marine  and  Fisheries;  and  Hon.  R.  H.  Coats,  B.  A.,  F.  S.  S.,  Dominion 
Statistician  and  Controller  of  the  Census. 


a,  the  first  letter  in  the 
English  and  other  alpha- 
bets, ultimately  derived 
from  the  Phoenician,  is 
traced  by  some  to  a  char- 
acter belonging  to  the  Egyptian  h:er- 
atic  alphabet.  Alpha,  the  Greek 
name  of  the  letter,  corresponds  closely 
to  aleph  ("an  ox"),  the  Phoenician 
name  (see  ALPHABET).  The  form 
which  it  has  as  a  capital  is  the  earliest. 
The  sound  which  originally  belonged 
to  it,  and  which  is  still  its  character- 
istic sound  except  in  English,  is  that 
heard  in  far,  farther,  palm,  etc.  A,  in 
music,  is  the  sixth  note  in  the  diatonic 
scale  of  C. 

Aard-vark,  (that  is,  "earth-pig"), 
a  burrowing  insect-eating  animal  of 
the  order  Edentata  found  in  South 


AABD-VABK. 

Africa.  The  name  "pig"  is  given  to 
it  from  the  shape  of  its  snout.  It  is 
about  5  feet  long,  with  a  thin  tapering 
tail,  and  long  upright  ears.  It  is  noc- 
turnal in  its  habits  and  very  timid. 
Its  flesh  is  considered  a  delicacy. 

Aard-wolf,  a  singular  carnivorous 
animal,  first  brought  from  South  Af- 
rica by  the  traveler  Delalande.  Its 


size  is  about  that  of  a  full  grown  for, 
which  it  resembles  in  both  its  habits 
and  manners,  being  nocturnal,  and  con- 
structing a  subterraneous  abode. 

Aargau,  or  Argovie,  a  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Rhine,  which  separates  it  from  the 
grand-duchy  of  Baden,  elsewhere  by 
the  cantons  Zurich,  Zug,  Lucerne, 
Bern,  Solothurn,  and  Basel;  area,  543 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1913)  23t>,860, 
more  than  half  of  whom  are  Protes- 
tants. The  capital  is  Aarau. 

Aarhans,  a  city  of  Denmark,  capi- 
tal of  a  division  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Cattegat,  and  has 
an  excellent  and  safe  harbor,  which 
admits  vessels  of  light  draught,  the 
construction  of  such  craft  being  the 
chief  industry  of  the  place.  It  has 
considerable  manufacturing  and  is  the 
centre  of  a  large  trade,  being  connect- 
ed with  the  rest  of  the  Jutland  region 
by  the  State  railway,  and  regular 
steamers  to  Copenhagen  and  Great 
Britain.  The  town  is  among  the  old- 
est in  Denmark,  and  is  noted  as  being 
the  site  of  the  first  Christian  church 
in  the  kingdom.  Its  bishop's  see 
dates  from  948.  It  has  a  cathedral 
commenced  in  1201,  which  is  a  fair 
example  of  early  13th  century  Gothic 
architecture.  Pop.  (1911)  61,755. 

Aaron,  son  of  Amram  (tribe  of 
Levi),  elder  brother  of  Moses,  and  di- 
vinely appointed  to  be  his  spokesman 
in  the  embassy  to  the  court  of  Pha- 
raoh. By  the  same  authority,  avouched 
in  the  budding  of  his  rod,  he  was 
chosen  the  first  high-priest.  He  was 
recreant  to  his  trust  in  the  absence 
of  Moses  upon  the  Mount,  and  made 
the  golden  calf  for  the  people  to  wor- 


Aaron 

ship.  He  died  in  the  123d  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  high-priesthood  descended 
to  his  third  son,  Eleazar. 

Aaron's  rod,  in  architecture,  is  a 
rod  like  that  of  Mercury,  but  with 
only  one  serpent  twined  around  it. 

Ab,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  civil 
year  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  fifth  of 
their  ecclesiastical  year,  which  begins 
with  the  month  Nisan.  It  answers  to 
the  moon  of  July,  that  is,  to  part  of 
our  month  of  July  and  to  the  begin- 
ning of  August ;  it  consists  of  30  days. 

Abaca,  or  MANILA  HEMP,  a  strong 
fibre  yielded  by  the  leaf-stalks  of  a 
kind  of  plantain  (Musa  textilis) 
which  grows  in  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago, and  is  cultivated  in  the  Philip- 
pines. The  outer  fibres  of  the  leaf- 
stalks are  made  into  strong  ropes,  the 
inner  into  various  fine  fabrics. 

Abaco,  GREAT  and  LITTLE,  two  is- 
of  the  Bahamas  group. 

Abacus,  a  Latin  term  applied  to 
an  apparatus  used  by  the  Chinese  for 
facilitating  arithmetical  operations, 
consisting  of  a  number  of  parallel 
cords  or  wires,  upon  which  balls  or 
beads  are  strung,  the  uppermost  wire 


•                     •                •   =       ~ 

ABACUS. 

being  appropriated  to  units,  the  nest 
to  tens,  &c. — In  classic  architecture 
it  denotes  the  tablet  forming  the  up- 
per member  of  a  column,  and  sup- 
porting the  entablature.  In  Gothic 
architecture  the  upper  member  of  a 
column  from  which  the  arch  springs. 

Abaddon,,  in  the  Bible,  and  in  ev- 
ery rabbinical  instance,  means  the  an- 
gel of  death,  or  the  angel  of  the  abyss 
or  "  bottomless  pit." 

Abalone,  a  Californian  name  for 
the  ear-shells  or  sea-ears,  a  gastropod 
of  the  family  Haliotidae.  The  animal 
feeds  on  sea-weeds,  creeping  along  the 
rocks.  When  in  repose  it  draws  all 
its  parts  under  the  saucer-like  shell, 
and  clings  like  a  limpet  to  whatever  it 
is  attached.  The  Chinese  use  the  body 
Cor  food,  and  the  shell  is  employed  in 


Abbey 

making  buttons,  inlaying,  and  all  pur- 
poses for  which  mother  of  pearl  is  used. 

Abatis,  or  Abattis,  in  military 
affairs,  a  kind  of  defense  made  of  felled 
trees.  In  sudden  emergencies,  the  trees 
are  merely  laid  lengthwise  with  the 
branches  pointed  outward  to  prevent 
the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

Abba,  Guiseppe  Cesare,  an  Ital- 
ian poet ;  born  in  1838  at  Cairo  Monte- 
notte.  He  took  part  in  the  expedition 
of  Garibaldi  into  Sicily  in  1860,  which 
he  celebrated  in  his  poem  "Arrigo." 

Abbas  Hilmi,  Pasha,  Khedive  of 
Egypt,  born  in  1874,  oldest  son  of 
the  Khedive  Mehemet-Tewfik.  He 
succeeded  his  father  as  Khedive  in 
1892 ;  was  deposed  in  1914,  when 
Great  Britain  assumed  a  protectorate 
over  Egypt ;  and  was  succeeded  by 
Prince  Hussein  Kaniel  Pasha. 

Abbas  I.,  surnamed  the  GREAT; 
born  in  1557,  was  the  seventh  Shah  or 
King  of  Persia  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Cufis.  He  died  Jan.  27,  1628. 

Abbassides,  the  name  of  a  race 
who  possessed  the  caliphate  for  524 
years.  There  were  37  caliphs  of  this 
race  who  succeeded  one  another  with- 
out interruption.  They  drew  their  de- 
scent from  Abbas-ben-Abd-el-Motallib, 
Mahomet's  uncle.  Their  empir*  ter- 
minated in  Mostazem  in  1257. 

Abbe,  Cleveland,  an  American 
meteorologist,  born  in  New  York  city, 
Dec.  3,  1838.  He  was  the  "Old  Prob- 
abilities" and  meteorologist  in  the 
U.  S.  Signal  Service  in  1871-91,  and 
meteorologist  of  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  from  1891  till  his  death  on 
Oct.  28.  1916. 

Abbey,  a  monastery  or  religious 
community  of  the  highest  class,  gov- 
erned by  an  abbot,  assisted  generally 
by  a  prior,  sub-prior,  and  other  subor- 
dinate functionaries ;  or,  in  the  case  of 
a  female  community,  superintended  by 
an  abbess.  Abbeys  or  monasteries  first 
arose  in  the  East.  The  abbeys  in  Eng- 
land were  wholly  abolished  by  Henry 
VIII.  at  the  Reformation.  In  the 
United  States  the  word  "monastery" 
is  generally  used  for  male  religious 
houses ;  "convent"  for  female. 

Abbey,  Edwin  Austin,  an  Amer- 
ican artist,  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
1,  1852.  Besides  illustrating  many 
books  and  painting  a  number  of  no- 
table pictures,  he  designed  a  series  of 


Abbot 

paintings  for  the  Boston  Public  Li- 
brary, on  the  "Holy  Grail."  He  was 
commissioned  by  King  Edward  VII. 
to  paint  the  coronation  scene  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  He  died  Aug.  1, 1911. 

Abbot,  the  superior  of  a  monastery 
of  monks  erected  into  an  abbey  or 
priory.  Abbot  is  also  a  title  given  to 
others  besides  the  superiors  of  monas- 
teries ;  thus,  bishops,  whose  sees  were 
formerly  abbeys,  are  called  abbots. 
Among  the  Genoese,  the  chief  magis- 
trate of  the  republic  formerly  bore  the 
title  of  "Abbot  of  the  People." 

Abbot,  Ezra,  an  American  Greek 
scholar,  born  at  Jackson,  Me.,  April 
28,  1819.  He  was  one  of  the  Amer- 
ican committee  of  New  Testament  re- 
visers. He  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
March  21,  1884. 

Abbot,  Henry  Larcom,  an  Amer- 
ican military  engineer,  born  in  Bever- 
ly, Mass.,  Aug.  13,  1831 ;  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1854 ;  became  brevet  Major-General  of 
Volunteers  in  the  Civil  War,  and  sub- 
sequently Colonel  and  Chief  of  Engi- 
neers of  the  United  States  army,  and 
was  retired  in  1895. 

Abbot,  Willis  John,  an  Amer- 
can  journalist  and  author,  born  in 
Connecticut  in  1863.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  "Life  of  Carter  Harrison," 
his  works  consist  principally  of  popu- 
lar histories  for  young  people.  His 
editorial  writings  are  graceful  and  cul- 
tured in  style,  and  powerful  in  expres- 
sion. 

Abbotsford,  the  home  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  situated  on  the  S.  bank  of 
the  Tweed  a  few  miles  above  Mel- 
rose.  At  the  time  Scott  bought  the  es- 
tate in  1811,  it  was  called  Clarty  Hole, 
but  his  antiquarian  spirit  moved  him  to 
connect  the  place  with  the  old  monks 
of  Melrose  Abbey,  who  formerly  cross- 
ed the  river  near  the  house.  He  re- 
tained all  of  the  ancient  Scotch  archi- 
tecture that  could  be  used,  and  en- 
larged the  building  to  its  present  di- 
mensions. The  property  remains  in 
the  possession  of  the  author's  descend- 
ants to  the  fourth  generation. 

Abbott,  Charles  Conrad,  an 
American  archaeologist,  born  at  Tren- 
ton, N.  J.,  1843.  He  has  discovered 
palaeolithic  human  remains  in  the  Del- 
aware valley,  and  shown  the  likeli- 
hood of  the  early  existence  of  the  Eski- 


Abbott 

mo  race  as  far  south  as  New  Jersey. 
A  large  collection  of  archaeological 
specimens  made  by  him  is  now  in  the 
Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
where  he  was  stationed  in  1876-1889. 

Abbott,  Edwin  Abbott  an  En- 
glish theologian  and  Shakespearean 
scholar,  born  in  London,  Dec,  20,  1838. 
From  the  City  of  London  School  he 
passed,  in  1857,  to  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge. 

Abbott,  Emma,  American  dra- 
matic soprano,  born  in  Chicago,  111., 
in  December,  1849.  After  years  of 
hard  work,  she  went  abroad  in  1872 
and  studied  with  Sangiovanni  at  Mi- 
lan, and  Delle  Sedie  in  Paris,  and  aft- 
erward sang  in  opera  with  great  suc- 
cess. In  1878  she  married  E.  J.  Weth- 
erell,  of  New  York.  She  died  in  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah,  Jan.  5,  1891. 

Abbott,  Jacob,  an  American 
writer  of  juvenile  stories,  born  in  Hal- 
lowell  Me.,  Nov.  14,  1803;  died  Oct. 
31,  1879.  He  graduated  from  Bow- 
doin  College,  studied  for  the  ministry, 
was  professor  of  mathematics  at  Am- 
herst  for  four  years,  and  in  1834  es- 
tablished the  Eliot  Church  in  Roxbury, 
after  having  been  principal  of  a  girls' 
school  in  Boston.  After  1839  he  de- 
voted his  whole  time  to  literature  and 
wrote  and  published  more  than  200 
volumes,  among  them  the  famous  Rol- 
lo  Books.  In  collaboration  with  his 
brother  John,  he  wrote  a  number  of 
histories  for  juvenile  readers,  with 
whom  he  was  a  great  favorite.  His 
works  have  a  considerable  sale  in  the 
first  years  of  the  20th  century. 

Abbott,  Sir  John  Joseph.  Cald- 
well,  a  Canadian  statesman,  born  in 
1821.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Senate,  leading  the  Conservative  side. 
On  the  death  of  Sir  John  Macdonald, 
in  1891,  he  become  Premier,  resigning 
in  the  following  year  on  account  of  ill- 
health.  He  died  in  1893. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot,  an 
American  author,  born  at  Brunswick, 
Me.,  Sept.  18,  1805 ;  brother  of  Jacob 
Abbott ;  author  of  "History  of  Napo- 
leon ;  "History  of  the  Civil  War ;" 
"History  of  Frederick  the  Great :"  and 
numerous  other  works  on  kindred 
themes.  He  died,  1877. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  an  American 
clergyman,  borti  at  Roxbury.  Mass., 
Dec.  18,  1835.  At  first  a  lawyer,  he 


Abbott 


Abbreviation* 


was  ordained  minister  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  1860.  After  a  pas- 
torate of  five  years,  in  Indiana,  he 
went  to  New  York,  and  rose  rapidly 
to  distinction  through  his  contributions) 
to  periodical  literature.  He  was  pas-; 
tor  of  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn,  in 
1888-1898,  being  the  immediate  suc- 
cessor of  Henry  Ward  Beecher.  He; 
was  associated  with  Mr.  Beecher  in  the  • 
editorship  of  the  "  Christian  Union,"  j 
a-nd  is  now  editor  of  "  The  Outlook," 
formerly  the  "  Christian  Union." 

Abbott,  Russell  Bigelow,  an' 
American  educator ;  born  in  Brookville, 
Ind.,  Aug.  8,  1823 ;  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Indiana  in  1847 ;  and 
received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from 
Galesville  University  in  1884.  After 
serving  for  several  years  as  principal 
of  public  schools  in  Muncie  and  New 
Castle,  Ind.,  and  of  Whitewater  Pres- 
byterian Academy,  he  was  ordained  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  1857 ;  held 
pastorates  in  Brookville,  Ind.,  seven 
years,  in  Knightstown,  Ind.,  two  years, 
and  in  Albert  Lea,  Minn.,  15  years ; 
and,  founding  Albert  Lea  College  in 
the  latter  city,  became  its  president  i  . 
1884.  Dr.  Abbott  served  as  moderator 
of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Minne-j 
sota  and  several  times  as  a  delegate  to 
the  General  Assembly  of  his  church. 

Abbreviations,  or  "  shortenings," 
are  used  in  writing  to  save  time  and 
space,  or,  it  may  be,  to  ensure  secrecy 
In  the  following  list  most  of  the  abbre- 
viations that  are  likely  to  be  met  with 
by  modern  readers  are  alphabetically  j 
arranged : 

A.  or  Ans. —  Answer. 
A.  A.  G. — Assistant  Adjutant-General. 
A.  A.  A.  G. — Acting  Assistant  Adju-, 

tant-General. 
rA.  A.  P.  S. —  American  Association  for 

the  Promotion  of  Science. 
A.   A.    S. — Academics  Americans  $0-1 
cius,  Fellow  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy (of  Arts  and  Sciences). 
A.  A.  S.    S.  —Americance  Antiquariance 
Societatis    Socius,    Member    of    the 
American  Antiquarian  Society. 
rA.  B. — Able-bodied  seaman. 
A.  B. — Artium  Baccalaureus,   Bache- 
lor of  Arts. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M. —  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions. 
Abl.—  Ablative. 
Abp. —  Archbishop. 
Abr. —  Abridgment,  or  Abridged. 


A.  B.  S. —  American  Bible  Society. 

A.  C. —  Ante  Christum,  before  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

Acad. —  Academy. 

Acad.  Nat.  Sci. —  Academy  of  Natural 
Sciences. 

Ace. —  Accusative. 

Act. —  Active ;  Acting.* 

Acct. —  Account. 

A.  C.  S. —  American  Colonization  So- 
ciety. 

Advt. —  Advertisement. 

A.  D. —  Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of 
the  Lord. 

A.  D.  C. — Aide-de-camp. 

Adj. —  Adjective. 

Adjt —  Adjutant. 

Adjt-Gen. —  Adjutant-General. 

Ad  lib. —  Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

Adm. —  Admiral ;  Admiralty. 

Admr. —  Administrator. 

Admx. —  Administratrix. 

Ad  v. —  Ad  valorem,  at  (or  on)  the 
value. 

Adv. — Adverb. 

JEt. — ^tatis,  of  age;  aged. 

A.  F.  B.  S. —  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. 

Af  r. —  African. 

A.  G. —  Adjutant-General. 

Agl.  Dept — Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

Agr. — Agriculture. 

A.  G.  S.  S. —  American  Geographical 
and  Statistical  Society. 

Agt. —  Agent. 

A.  H. — Anno  Hegirce,  in  the  year  of 
the  Hegira. 

A.  H.  M.  S. —  American  Home  Mis- 
sionary Society. 

Al. —  Aluminium. 

Ala. —  Alabama. 

Alas. —  Alaska. 

Alb. —  Albany. 

Aid. —  Alderman. 

Alex. —  Alexander. 

Alf.—  Alfred. 

Alg. —  Algebra. 

Alt. —  Altitude. 

A.  M. —  Anno  mundi,  in  the  year  of 
the  world. 

A.  M. —  Ante  meridiem,  before  noon; 
morning. 

A.  M. —  Artium  Magister,  Master  of 
Arts. 

Am.  Ass.  Adv.  Sci. —  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence. 

Am.  Assn.  Sci. —  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Amb. —  Ambassador. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviation! 


Amer. —  American. 

Amer.  Acad. —  American  Academy. 

A.  M.  E.  Z. —  African  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Zion. 

Amt —  Amount. 

An. —  Anno,  in  the  year. 

An.  A.  C. —  Anno  ante  Christum,  in 
the  year  before  Christ. 

Anal. —  Analysis. 

Ann. —  Annales ;  Annals. 

Anat —  Anatomy. 

Anc. —  Ancient ;  anciently. 

And. —  Andrew. 

Ang.-Sax. —  Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon. —  Anonymous. 

Ans. —  Answer. 

Ant.,  or  Antiq. —  Antiquities. 

Anth. —  Anthony. 

A.  O.  S.  S. — Americans  Orientalis  So- 
cietatis  Socius,  Member  of  the  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Society. 

Ap. —  Apostle ;  Appius. 

Ap. —  Apud,  in  writings  of ;  as  quoted 
by. 

Apo. —  Apogee. 

Apoc. —  Apocalypse. 

Apocr. —  Apocrypha. 

App. —  Appendix. 

Apr. —  April. 

Aq. —  Water  (aqua). 

A.  Q.  M. —  Assistant  Quartermaster. 

A.  Q.  M.  G. —  Assistant  Quartermas- 
ter-General. 

A.  R. —  Anno  regni  year  of  the  reign; 

A.  R.  A. —  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Ara. —  Arabic. 

Arch. —  Architect ;  Architecture. 

Archd. —  Archdeacon. 

Ari. — Arizona. 

Arith. —  Arithmetic. 

Ark. —  Arkansas. 

Arr. —  Arrive ;  Arrival. 

A.  R.  S.  A. —  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Academy. 

1A.  R.  S.  S. — Antiquariorum  Regite 
Societatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Art. —  Article. 

Artil. —  Artillery. 

A.-S. —  Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  S.,  or  Assist.  Sec. —  Assistant  Sec- 
retary. 

A.  S.  A. —  American  Statistical  Asso- 
ciation. 

Ass.,  Assn. —  Association. 

A.  S.  S.  U. —  American  Sunday-School 
Union. 

A.  T.  S. —  American  Tract  Society. 

Atty. —  Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen. —  Attorney-General. 


A,  U.  A. —  American  Unitarian  Asso- 
ciation. 

Aub.  Theol.  Sem. — Auburn  Theologi- 
cal Seminary. 

A.  U.  C. — Anno  urlis  conditce,  or  ab 
urbe  condita,  in  the  year  from  the 
building  of  the  city  (Rome) . 

Aug. —  August. 

Aus. —  Austria ;  Austrian. 

Auth.  Ver.,  or  A.  V. —  Authorized 
Version  (of  the  Bible). 

Av. —  Average ;  Avenue. 

Avdp. —  Avoirdupois. 

Avoir. —  Avoirdupois. 

A.  Y.  M. — Ancient  York  Masons. 

B. —  Born. 

B.  A. —  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bal. —  Balance. 

Bait. —  Baltimore. 

Bapt. —  Baptist. 

Bar. —  Barometer. 

Bart,  or  bt. —  Baronet 

Bbl.—  Barrel. 

B.  G. —  Before  Christ. 

B.  G.  L. —  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.  D. — Baccalaureus  Divinitatis,  Bach* 
elor  of  Divinity. 

Belg. —  Belgic;  Belgian^  Belgium. 

Benj. —  Benjamin. 

B.  I. —  British  India. 

Bib.— Bible;  Biblical. 

Biog. —  Biography ;  Biographical. 

Bisc. —  Biscayan. 

B.  LL. —  Baccalaureus  Legum,  Bach- 
elor of  Laws. 

B.  LL. —  Same  as  LL.  B. 

Bis. —  Bales. 

B.  M. —  Baccalaureus  Medicince,  Bach- 
elor of  Medicine. 

B.  M.—  Same  as  M.  B. 

Bot. —  Botany. 

Bp. —  Bishop. 

Br. —  British. 

Br.  Univ. —  Brown  University. 

Braz. —  Brazil ;  Brazilian. 

Brig. —  Brigade  ;  Brigadier. 

Brig. -Gen. —  Brigadier-General. 

Brit.  Mus. —  British  Museum. 

Bro. —  Brother. 

B.  S. —  Bachelor  in  the  Sciences. 

Bush. —  Bushel ;  Bushels. 

B.  V. —  Bene  vale,  farewell. 

C.—  Cent. 

C. —  Consul. 

C.,  or  Gels. —  Celsius's  Scale  for  the 

thermometer. 
C.,    or    Cent. —  Centum,    a    hundred : 

Century. 
C.,  Ch.,  or  Chap. —  Chapter. 


Abbreviations 

Ca.  sa. — Capias  ad  satis  faciendum,  a 
legal  writ. 

C.  A. — Chief  Accountant ;  Commis- 
sioner of  Accounts. 

Ca.  resp. — Capias  ad  respondendum,  a 
legal  writ. 

Cset.  par. — Cceteris  paribus,  other 
things  being  equal. 

Cal. — California  ;  Calends. 

Cam.,  Camb. — Cambridge. 

Can. — Canon. 

Cant. — Canticles. 

Cantab. — Of  Cambridge  (Cantabriff- 
iensis ) . 

Cantuar.— Of  Canterbury. 

Cap.  or  C. — Caput,  capitulum,  chap- 
ter. 

Caps. — Capitals. 

Capt. — Captain. 

Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. 

Car. — Carat. 

Card. — Cardinal. 

Cash. — Cashier. 

C.  B. — Cape  Breton. 

C.  B. — Companion  of  the  Bath. 

C.  C. — County  Commissioner ;  County 
Court. 

C.  C. — Cubic  centimeter. 

C.  C.  P.— Court  of  Common  Pleas. 

Cd. — Cadmium. 

C.  D.  V. — Carte-de-Visite. 

C.  E. — Civil   Engineer. 

C.  E. — Christian  Endeavor  (Young 
People's  Society  of). 

Cel.,  or  Celt. — Celtic. 

Cent. — Centigrade,  a  scale  of  100° 
from  freezing  to  boiling. 

Cert. — Certify. 

Certif. — Certificate. 

C.  G. — Commissary-General ;  Consul- 
General. 

C.  G.  H.— Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

C.  H. — Court  house. 

Ch. — Church  ;  Chapter  ;  Charles. 

Chald.— Chaldea ;  Chaldean ;  Chal- 
daic. 

Chanc. — Chancellor. 

Chap. — Chapter. 

Chern. — Chemistry. 

Ches. — Chesapeake. 

Chic. — Chicago. 

Chr. — Christ ;  Christian. 

Chr. — Christopher. 

Chron. — Chronicles. 

Cin. — Cincinnati. 

Circ. — Circuit. 

Cit. — Citation  ;   Citizen. 

C.  J. — Chief-Justice. 

Cl.— Chlorine. 

Clk.— Clerk. 

C.  M.— Common  Meter. 


Abbreviations 

C.  M.  G. — Companion  of  the  Order  ot 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co. — Company  ;   county. 

Coch.,  or  Cochl. — A  spoonful  (coch- 
leare). 

C.  O.  D. — Cash  (or  collect)  on  deliv- 
ery. 

Col. — Colorado;  Colonel;  Colossians. 

Coll. — Collector  ;  Colloquial ;  College ; 
Collection. 

Com.  Arr. — Committee  of  Arrange- 
ments. 

Com. — Commerce  ;  Committee  ;  Com- 
missioner ;  Commodore. 

Com.  &  Nav. — Commerce  and  Naviga- 
tion. 

Comdg. — Commanding. 

Cornm. — Commentary. 

Comp. — Compare  ;  Comparative ;  Com- 
pound ;  Compounded. 

Com.  Ver. — Common  Version. 

Con. — Contra,  against ;   in  opposition. 

Con.  Cr. — Contra,  credit. 

Conch. — Conchology. 

Con.  Sec. — Conic  Sections. 

Confed. — Confederate. 

Cong. — Congress. 

Conj.  or  conj. — Conjunction. 

Congl. — Congregational  ;Conglomerate. 

Conn,  or  Ct. — Connecticut. 

Const. — Constable  ;    Constitution. 

Cont. — Contra. 

Cop.,  or  Copt. — Coptic. 

Corn. — Cornwall ;  Cornish. 

Cor. — Corinthians. 

Cor.    Mem. — Corresponding   Member. 

Cor.    Sec. — Corresponding   Secretary. 

Coss. — Consuls   (consules). 

C.  P. — Common  Pleas. 

C.  P.  Court  of  Probate. 

C.  P.  S. — Gustos  Privati  Sigilli, 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

Cr. — Chromium. 

Cr. — Creditor  ;  credit. 

C.  R. — Gustos  Rotulorum,  Keeper  of 
the  Rolls. 

Cs. — Cases. 

C.  S. — Court  of  Sessions. 

C.  S. — Gustos  Sigilli,  Keeper  of  the 
Seal. 

C.  S.A. — Confederate  States  of  Amer- 
ica ;  Confederate  States  Army. 

C.  S.  B. — Bachelor  of  Christian  Science. 

C.  S.  D. — Doctor  of  Christian  Science. 

Csk. — Cask. 

C.  S.  N. — Confederate  States  Navy. 

C.  Theod. — Codice  Theodosiano,  in 
the  Theodosian  Code. 

Ct. — Court. 

Cts. — Cents. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviation* 


Cub.—  Cubic. 

Cub.  Ft —  Cubic  Foot. 

Cur. —  Currency. 

C.  W. —  Canada  West. 
Cwt —  Hundredweight. 
Cyc. —  Cyclopedia. 

D. —  Died. 

D. —  Five  hundred. 

D. —  Penny;  pence  (denarius). 

D.  A.  G. —  Deputy  Adjutant-General. 
Dak. —  Dakota. 

Dan. — Daniel ;  Danish. 

Dat. —  Dative. 

D.  B.  or  Domesd.  B. —  Domesday- 
Book. 

D.  C. —  District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L. —  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

•D.  C.  S. —  Deputy  Clerk  of  Sessions. 

D.  D. —  Divinitatis  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

D.  D.  S. —  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

Dea. —  Deacon. 

Dec. —  December ;  Declination. 

Dec.  of  Ind. —  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. 

Def . —  Definition. 

Def.,  Deft. —  Defendant. 

Deg. —  Degree ;  degrees. 

Del. —  Delaware ;  Delegate. 

Del.,  or  del. —  Delineavit,  he  (or  she) 
drew  it. 

Dem. —  Democrat ;  Democratic. 

Dep. —  Deputy. 

Dept —  Department. 

Deut. —  Deuteronomy. 

D.  F.—  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

D.  G. —  Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of 
God. 

D.  G. —  Deo  gratias,  thanks  to  God. 

D.  H.— Dead-head. 

Diam. —  Diameter. 

Diet. —  Dictionary ;  Dictator. 

Dim. —  Diminutive. 

Diosc. —  Dioscarides. 

Disc. —  Discount. 

Diss. —  Dissertation. 

Dist. —  District. 

Dist-Atty. —  District-Attorney. 

Div. —  Division. 

D.  L.  O. —  Dead-Letter  Office. 

D   M. —  Doctor  of  Music. 

Do. —  Ditto,  the  same. 

Doc. —  Document 

Dols. —  Dollars. 

D.  O.  M. —  Deo  optima  maximo,  to 
God,  the  best,  the  greatest 

Doz. —  Dozen. 

D.  P. —  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Dpt. —  Department. 

Dr. —  Debtor;  Doctor. 


Dr. —  Drams ;  Drachms. 

D.  Sc.-~  Doctor  of  Science. 

D.   T.— Doctor  of    Theology    (doctor 

theologice) . 
Duo. — Duodecimo,  twelve  folds. 

D.  V. —  Deo  volente,  God  willing. 
Dwt. —  Pennyweight. 

Dyn. —  Dynamics. 

E. —  East 

E.  by  S. —  East  by  South. 

E.  &  O.  E. —  Errors  and  omissions  ex« 
cepted. 

E.  B. —  English  Bible. 

Eben. —  Ebenezer. 

Ebor. — York    (Eboracum). 

Eccl. —  Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus. —  Ecclesiasticus. 

E.  D. —  Eastern  District 

Ed. —  Editor;  Edition, 

Edin. —  Edinburgh. 

Edm. —  Edmund. 

Edw. —  Edward. 

E.  E. —  Errors  excepted. 

E.  E.  T.  S. —  Early  English  Text  So- 
ciety. 

E.  G. —  Exempli  gratia,  for  example. 

E.  G. —  Ex  grege,  among  the  rest 

E.  Fl. —  Ells  Flemish. 

E.  Fr. —  Ells  French. 

E.  I. —  East  Indies  or  East  India. 

E.  I.  C.,  or  E.  I.  Co.— East  India 
Company. 

E.  I.  C.  S. —  East  India  Company's 
Service. 

Eliz. —  Elizabeth. 

E.  Lon. —  East  longitude. 

E.  M. —  Mining  Engineer. 

Emp. —  Emperor ;  Empress, 

Encyc. —  Encyclopedia. 

Eng.  Dept. —  Department  of  Engineers. 

Eng. —  England;  English. 

E.-N.-E. —  East-North-East. 

Ent,  Entom. —  Entomology. 

Env.  Ext. —  Envoy  Extraordinary. 

E.  o.  w. —  Every  other  week. 

Ep. —  Epistle. 

Eph. —  Ephesians ;  Ephraim. 

Epis. —  Episcopal. 

E.  S. —  Ells  Scotch. 

Esd. —  Esdras. 

E.-S.-E. —  East-South-East 

Esq. —  Esquire. 

Esth. —  Esther. 

E.  T. —  English  Translation. 

Et  al. —  Et  alii,  and  others. 

Etc.,  or  &c. —  Et  cceteri,  et  cteterce,  et 
ccetera,  and  others ;  and  so  forth. 

Eth. —  Ethiopic ;  Ethiopian. 

Et  seq. —  Et  sequentia,  and  what  fol- 
lows. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Etym. —  Etymology. 

E.  U. —  Evangelical  Union. 
Ex. —  Example. 

Ex. —  Exodus. 

Exc. —  Excellency ;  exception. 
Exch. —  Exchequer ;  Exchange. 
Ex.  Doc. —  Executive  Document. 
Exec.  Com. —  Executive  Committee. 
Execx. —  Executrix. 
Ex.  gr. —  For  example    (exempli  gra- 
tia). 

Exr.  or  Exec, —  Executor. 
Ez. —  Ezra. 
Ezek. —  Ezekiel. 

F.  and    A.    M. —  Free   and   Accepted 
Masons. 

F.,  or  Fahr. —  Fahrenheit  (thermome- 
ter). 

F.  A.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society. 

F.  B.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Botanical 
Society. 

F.  C. —  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

Fcap,  or  fcp. —  Foolscap. 

F.  C.  P.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Cambridge 
Philological  Society. 

F.  C.  S.—  Fellow  of  the  Chemical  So- 
ciety. 

F.  D. —  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

F.  E. —  Flemish  ells. 

Feb. —  February. 

Fee. —  Fecit ,  he  did  it. 

Fern. —  Feminine. 

F.  E.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Entomological 
Society ;  Fellow  of  the  Ethnographi- 
cal Society. 

Ff. —  Following. 

Ff. — The  Pandects. 

F.  F.  V. —  First  Families  of  Virginia,  i 

F.  G.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Geological! 
Society. 

F.  H.  S.—  Fellow  of  the  Horticultural 
Society. 

Fi.  Fa. —  Fieri  facias,  cause  it  to  be , 
done. 

Fid.  Def. —  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

Fig. —  Figure. 

Fin. —  Finland. 

Finn. —  Finnish. 

Fir. —  Firkin. 

F.  K.  Q.  C.  P.  I.— Fellow  of  King's 
and  Queen's  College  of  Physicians, 
Ireland. 

Fl.  E.—  Flemish  ells. 

Fla.—  Florida. 

F.  L.  S. — Fellow  of  the  Linnsean  So- 
ciety. 

F.-M.—  Field-Marshal. 

F.-O.—  Field-Officer. 

Pol. —  Folio. 


For. —  Foreign. 

F.  P.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Philological 
Society. 

Fr. —  France;  French. 

Fr. —  Francis. 

Fr. —  From. 

F.  R.  A.  S.—  Fellow  of  the  Royal  As- 
tronomical Society. 

F.  R.  C.  P.—  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  L.—  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  London. 

Fred. —  Frederick. 

Fr.  E.—  French  ells. 

Fr.,  Frs. —  Franc ;  Francs. 

F.  R.  G.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society. 

F.  R.  Hist.  Soc. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Historical  Society. 

Fri. —  Friday. 

F.  R.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

F.  R.  S.  S.  A.— Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Scottish  Society  of  Arts. 

F.  R.  S.  E.—  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, Edinburgh. 

F.  R.  S.  L.—  Fellow  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, London. 

F.  S.  A. —  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Arts,  or  of  Antiquaries. 

F.  S.  A.  E.—  Fellow  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  Edinburgh. 

F.  S.  A.  Scot. —  Fellow  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland. 

F.  S.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Statistical 
Society. 

Ft. —  Foot;   feet;  Fort. 

Fth. —  Fathom. 

Fur. —  Furlong. 

F.  Z.  S.—  Fellow  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety. 

Ga. —  Georgia. 

G.  A. —  General  Assembly. 
Gal. —  Galatians ;  Gallon. 
Galv. —  Galvanism. 

Galv. —  Galveston. 

G.  B. —  Great  Britain. 

G.  B.  &  I. —  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. 

G.  C. —  Grand  Chapter;  Grand  Con- 
ductor. 

G.  C.  B. —  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.  C.  H. —  Grand  Cross  of  Hanover. 

G.  C.  K.  P. —  Grand  Commander  of 
the  Knights  of  St.  Patrick. 

G.  C.  L.  H. —  Grand  Cross  of  the  Le- 
gion of  Honor. 

G.  C.  M.  G.— Grand  Cross  of  St. 
MichaeJ  and  St.  George. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


G.  C.  S.  I. —  Grand  Commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

G.  D. —  Grand  Duke ;  Grand  Duchess. 

G.  E. —  Grand  Encampment. 

Gen. —  Genesis ;  General. 

Gen. —  Genus ;  Genera ;  Genealogy. 

Gent. —  Gentleman. 

Geo. —  George. 

Geog. —  Geography. 

Geol. —  Geology. 

Geom. —  Geometry. 

Ger. —  German;  Germany. 

Gl. —  Glossa,  a  gloss. 

G.  L. —  Grand  Lodge. 

G.  M. —  Grand  Master. 

G.  M.  K.  P.— Grand  Master  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  Patrick. 

G.  M.  S.  I. —  Grand  Master  of  the  Star 
of  India. 

G.  O. —  General  Order. 

Goth. —  Gothic. 

Gov. —  Governor. 

Gov.-Gen. —  Governor-General. 

Govt. —  Government. 

G.  P. —  Gloria  patri  ("  Glory  be  to  the 
Father"). 

G.  P.  O.— General  Post-Office. 

G.  R. —  Georgius  Rex,  King  George. 

Gr. —  Greek ;  Gross. 

Gr.,  Grs. —  Grain ;  Grains. 

Grad. —  Graduated. 

Gram. —  Grammar. 

Grot. —  Grotius. 

G.  S. —  Grand  Secretary ;  Grand  Sen- 
tinel ;  Grand  Scribe. 

G.  T. —  Good  Templars ;  Grand  Tyler. 

Gtt. —  Drop;  drops   (gutta  or  guttce). 

H.  A. —  Hoc  anno,  this  year. 

Hab. —  Habakkuk. 

Hab.  corp. —  Habeas  corpus,  you  may 
have  the  body. 

Hab.  fa.  poss. —  Habere  facias  posses- 
sionem. 

Hab.  fa.  seis. —  Habere  facias  seisinan. 

Hag. —  Haggai. 

Hants. —  Hampshire. 

H.  B.  C. —  HTJdson  Bay  Company. 

H.  B.  M. —  His  or  Her  Britannic  Maj- 
esty. 

H.  C. —  House  of  Commons ;  Herald's 
College. 

H.  C.  M. —  His  or  Her  Catholic  Maj- 
esty-. 

H.  E. —  Hoc  est,  that  is,  or  this  is. 

Heb. —  Hebrews. 

Heb. —  Hebrew. 

H.  E.  I.  C. —  Honorable  East  India 
Company. 

H.  E.  I.  C.  S. —  Honorable  East  In- 
dia Company's  Service. 


Her. —  Heraldry. 

Hf.-bd.—  Half-bound. 

Hg. —  Hydrargyrum,  mercury. 

H.-G. —  Horse-guards. 

H.   H. —  His   or   Her   Highness ;   His 

Holiness  (the  Pope). 
Hhd. —  Hogshead. 
Hier. —  Jerusalem  ( Hierosolyma) . 
H.  I.  H. —  His  or  Her  Imperial  High- 
ness. 
Hind. —  Hindu ;     Hindustan  ;     Hindu- 

stanee. 

Hipp. —  Hippocrates. 
Hist. — History. 
H.  J.  S. —  Hie  jacet  sepultus.     Here 

lies  buried. 
H.  M. —  His  Majesty. 
H.  L. —  House  of  Lords. 
H.  M.  P. —  Hoc  monumentum  posuit, 

erected  this  monument. 
H.  M.  S. —  His  or  Her  Majesty's  Ship. 
Holl.—  Holland. 
Hon. —  Honorable. 
Hort. —  Horticulture. 
Hos. —  Hosea. 
H.-P.  —  High  -  priest ;    Horse  -  power ; 

Half-pay. 

H.  R. —  House  of  Representatives. 
H.  R.  E. —  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
H.  R.  H. —  His  Royal  Highness. 
H.  R.  I.  P. —  Hie  requiescit  in  pace, 

Here  rests  in  peace. 
H.  S. —  Hie  situs.  Here  lies. 
H.  S.  H. —  His  Serene  Highness. 
H.  T. —  Hoc  titulum,  this  title;   hoc, 

tituli,  in  or  under  this  title. 
Hund. —  Hundred. 
Hung. —  Hungarian. 
H.   V. —  Hoc  verbum,  this  word ;   hit 

verbis,  in  these  words. 
Hyd. —  Hydrostatics. 
Hypoth. —  Hypothesis ;   Hypothetical. 

la. —  Iowa. 

Ib.,  or  ibid. —  Ibidem,  in  the  same 
place. 

Icel. —  Iceland ;  Icelandic. 

Ich. —  Ichthyology. 

Icon.  Encyc. —  Iconographic  Encyclo- 
pedia. 

I.  Ch.  Th.  U.  S.—  (1x07*)  Jesus  Christ 
the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour  (letous 
Christos  Theou  Huiot  Soter). 

Ictus. —  Jurisconsultus, 

Id.—  Idaho. 

Id. —  Idem,  the  same. 

Id.— The  Ides  (Idus). 

I.  E. —  Id  est,  that  is. 

I.  H.  S. —  Jesus  the  Saviour  of  Men 
(Jesus  Hominum  Salvator). 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


I.,  II.,  III. —  One,  two,  three,  or  first, 
second,  third. 

Ij. — Two   (med.). 

111. —  Illinois. 

Imp. —  Imperative ;  imperfect. 

Imp. —  Imperial ;  Emperor  (Impera- 
tor). 

In. —  Inch ;  inches. 

In. —  Indium. 

Incog. —  Incognito,  unknown. 

Incor. —  Incorporated. 

Ind.  Ter. —  Indian  Territory. 

I.  H.  P. —  Indicated  horse  power. 

I.  N.  D. —  In  nomine  Dei,  in  the  name 
of  God. 

Ind. —  Indiana ;  Index.  , 

Indef. —  Indefinite. 

Inf. —  Infra,  beneath,  or  below. 

In  f. —  In  fine,  at  the  end  of  the  title, 
law,  or  paragraph  quoted. 

Inhab. —  Inhabitant. 

In  lim. —  In  limine,  at  the  outset. 

In  loc. —  In  loco,  in  the  place ;  on  the 
passage. 

In  pr. —  In  principio,  in  the  beginning 
and  before  the  first  paragraph  of  a 
law. 

I.  N.  R.  I. —  Jesus  Nazarenus,  Rex 
JudcBorum,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  King 
of  the  Jews. 

Inst. —  Instant,  of  this  month ;  Insti- 
tutes. 

Inst. —  Institute ;  Institution. 

In  sum. —  In  summa,  in  the  summary. 

Int. —  Interest. 

Interj. —  Interjection. 

In  trans. —  In  transitu,  on  the  pas- 
sage. 

Int.  Dept. —  Department  of  the  Inte- 
rior. 

Int.  Rev. —  Internal  Revenue. 

Introd. —  Introduction. 

I.  O.  O.  F. —  Independent  Order  of 
Odd  Fellows. 

Ion. —  Ionic. 

I.  O.  S.  M. —  Independent  Order  of 
the  Sons  of  Malta. 

I.  O.  U. —  I  owe  you. 

Ipecac. —  Ipecacuanha. 

I.  Q. —  Idem  quod,  the  same  as. 

Ire. — Ireland. 

I.  R.  O. —  Internal  Revenue  Office. 

Isa. —  Isaiah. 

Is.,  Isl. —  Island. 

I.  T. —  Inner  Temple. 

It—  Italy. 

Ital. —  Italic;  Italian. 

IV. —  Four  or  fourth. 

I.  W.—  Isle  of  Wight 

IX. —  Nine  or  ninth. 


J. — Justice,  or  Judge. 

J. —  One  (med.). 

J.  A. —  Judge- Advocate. 

Jac. —  Jacob. 

J.  A.  G. —  Judge  Advocate-General. 

Jam. —  Jamaica. 

Jan. —  January. 

Jas. —  James. 

J.  C.  D. — -Juris  Civilis  Doctor,  Doctor 

of  Civil  Law. 
J.    C. —  Jurisconsult     (Juris    Consul' 

tus) . 

J.  D. —  Junior  Deacon. 
Jer. —  Jeremiah. 

J.  G.  W. —  Junior  Grand  Warden. 
JJ. — Justices. 
Jno. —  John. 
Jona. —  Jonathan. 
Jos. —  Joseph. 
Josh. —  Joshua. 
J.  P. —  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.  Prob. —  Judge  of  Probate. 
J.  R. —  Jacobus  Rex,  King  James. 
Jr.,  or  Jun. —  Junior. 
J.  U.  D.,  or  J.  V.  D. —  Juris  utriusque 

Doctor,  Doctor  of  both  laws  (of  the 

Canon  and  the  Civil  Law). 
Jud. —  Judicial. 
Jud. —  Judith. 
Judg. —  Judges. 
Judge-Adv. —  Judge-Advocate. 
Jul.  Per. —  Julian  Period. 
Jus.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Just —  Justinian. 
J.  W. — Junior  Warden. 

K. —  King. 

K.  A. —  Knight  of  St.  Andrew,  in  Rus- 
sia. 

Kal. — The  Kalends  (Kalendce). 

K.  A.  N. —  Knight  of  Alexander  Nev- 
skoi,  in  Russia. 

Kan. —  Kansas. 

K.  B. —  King's  Bench. 

K.  B. —  Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C. —  King's  Counsel 

K.  C.  B. —  Knight  Commander  of  the 
Bath. 

K.  G.—  Knight  of  the  Garter. 

Kg.,  Kgs. —  Keg;  Kegs. 

K.  G.  C. —  Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 

K.  G.  C.  B. —  Knight  of  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Kil. —  Kilometer. 

Kilo. —  Kilogram. 

Kingd. —  Kingdom. 

K.  L. —  Knight  of  Labor. 

K.  L.  H. —  Knight  of  the  Legion  ef 
Honor. 

K.  M.—  Knight  of  Malta. 

K.  Mess. —  King's  Messenger. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Knick. —  Knickerbocker. 

Knt.  or  Kt. —  Knight. 

K.  P.—  Knight  of  St.  Patrick ;  Knight 
of  Pythias. 

K.  S.  M.  &  S.  G.— Knight  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George  of  the  Io- 
nian Islands. 

K.  T.—  Knight  of  the  Thistle ;  Knight 
Templar. 

Kt. —  Knight. 

Ky. —  Kentucky. 

L. —  Fifty,  or  fiftieth. 

L. —  Liber,  book. 

L.,  or  f .  s.  d. —  Pounds,  shillings, 
pence. 

£,  or  1. —  Pounds,  English  currency 
(libra). 

£  T. —  Pounds,  Turkish  currency. 

La. —  Louisiana. 

L.  A.  W. —  League  of  American  Wheel- 
men. 

Lam. —  Lamentations. 

Lang. —  Language. 

Lat. —  Latitude ;  Latin. 

Lapp. —  Lappish. 

Lb.,  or  Ib. —  Libra,  or  librae,  pound  or 
pounds  in  weight. 

L.  C. —  Lower  Canada ;  Lord  Cham- 
berlain ;  Lord  Chancellor. 

L.  C.  B.—  Lord  Chief  Baron. 

L.  C.  J. —  Lord  Chief-Justice. 

Ld. —  Lord  :  Limited. 

Ldp. —  Lordship. 

Leg. —  Legate. 

Legis. —  Legislature. 

Leip. —  Leipsic. 

Lev. —  Leviticus. 

Lex. —  Lexicon. 

L.  G. —  Life  Guards. 

L.  H.  A. —  Lord  High  Admiral. 

L.  H.  C.— Lord  High  Chancellor. 

L.  H.  D. —  Doctor  of  Literature. 

L.  H.  T. —  Lord  High  Treasurer. 

L.  I. —  Long  Island. 

Lib. —  Liber,  book. 

Lieut.-Col. —  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.-Gen. —  Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Gov. —  Lieutenant-Governor. 

Lieut. —  Lieutenant. 

Lin. —  Lineal. 

Linn. —  Linnaeus ;  Linnsean. 

Liq. —  Liquor ;  Liquid. 

Lit. — Literally ;  Literature. 

Lith. — Lithuanian. 

L.,  f ,  or  1. —  Libra  or  librae,  pound  or 
pounds  sterling. 

L.  Lat. —  Low  Latin ;  Law  Latin. 

LL.  B. —  Legum  Bvecalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Laws. 
E  2. 


LL.    D. —  Legum    Doctor,    Doctor    of 

Laws. 

LL.  M. —  Master  of  Laws. 
L.  M.  S. —  London  Missionary  Society. 
Loc.    cit. —  Loco   citato,   in   the   place 

cited. 

Lon. —  Longitude. 
Lond. —  London. 
L.  P. —  Lord  Provost. 
L.  P.  S.— Lord  Privy  Seal. 
L.  R.  C.  P. —  Licentiate  of  the  Royal 

College  of  Physicians. 
L.  R.  C.  S. —  Lincentiate  of  the  Royal 

College  of  Surgeons. 
L.  S.  D. —  Pounds,  shillings,  and  pence. 
L.  S. —  Locus  sigilli,  place  of  the  seal. 
Lt. —  Lieutenant. 
LX. —  Sixty,  or  sixtieth. 
LXX. —  Seventy,  or  seventieth. 
LXX. —  The    Septuagint    (Version   of 

the  Old  Testament). 
LXXX.—  Eighty,  or  eightieth. 

M. — Married. 

M.  Mile. 

M. —  Meridies,  noon. 

M. —  Mille,  a  thousand. 

M.,  or  Mons. —  Monsieur. 

M.  A. —  Master  of  Arts. 

M.  A. —  Military  Academy. 

Mace. —  Maccabees. 

Maced. —  Macedonian. 

Mad. —  Madam. 

Mag. —  Magazine. 

Maj. —  Major. 

Maj.-Gen. —  Major-General. 

Mai. —  Malachi. 

Man. —  Manassas. 

Mar. —  March. 

March. —  Marchioness. 

Marg. —  Margin. 

Marg.  Tran. —  Marginal  Translation. 

Marq. —  Marquis. 

Masc. —  Masculine. 

Mass. —  Massachusetts. 

Math. —  Mathematics ;  Mathematician. 

Matt. —  Matthew. 

Max. —  Maxim. 

M.  B. —  Medicines  Baccalaureus,  Bach- 
elor of  Medicine. 

M.  B. —  Musicos  Baccalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Music. 

M.  C. —  Member  of  Congress ;  Master 
of  Ceremonies ;  Master  Commandant. 

Mch. —  March. 

M.  C.  S. —  Madras  Civil  Service. 

M.  D. —  Medicines  Doctor.  Doctor  of 
Medicine. 

Md. —  Maryland. 

Mdlle. —  Mademoiselle. 

Mdpn. — Midshipman. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


M.  E. —  Methodist  Episcopal ;  Military 
or  Mechanical  Engineer. 

M.E.,8. — Methodist  Episcopal,  South. 

Me. —  Maine. 

Mech. —  Mechanic ;  Mechanical. 

Med. —  Medicine. 

M.  E.  G.  H.  P.— Most  Excellent 
Grand  High  Priest. 

Mem. —  Memorandum. 

Mem. —  Memento,  remember. 

Merc. —  Mercury. 

Mess.  &  Docs. —  Messages  and  Docu- 
ments. 

Messrs.,  or  MM. —  Messieurs,  Gentle- 
men. 

Met. —  Metaphysics. 

Metal. —  Metallurgy. 

Meteor. —  Meteorology. 

Meth. —  Methodist. 

Mex. —  Mexico,  or  Mexican. 

Mfd. —  Manufactured. 

Mfs. —  Manufactures. 

Mic. —  Micah. 

M.  I.  C.  E. —  Member  of  the  Institu- 
tion of  Civil  Engineers. 

Mich. —  Michaelmas. 

Mich. —  Michigan. 

Mil. —  Military. 

Min. —  Mineralogy. 

Min. —  Minute. 

Min.  E. —  Mining  Engineer. 

Minn. —  Minnesota. 

Min.  Plen. —  Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

Miss. —  Mississippi.  i 

M.  L.  A. —  Mercantile  Library  Asso- 
ciation. 

MM. —  Their  Majesties. 

MM. —  Messieurs ;  Gentlemen. 

Mme. —  Madame. 

M.  M.  S. —  Moravian  Missionary  So- 
ciety. 

M.  M.  S.  S. —  Massachuset tensis  Medi- 
cines Societatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the 
Massachusetts  Medical  Society. 

Mn. — >  Manganese. 

M.  N.  A.  S. —  Member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences. 

Mo. —  Missouri ;  Month. 

Mod. —  Modern. 

Mon. —  Montana ;  Monday. 

Mons. —  Monsieur ;  Sir. 

Mont. —  Montana. 

Morn. —  Morning. 

Mos.,  or  mth. —  Months. 

Mos. —  Months. 

M.  P. —  Member  of  Parliament ;  Mem- 
ber of  Police ;  Methodist  Protestant. 

M.  P.  S. —  Member  of  the  Philological 
Society ;  Member  of  the  Pharma- 
ceutical Society. 

M.  R.—  Master  of  the  Rolls. 


Mr. —  Mister. 

M.  R.  A.  S. —  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society ;  Member  of  the  Roy- 
al Academy  of  Science. 

M.  R.  C.  C.— Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry. 

M.  R.  C.  P. —  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Preceptors. 

M.  R.  C.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal 
College  Of  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  0.  V.  S.—  Member  of  the  Roya* 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons. 

M.  R.  G.  S. — Member  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society. 

M.  R.  I. — Member  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution. 

M.  R.  I.  A.— Member  of  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy. 

Mrs. —  Mistress. 

M.  R.  S.  L. —  Member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature. 

M.  S. —  Memoriw  sacrum,  Sacred  to 
the  memory. 

M.  S. —  Master  of  the  Sciences. 

MS. —  Manuscriptum,  manuscript. 

MSS. —  Manuscripts. 

Mt. —  Mount,  or  mountain. 

Mus.  B. —  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D. —  Doctor  of  Music. 

M.  W. —  Most  Worthy ;  Most  Worship- 
ful. 

M.  W.  G.  C.  P.—  Most  Worthy  Grand 
Chief  Patriarch.  • 

M.  W.  G.  M. —  Most  Worthy  Grand 
Master;  Most  Worshipful  Grand 
Master. 

M.  W.  P. —  Most  Worthy  Patriarch. 

Myth. —  Mythology. 

N. —  North;  Number;  Noun;  Neuter. 

N.—  Note. 

N.  A. —  North  America. 

Nah. —  Nahum. 

Nap. —  Napoleon ;  Napoleonic. 

N.  A.  S. —  National  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences. 

Nat.  Ord. —  Natural  Order. 

Nat. —  Natural. 

Nat.  Hist. —  Natural  History. 

Nath. —  Nathanael,  or  Nathaniel. 

Naut. —  Nautical. 

Naut.  Aim. —  Nautical  Almanac. 

N.  B. —  North  Britain. 

N.  B. —  New  Brunswick;  North  Brit- 
ish. 

N.  B. —  Nota  lene,  mark  well;  take 
notice. 

N.  C. —  North  Carolina. 

N.  D. —  North  Dakota. 

N.  E. —  New  England;  North-east. 

Neb. —  Nebraska. 


Abbreviations 


Neb. —  Nehemiah. 

N.  e.  i. —  Non  est  inventus,  he  is  not 

found. 
Nem.  con.,  or  nem.  diss. —  Nemine  con 

tradicente,  or  nemine  dissentiente,  no 

one  opposing ;  unanimously. 
Neth. —  Netherlands. 
Neut —  Neuter  (gender). 
Nev. —  Nevada. 

New  Test,  or  N.  T. —  New  Testament. 
N.  F. —  Newfoundland. 
N.  G. —  New  Granada ;  Noble  Grand.    ] 
N.  H. — •  New  Hampshire ;  New  Haven.  • 
N.  H.   H.   S. —  New  Hampshire  His-i 

torical  Society. 
Ni.  pri. —  Nisi  prius. 
N.  J. —  New  Jersey. 
N.  L —  Non  liquet,  it  does  not  appear.  | 
N.  lat. —  North  latitude. 
N.  M. —  New  Measurement. 
N.  M. —  New  Mexico. 
N.-N.-E. —  North-north-east. 
N.-N.-W. —  North-north-west. 
N,  O. — New  Orleans. 
No. —  Numero,  number. 
NoL  Pros. —  Nolle  prosequi,  unwilling 

to  proceed. 

Nom.,  or  nom. —  Nominative. 
Non     con. — Not     content;     dissenting 

(House  of  Lords). 

Non  cul. —  Non  culpabilis,  Not  guilty,  i 
Non    obst. —  Non    obstante,    notwith-l 

standing. 

N.  o.  p. —  Not  otherwise  provided  for. 
Non  pros. —  Non  prosequitur,  he  does 

not  prosecute. 
Non  seq. —  Non  sequitur,  it  does  not 

follow. 

No.,  or  Nos. —  Numbers. 
Nov. —  November. 
N.  P. —  Notary  Public. 
N.  P.  D. —  North  Polar  Distance. 
N.  s. —  Not  specified. 
N.  S.— New  Style  (after  1752)  ;  No- 
va Scotia. 
N.     S.     J.     C. —  Our    Saviour    Jesus 

Christ      (Noster     Salvator     Jesus 

Christus). 

N.  T. —  New  Testament. 
N.  u. —  Name  or  names  unknown. 
Num. —  Numbers ;  Numeral. 
N.  V. —  New  Version. 
N,    V.    M. —  Nativity    of    the    Virgin 

Mary. 

N.-W. —  North-West 
N.-W.  T. —  North- West  Territory. 
N.  Y.— New  York. 
N.  Z. —  New  Zealand. 

O.—  Ohio 

Ob. —  Obtit,  he  or  she  died. 


Obad.—  Obadiah. 

Obs. —  Obsolete ;  Observatory ;  Obser- 
vation. 

Obt,  or  Obdt —  Obedient 

Oct.,  or  8vo. —  Octavo,  eight  pages. 

Oct. —  October. 

O.-F.— Odd-Fellow,  or  Odd-Fellows. 

Okl.— Oklahoma. 

O.  G. —  Outside  guardian. 

O.  H.  M.  S. —  On  his  or  her  Majesty's 
Service. 

Old  Test,  or  O.  T. —  Old  Testament 

Olym. — Olympiad. 

O.  M. —  Old  Measurement 

Ont — Ontario. 

Opt. —  Optics. 

Or. —  Oregon. 

Orig. —  Originally. 

Ornith. —  Ornithology. 

Os. —  Osmium. 

O.   S. —  Old  Style;   Outside  Sentinel. 

O.  T.— Old  Testament 

O.  U.  A. —  Order  of  United  Americans. 

Oxf.  Gloss. —  Oxford  Glossary. 

Oxf. — Oxford. 

Oxon. —  Oxonia,  Oxonii,  Oxford. 

Oz. —  Ounce. 

P. — Pondere,  by  weight 

P.,  or  p. —  Page ;  Part ;  Participle. 

Pa.,  or  Penn. —  Pennsylvania. 

Pal. —  Palaeontology. 

Par. — Paragraph. 

Par.  Pas. —  Parallel  passage. 

Parl. — Parliament. 

Pat  Of. —  Patent  Office. 

Pathol. —  Pathology. 

Pay  t —  Payment. 

P.  B. —  Primitive  Baptist. 

P.  B. —  Philosophies  Baccalaureits, 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

P.  C. —  Patres  Conscripti,  Conscript 
Fathers;  Senators. 

P.  C. —  Privy  Council;  Privy  Coun- 
cilor. 

P.  C.  P. —  Past  Chief  Patriarch. 

P.  C.  S. —  Principal  Clerk  of  Sessions. 

P.  D. —  Philosophic  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  Philosophy. 

Pd.—  Paid. 

P.  E. —  Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I. —  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn. —  Pennsylvania. 

Pent —  Pentecost. 

Per. —  Persia;  Persian. 

Per,  or  pr. —  By  the,  or  per  Ib. 

Per  an. —  Per  annum,  by  the  year. 

Per  cent. — Per  centum,  by  the  hun- 
dred. 

Peri. —  Perigee. 

Peruv. — Peruvian. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


Pet. — Peter;  Petrine. 

P.  G.—  Past  Grand. 

Phar. —  Pharmacy. 

Ph.  B. —  Philosophies  Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.  D. —  Philosophies  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  philosophy. 

Phil. —  Philip ;  Philippians ;  Philos- 
ophy ;  Philemon. 

Phila.,  or  Phil. —  Philadelphia. 

Philem. — Philemon. 

Philom. —  PhUomathes,  a  lover  of 
learning. 

Philomat  h. — Philomathematicus,  a 
lover  of  the  mathematics. 

Phil.  Trans. —  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions. 

Phren. — Phrenology. 

Pinx.,  or  pxt. — Pinxit,  he  (she)  paint- 
ed it. 

P.-L. —  Poet-Laureate. 

PL,  or  Plur. —  Plural. 

Plff.—  Plaintiff. 

Plupf. —  Pluperfect. 

P.  M. —  Post  meridiem,  afternoon, 
evening. 

P.  M. —  Postmaster ;  Passed  Midship- 
man. 

P.  M.  G. —  Postmaster-General. 

P.  O. —  Post-Office. 

P.  of  H. —  Patrons  of  Husbandry. 

Pop. —  Population. 

Port. —  Portugal,  or  Portuguese. 

P.  P. —  Parish  priest. 

P.  P.  C. —  Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take 
leave. 

Pp.,  or  pp. —  Pages. 

PP. —  Patres,  Fathers. 

Pph. —  Pamphlet. 

P.  Q. —  Previous  Question. 

P.  R. —  Populus  Romanus,  the  Roman 
people. 

P.  R. —  Prize  Ring;  Porto  Rico;  the 
Roman  People  (Populus  Romanus). 

P.  R.  A. —  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

P,  R.  C. —  Post  Romam  conditam, 
from  the  building  of  Rome. 

Preb. —  Prebend. 

Pref. —  Preface. 

Pref. —  Preferred. 

Prep. —  Preposition. 

Pres. —  President. 

Presb. —  Presbyterian. 

Prin. —  Principally. 

Prob. —  Problem. 

Proc. —  Proceedings. 

Prof. —  Professor. 

Pron. —  Pronoun ;  Pronunciation. 

Prop. — Proposition. 

Prot. — Protestant. 


Prot.  Epis. — Protestant  Episcopal. 

Pro  tern. —  Pro  tempore,  for  the  time 
being. 

Prov. —  Proverbs ;  Provost. 

Prov. —  Province. 

Prox. —  Proximo,  next   (month). 

P.  R.  S. —  President  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety. 

Prs. —  Pairs. 

Prus. —  Prussia ;    Prussian. 

P.  S. —  Post  scriptum,  Postscript. 

P.  S.— Privy  Seal. 

Ps. —  Psalm,  or  Psalms. 

Pt.— Part;  Pint;  Payment;  Point; 
Port 

Pt. —  Platinum. 

P.  T.  O. —  Please  turn  over. 

P.-twp. —  Post-township. 

Pub. —  Publisher ;  Publication ;  Pub- 
lished ;  Public. 

Pub.  Doc. —  Public  Documents. 

P.  v. —  Post-village. 

P.  W.  P.—  Past  Worthy  Patriarch. 

Pwt. —  Pennyweight ;  pennyweights. 

Q —  Quasi,  as  it  were ;  almost. 

Q. —  Queen. 

Q. —  Question. 

Q.  d. —  Quasi  dicat,  as  if  he  should  say ; 

quasi  dictum,  as  if  said ;  quasi  dix- 

isset,  as  if  he  had  said. 
Q.  e. —  Quod  est,  which  is. 
Q.  e.  d. —  Quod  erat  demonstrandum, 

which  was  to  be  proved. 
Q.  e.  f. —  Quod  erat  faciendum,  which 

was  to  be  done. 
Q.     e.     i. —  Quod     erat    inveniendum, 

which  was  to  be  found  out. 
Q.  1. —  Quantum  libet,  as  much  as  you 

please. 

Q.  M. —  Quartermaster. 
Qm. —  Quomodo,  how ;  by  what  means. 
Q.  M.  G. —  Quartermaster-General. 
Q.  p.,  or  q.  pi. —  Quantum  placet,  as 

much  as  you  please. 
Qr. —  Quarter. 
Q.  S. —  Quarter  Sessions. 
Q.     s. —  Quantum     suffidt,     sufficient 

quantity. 

t. —  Quart. 

u.,  or  qy. —  Quaere,   inquire ;   query. 

uar. — Quarterly. 

ues. —  Question. 
Mess. —  Queen's  Messenger. 

ue. —  Quebec. 
Q.  v. —  Quod  vide,  which  see ;  quantum 

vis,  as  much  as  you  will. 

R. — Recipe,  take. 

R. —  Regina,  Queen. 

R. —  River;  Rood;  Rod. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviations 


R.  A. —  Royal  Academy  ;  Royal  Aca- 
demician. 

R.  A.— Royal  Arch. 

R.  A. —  Royal  Artillery. 

R.  C. —  Roman  Catholic. 

RC. —  Rescriptum,  a  counterpart. 

R.  D. —  Rural  Dean. 

R.  E. —  Reformed  Episcopal. 

R.  E. —  Royal  Engineers. 

Rec. —  Recipe,  or  Recorder. 

Reed. — Received. 

Rec.  Sec. — Recording  Secretary. 

Rect. —  Rector ;  Receipt 

Ref. —  Reference. 

Ref. —  Reformed ;  Reformation  ;  Ref- 
erence. 

Ref.  Ch. —  Reformed  Church. 

Reg. —  Register ;  Regular. 

Reg.  Prof. —  Regius  Professor. 

Regr. —  Registrar. 

Regt. —  Regiment. 

Rel. —  Religion. 

Rep. —  Representative ;  Reporter. 

Repts. —  Reports. 

Retd. —  Returned. 

Rev. —  Reverend ;  Revelation  ( Book 
of)  ;  Review ;  Revenue ;  Revise. 

Rhet. — Rhetoric. 

R.  H.  S. —  Royal  Humane  Society ; 
Royal  Historical  Society. 

R.  I. —  Rhode  Island ;  in  stock  reports, 
Rock  Island,  a  railway. 

R.  I.  H.  S.— Rhode  Island  Historical 
Society. 

R.  M. —  Royal  Marines ;  Royal  Mail. 

R.  M.  S. —  Royal  Mail  Steamer. 

R.  N.— Royal  Navy. 

R.  N.  R. —  Royal  Navy  Reserve. 

Ro. —  Recto,    right-hand    page. 

Robt —  Robert. 

Rom. —  Romans  (Epistle  to  the). 

Rom.  Cath. —  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  P. —  Reformed  Presbyterian. 

R.  P. —  Regius  Professor,  the  King's 
Professor. 

R.  R. —  Railroad. 

R.  R.  June. —  Railroad  Junction. 

R.  R.  Sta. —  Railroad  Station. 

R.  S. —  Recording  Secretary. 

Rs. —  Responsus,  to  answer ;  Rupees. 

R.  S.  A. —  Royal  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries :  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 

R.  S.  V.  P. —  Repondez,  s'il  vous  plait, 
answer,  if  you  please. 

R.  T.  S. —  Religious  Tract  Society. 

Rt  Hon. —  Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev. —  Right  Reverend. 

Rt.  Wpful. —  Right  Worshipful. 

Russ. —  Russia ;  Russian. 

R.  V. —  Revised  Version. 

R.  W. —  Right  Worthy. 


R.   W.   D.   G.   M.— Right  Worshipful 

Deputy  Grand  Master. 
R.   W.  G.   R.— Right  Worthy  Grand 

Representative. 
R.   W.   G.   S.— Right  Worthy  Grand 

Secretary. 
R.   W.   G.   T.— Right  Worthy   Grand 

Treasurer ;  Right  Worshipful  Grand 

Templar. 
R.  W.  G.  W. —  Right  Worthy  Grand 

Warden. 
R.  W.  J.  G.  W.— Right  Worshipful 

Junior  Grand  Warden. 
R.  W.  S.  G.  W.— Right  Worshipful 

Senior  Grand  Warden. 
Ry. —  Railway. 

S. —  Solidus,  a  shilling. 

S. —  South;  Saint;  Scribe;  Sulphur; 
Sunday ;  Sun ;  Series. 

S.  Afr. —  South  Africa. 

S.  A. —  South  America ;  South  Austra- 
lia. 

S.  a. —  Secundum  artem,  according  to 
art. 

Sam. —  Samuel. 

Sansc.,  or  Sansk. —  Sanscrit,  or  Sans- 
krit. 

Sard. — Sardinia. 

S.  A.  S. —  Societatis  Antiquariorum 
Socius,  Fellow  of  the  Soc.  of  An- 
tiquaries. 

Sat. —  Saturday. 

Sax. —  Saxon ;  Saxony. 

Sax.    Chron. —  Saxon   Chronicle. 

S.  C. —  Senatus  Consultum,  a  decree 
of  the  Senate;  South  Carolina. 

Sc. —  Sculpsit,  he  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

Sc.  B. —  Bachelor  of  Science 

Sc.,  or  scil. — Scilicet,  namely. 

Scan.  Mag. —  Scandalum  magnatum, 
scandal  of  the  great  or  prominent. 

Schol. —  Scholium,  a  note. 

Schr. —  Schooner. 

Sclav. —  Sclavonic. 

Scot. —  Scottish  ;  Scotland. 

Scr. —  Scruple. 

Scrip. —  Scripture. 

Sculp. —  Sculpsit,  he  (or  she)  en- 
graved it. 

S.  D. —  Salutem  dicit,  sends  health ; 
South  Dakota. 

S.-E.—  South-East. 

Sec. —  Secretary ;    Second. 

Sec.  Leg. —  Secretary  of  Legation. 

Sec.  leg. —  Secundum  legem,  according 
to  law. 

Sec.  reg. —  Secundum  regulam,  accord- 
ing to  rule. 

Sect. —  Section. 

Sem. —  Semlle,  it  seems. 


Abbreviations 


Abbreviation* 


Sem. —  Seminary. 

Sen. —  Senate ;   Senator ;   Senior. 

Sept. —  September  ;  Septuagint. 

Seq. —  Sequentia,  following ;  sequitur, 
it  follows. 

Ser. —  Series. 

Serg. —  Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj. —  Sergeant-Major. 

Servt. —  Servant. 

Sess. —  Session. 

S.  G. —  Solicitor-General. 

Shak. —  Shakespeare. 

S.  H.  S. —  Societatis  Histories  Socius, 
Fellow  of  the  Historical  Society. 

Sic. —  Doubtful ;  literally. 

S.  I.  M. —  Soc.  for  Increase  of  the 
Ministry. 

Sing. —  Singular. 

S.  Isl. —  Sandwich  Islands. 

S.  J. —  Society  of  Jesus. 

S.  J.  C. — Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

S.   lat. —  South  latitude. 

S.  M. —  State  Militia;  Short  Meter; 
Sergeant-Major;  Sons  of  Malta. 

S.  M.  Lond.  Soc.  Cor. —  Societatis 
Mcdicce  Londonensis  Socius  Cor., 
Corresponding  Member  of  the  Lon- 
don Medical  Soc. 

Soc.  Isl. —  Society  Islands. 

Sol. —  Solomon ;   Solution. 

SoL-Gen. —  Solicitor-General. 

S.  of  Sol. —  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sp. —  Spain ;  Spanish. 

S.  P.  A.  S. —  Societatis  Philosophies 
Americana  Socius,  Member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society. 

S.  P.  G. —  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel. 

Sp.  gr. —  Specific  gravity. 

S.  P.  C.  A. —  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Animals. 

S.  P.  C.  C. —  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Children. 

S.  P.  Q.  R. —  Senatus  Populusque  Ro- 
manus,  the  Senate  and  people  of 
Rome. 

S.  P.  R.  L. —  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion of  Religion  and  Learning. 

Sq.  ft. —  Square  foot,  or  square  feet. 

Sq.  in. —  Square  inch,  or  inches. 

Sq.  m. —  Square  mile,  or  miles. 

Sq.  yd.—  Square  yard. 

Sr. —  Senior. 

S.  R.  I. —  Sacrum  Romanum  Impe- 
rium.  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

S,  R.  S. —  Societatis  Regies  Socius, 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

S.  S. — Sunday-school. 

SS.—  Saints. 

SS.,  or  ss. —  Scilicet,  to  wit. 

Ss. —  Semis,  half ;  Ses  sions. 


S.-S.-E. —  South-south-east. 

S.-S.-W. —  South-south-west. 

St. —  Saint;  Street;  Strait. 

Stat. —  Statute. 

S.  T.  B.— Bachelor  of  Sacred  Theol- 
ogy. 

S.  T.  D. —  Sacrce  Theologies  Doctor, 
Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Ster.,  or  Stg. —  Sterling. 

S.  T.  P. —  Sacrce  Theologies  Profess- 
or, Professor  of  Divinity. 

Str. — Steamer. 

S  ub  j. — S  ub  j  uncti  ve. 

Subst. —  Substantive. 

Sun.,  or  Sund. — Sunday. 

Sup. — Supreme. 

Sup. — Supplement ;  Superfine. 

Supt. — Superintendent. 

Surg. —  Surgeon ;  Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen. —  Surgeon-General. 

Surv. —  Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen. —  Surveyor-General. 

S.  v. —  Sub  verbo,  under  the  word  or 
title. 

S.-W. —  South-west 

Sw. —  Swiss. 

Swe. —  Sweden ;  Swedish ;  Sweden- 
borg ;  Swedenborgian. 

Switz. —  Switzerland. 

Syn. —  Synonym  ;    Synonymous. 

Syr. — Syriac. 

T.,  or  torn. —  Tome,  volume. 

Tab. —  Table;  Tabular. 

Tan.—  Tangent. 

T.  E. —  Topographical  Engineers. 

Tenn. —  Tennessee. 

Ter. — Territory. 

Tex. — Texas. 

Text.  Rec. — Textus  Receptus,  Received 
Text. 

Tf.—  Till  forbid. 

Th.,  or  Thurs. —  Thursday. 

Theo. — Theodore. 

Theol. —  Theology ;  Theological. 

Theoph. —  Theophilus. 

Thess. — Thessalonians. 

Tho'. —  Though. 

Thos. —  Thomas. 

Thro'. —  Through. 

Tim. —  Timothy. 

Tit. —  Titus. 

T.  O. —  Turn  over. 

Tob. —  Tobit. 

Topog. —  Topography ;  Topographical. 

Tp. —  Township. 

Tr. —  Transpose ;  Translator ;  Trans- 
lation ;  Trustee. 

T  r  a  n  s. —  Translator ;  Translation  J 
Transactions ;  Transpose. 

Treas. —  Treasurer. 


Abbreviations 

Trin. —  Trinity. 
Tues.,  or  Tu. —  Tuesday. 
T.  S. —  Twin  screw. 
Tr.  S. —  Triple  screw. 
Tur. —  Turkey. 
Hyp. —  Typographer. 

U. —  Union. 

U.  B. —  United  Brethren. 

U.  C. —  Upper  Canada. 

U.  C. —  Vrbe  condita,  year  of  Rome. 

U.  J.  C. —  Utriusque  Juris  Doctor, 
Doctor  of  both  Laws. 

U.  K. —  United  Kingdom. 

U.   K.  A. — Ulster  King-at-Arms. 

Ult —  Ultimo,  last ;  of  the  last  month. 

Unit. —  Unitarian. 

Univ. —  University. 

Univt. —  Universalist 

U.  P. —  United  Presbyterian. 

U.  S. —  United  States. 

U.  s. —  Ut  supra,  or  uti  supra,  as 
above. 

U.  S.  A.— United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  A. —  United  States  of  America. 

U.  S.  M. —  United  States  Mail. 

U.  S.  M. —  United  States  Marines. 

U.  S.  M.  A. —  United  States  Military 
Acad. 

U.  S.  M.  C. —  United  States  Marine 
Corps. 

U.  S.  M.  H.  S.— United  States  Ma- 
rine Hospital  Service. 

U.  S.  N. —  United  States  Navy. 

U.  S.  N.  A. — United  States  Naval 
Acad. 

U.  S.  S.—  United  States  Senate. 

Ut —  Utah. 

V. —  Village. 

V.,  or  vid. —  Vide,  see. 

V. —  Violin. 

Vt —  Vermont. 

V.,  or  vs. —  Versus,  against ;  Versicu- 
lo,  in  such  a  verse. 

Va. —  Virginia. 

Val.—  Value. 

Vat. —  Vatican. 

V.  C. — Victoria  Cross ;  Vice-Chair- 
man ;  Vice-Chancellor. 

V.  D.  L. —  Van  piemen's  Land. 

V.  D.  M. —  Verbi  Dei  Minister,  Minis- 
ter of  God's  word. 

Ven. —  Venerable. 

Ver. —  Verse. 

V.  Q, —  Vicar  General. 

V.  g. —  Verbi  gratia,  as  for  example. 

Vice-Pres.,  or  V.   P« —  Vice-President. 

Vise. —  Viscount. 

Viz.,  or  vL —  Videltcet,  *o  wit ;  name- 
ly; that  is  to  say. 


Abbreviation* 

Vo. —  Verso,  left-hand  page. 
Vol. —  Volume. 

V.  R. —  Victoria  Regina,  Queen  Vic- 
toria. 

V.  S. —  Veterinary  Surgeon. 
Vul. —  Vulgate  \.  Version ) . 

W. —  West 

Wash. —  Washington. 

W.  B.  M. —  Woman's  Board  of  Mis- 
sions. 

W.  C.  A. —  Woman's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation. 

W.  C.  T.  U. —  Women  s  Christian 
Temperance  Union. 

Wed. — Wednesday. 

Wf. — Wrong  font. 

W.  F.  M.  S. —  Woman's  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society. 

W.  H.  M.  A. —  Woman's  Home  Mis- 
sionary Association. 

W.  I. —  West  Indies. 

Wis. — Wisconsin. 

Wisd.— Wisdom  (Book  of). 

Wk.—  Week. 

W.  M. —  Worshipful  Master. 

Wm. —  William. 

W.  M.  S. —  Wesleyan  Missionary  So- 
ciety. 

W.  N.  C.  T.  U.— Woman's  National 
Christian  Temperance  Union. 

W.-N.-W. — West-north-west. 

W.-S.-W. —  West-south-west. 

WTt —  Weight. 

Wyo. —  Wyoming. 

W.  Va. —  West  Virginia. 

X.,  or  Xt— Christ. 
Xmas.,  or  Xm. —  Christmas. 
Xn.,  or  Xtian. —  Christian. 
Xnty.,  or  Xty. — Christianity. 
Xper.,  or  Xr. —  Christopher. 

Yd.—  Yard. 

Ym.—  Them. 

Y.  M.  C.  A. —  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association. 

Y.  M.  C.  U. —  Young  Men's  Christian 
Union. 

Yn. —  Then. 

Yr. —  Year. 

Yrs. —  Years;   Yours- 

Y.  W.  C.  A.^-  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association. 

Zach. —  Zachary. 
Zech. —  Zechariah. 
Zeph. —  Zephaniah. 
Zool. —  Zoology. 

&. —  And. 


A.  B.  C.  Mediators 


Abdul-Medjid 


A.  B.  C.  Mediators,  the  diplo- 
matic representatives  in  the  United 
States  of  Argentina,  Bolivia,  and 
Chile,  who,  under  an  offer  of  friendly 
offices  by  their  respective  governments, 
attempted  a  settlement  of  the  contro- 
versies between  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  Several  conferences  were 
held  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Washing- 
ton in  1914-15,  and  a  plan  was  draft- 
ed for  the  restoration  of  order  in  Mex- 
ico, but  no  practical  results  followed. 

Abdallah-Ibn-Yarim,  Moham- 
medan conqueror  of  Spain,  known  as 
"Theologian."  He  died  1058. 

Abd-el-Kader,  very  renowned  by 
the  persevering  courage  with  which  he 
opposed  the  aggressions  of  the  French 
against  his  country,  born  in  Oran  in 
1807.  He  preached  a  holy  war  against 
the  French  occupation  of  Algiers,  and 
called  upon  the  faithful  to  rise  and 
expel  the  infidels.  For  a  period  of  15 
years  he  contrived  to  defend  his  coun- 
try, and  fight  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  France ;  but  in  1847  he  was 
compelled  to  surrender  himself  a  pris- 
oner. He  died  May  26,  1883. 

Abd-er-Rahman  I.,  a  Caliph  of 
Cordova,  born  in  Damascus  in  731. 
He  founded  a  Moorish  dynasty  in 
Spain,  made  Cordova  his  capital  and 
became  an  independent  sovereign.  The 
mosque  at  Cordova  (now  used  as  a 
cathedral),  ornamented  with  rows  of 
cupolas,  supported  by  850  pillars  of  jas- 
per, was  built  by  him.  He  died  in  787. 

Abdication,  Royal,  a  resignation 
of  sovereign  power,  forced  or  volun- 
tary. Noted  modern  instances  include 
Napoleon  in  1814  and  1815;  Charles 
X.,  of  France,  in  1830;  Louis  Phi- 
lippe, in  1848 ;  Alexander  of  Bulgaria, 
in  1886;  King  Milan  of  Servia,  in 
1889;  William  of  Wied,  Mpret  (Em- 
peror) of  Albania,  in  1914 ;  and  Czar 
Nicholas  of  Russia  and  King  Constan- 
tine  of  Greece,  both  in  1917.  King 
Manoel  of  Portugal  was  dethroned  by 
a  revolution  in  1910. 

Abd-nl-Aziz,  the  32«3  Sultan  of 
the  Ottoman  Turks,  was  born  Feb.  9, 
1830,  and  succeeded  his  brother,  Abd- 
ul-Medjid, in  1861.  His  government 
had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with 
in  the  Cretan  insurrection,  the  strug- 
gle of  Rumania  and  Servia  for  full 
autonomy,  and  finally  the  outbreak  of 
Mohammedan  fanaticism.  In  1871  the 


Sultan  strove  to  get  the  succession 
settled  upon  his  son,  instead  of  his 
nephew  Murad,  in  accordance  with 
Turkish  custom.  At  last  a  conspiracy 
forced  him  to  abdicate  the  throne, 
May  30,  1876.  Four  days  later,  the 
unhappy  Sultan  was  found  dead,  it  is 
almost  certain  by  foul  play. 

Abdul-Hamid  II.,  34th  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  born  Sept.  22,  1842,  the 
second  son  of  Sultan  Abdul-ul-Medjid ; 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1876,  on 
the  deposition  of  his  brother,  Murad 
V.  Defeated  in  the  war  of  1877-1878 
with  Russia,  he  was  compelled  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin  to  surrender  a  small 
portion  of  territory  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  to  recognize  the  independence  of 
the  vassal  States  in  Europe,  and  to 
acknowledge  Bulgaria  as  a  tributary 
principality.  In  1895-1896,  during  the 
massacres  of  the  Armenians,  he  took 
an  active  part  in  the  negotiations 
with  the  European  powers.  In  1897, 
Greece  forced  war  on  Turkey  in  be- 
half of  the  Cretans,  and  in  1898,  after 
another  uprising  in  Crete,  Great 
Britain  and  Russia  forced  Turkey  to 
evacuate  the  island.  A  constitution 
granted  Turkey  in  1876,  before  his 
accession,  was  quickly  suppressed  by 
him,  and  he  ruled  despotically  until 

1908,  when  he  was  forced  to  restore 
it  by  a  revolutionary  party  known  as 
the   Young  Turks.     A   legislative  as- 
sembly was  elected  and  a  large  meas- 
ure of  liberty  granted,  but  in  April, 

1909,  a  reactionary  movement  at  Con- 
stantinople led  to  the  occupation  of  the 
city   by   troops   favoring   the   Young 
Turks  party,  and  the  deposition  and 
exile  to  Salonica  of  the  Sultan.     He  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Mohammed- 
Reshad,  under  the  title  of  Mohammed 
V.     At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  the 
Balkan  States  against  Turkey,  in  1912, 
Abdul-Hamid  was  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople, through  fear  that  Russia 
might  restore  him  to  the  throne  dur- 
ing the  excitement  of  the  war. 

Abdul-Medjid,  a  Sultan  of  Tur- 
key, born  April  23,  1822 ;  succeeded  to 
the  throne  July  1,  1839,  at  the  early 
age  of  17.  The  great  event  of  his 
reign  was  the  Crimean  War,  in  which 
France  and  England  allied  themselves 
with  Turkey  against  the  encroach- 
ments of  Russia,  and  which  was  ter- 
minated by  the  fall  of  Sehastopol  af- 
ter a  long  siege,  in  1856.  He  was  sue- 


Abdurrahman  Klian 

ceeded  by  his  brother,  Abdul  Azia 
Khan.  He  died  June  25,  1861. 

Abdurrahman  Khan,  Ameer  of 
'Afghanistan;  born  in  Kabul  in  1844; 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Ufzul  Khan,  and 
nephew  of  the  Ameer  Shere  Ali.  In 
July  of  1880  he  was  formally  chosen 
by  the  leading  men  of  Kabul  and  ac- 
knowledged by  the  British  Indian  Gov- 
ernment as  Ameer  of  Afghanistan. 
From  the  British  Indian  Government 
he  received  a  subsidy  of  $800,000  a 
year,  with  large  gifts  of  artillery,  ri- 
fles, and  ammunition  to  improve  his 
military  force.  In  March,  1900,  he 
declared  his  sympathy  with  England. 
He  died  in  Kabul,  Oct.  3,  1901. 

Abel,  the  second  son  of  Adam  and 
brother  of  Cain.  The  latter  was  a 
tiller  of  the  ground ;  Abel  a  shepherd. 
Both  brought  their  offerings  before 
the  Lord;  Cain,  the  first-fruits  of  the 
ground ;  Abel,  the  firstlings  of  the 
fiock.  God  accepted  the  offering  of 
Abel ;  the  offering  of  Cain  he  rejected. 
The  latter,  instigated  by  envy,  mur- 
dered his  brother  in  the  field. 

Abel,  Sir  Frederick  Augustus, 
an  English  chemist,  born  in  London 
in  1827.  Was  president  of  the  Brit- 
ish Association  in  1890.  Died  London, 
Sept.  8,  1902. 

Abel,  Niels  Henrik,  a  Norwe- 
gian mathematician,  born  at  Findo, 
Aug.  5,  1802.  He  became  a  lecturer 
at  the  University  of  Christiania,  and 
the  school  of  engineering  there.  His 
works  deal  mainly  with  the  theory  of 
elliptical  functions,  which  his  discov- 
eries greatly  enriched.  He  died  young, 
April  6,  1829. 

Abelard,  (or  Abailard),  Pierre, 
a  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict, 
equally  famous  for  his  learning  and 
his  passion  for  Heloise;  born  in  1079, 
near  Nantes,  in  the  little  village  of 
Pallet,  which  was  the  property  of  his 
father  Berenger.  His  inclination  led 
him  to  prefer  a  literary  life ;  and  in 
order  to  devote  himself  fully  to  philos- 
ophy he  ceded  his  patrimony  to  his 
brothers.  He  studied  poetry,  rhetoric, 
philosophy,  jurisprudence,  and  theol- 
ogy, the  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Latin 
languages ;  but  scholastic  philosophy 
chiefly  engaged  his  attention.  Having 
learned  all  that  Brittany  could  teach 
him,  he  went  to  Paris,  the  university 
of  which  attracted  students  from  all 
parts  of  Europe^  Guillaume  de  Cham- 


___ Abelard 

peaux,  a  follower  of  Anselm  and  an 
extreme  Realist,  was  the  most  skillful 
disputant  of  his  time,  and  Abelard, 
profiting  by  his  instructions,  was  often 
victorious  over  his  master  in  contests 
of  wit  and  logical  acumen.  The 
friendship  of  Qhampeaux  was  soon 
succeeded  by  enmity ;  and  Abelard, 
who  had  not  yet  completed  his  22d 
year,  removed  to  Melun,  whither  he 
was  soon  followed  by  a  multitude  of 
young  men,  attracted  from  Paris  by 
his  great  reputation.  Hostility  still 
pursued  him,  but  he  left  Melun  for 
Corbeil,  nearer  the  capital,  where  he 
was  still  more  admired  and  persecuted. 
Soon  after  he  ceased  teaching  to  re- 
cruit his  strength ;  and  after  two 
years  returned  to  Paris,  and  found 
that  his  former  teacher  had  removed 
to  a  monastery  outside  the  city. 

He  again  joined  issue  with  him  and 
gained  so  complete  a  triumph  that  he 
opened  in  Paris  a  school  of  rhetoric, 
the  fame  of  which  soon  deprived  all 
the  others  of  their  pupils.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  appointed  to  his  ri- 
val's chair  in  the  cathedral  school  of 
Notre  Dame,  where  he  educated  many 
distinguished  scholars,  among  whom 
were  the  future  Pope  Celestin  II.,  Pe- 
ter of  Lombardy,  Bishop  of  Paris,  Be- 
renger, Bishop  of  Poictiers,  and  St. 
Bernard. 

At  this  time  there  resided  close  to 
Notre  Dame  a  young  lady,  by  name 
Heloise,  niece  of  the  canon  Fulbert, 
then  of  the  age  of  17,  and  remarkable 
for  her  beauty,  genius,  and  varied  ac- 
complishments. Abelard  became  in- 
spired with  such  violent  love  for  He- 
loise as  to  forget  his  duty,  his  lectures, 
and  his  fame.  Heloise  was  no  less 
susceptible.  Under  the  pretext  of  fin- 
ishing her  education,  he  obtained  Ful- 
bert's  permission  to  visit  her,  and 
finally  became  resident  in  his  house. 
His  conduct  in  abusing  the  confidence 
which  had  been  placed  in  him  opened 
the  eyes  of  Fulbert.  He  separated  the 
lovers,  but  too  late.  Abelard  fled  with 
her  to  Brittany,  where  she  was  de- 
livered of  a  son,  who  died  early.  Abe- 
lard now  resolved  to  marry  her  secret- 
ly. Fulbert  gave  his  consent,  the  mar- 
riage was  performed,  and  in  order  to 
keep  it  secret  Heloise  remained  with 
her  uncle,  while  Abelard  retained  his 
former  lodgings,  and  continued  his 
lectures.  Abelard,  however,  carried 


Ibercrombie 


Ab  er  crombie 


her  off  a  second  time,  and  placed  her 
in  the  convent  of  Argenteuil. 

Fulbert  erroneously  believed  it  was 
intended  to  force  her  to  take  the  veil, 
and  under  the  influence  of  rage  sub- 
jected Abelard  to  mutilation.  He  be- 
came, in  consequence,  a  monk  in  the 
abbey  of  St.  Denis,  and  Heloise  took 
the  veil  at  Argenteuil.  After  time  had 
somewhat  moderated  his  grief  he  re- 
sumed teaching.  At  the  Council  of 
Soissons  (1121),  no  defense  being  per- 
mitted him,  his  "  Essay  on  the  Trin- 
ity "  was  declared  heretical,  and  he 
was  condemned  to  burn  it  with  his 
own  hands.  Continued  persecutions 
obliged  him  at  last  to  leave  the  abbey 
of  St.  Denis  and  to  retire  to  a  place 
near  Nogent-sur-Seine,  where  he  built 
a  rude  hut  in  which  he  determined  to 
live  a  hermit's  life.  Even  here,  how- 
ever, students  flocked  to  him,  and  they 
built  him  an  oratory,  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  the  Holy  Ghost  and  hence 
called  Paraclete.  Being  subsequently 
appointed  abbot  of  St.  Gildas  de  Ruys, 
in  Brittany,  he  invited  Heloise  and  her 
religious  sisterhood,  on  the  dissolution 
of  their  monastery  at  Argenteuil,  to  re- 
side at  the  above  oratory,  and  re- 
ceived them  there.  He  lived  for  some 
10  year?  at  St.  Gildas.  Ultimately, 
however,  he  fled  from  it  and  lived 
for  a  time  in  other  parts  of  Brittany. 

St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  the  lead- 
ing opponent  of  the  rationalistic  school 
of  Abelard,  laid  his  doctrines  before 
the  Council  of  Sens,  in  1140,  had  them 
condemned  by  the  Pope,  and  obtained 
an  order  for  his  imprisonment.  Abe- 
lard appealed  to  the  Pope,  published 
his  defense,  and  went  to  Rome.  Pass- 
ing through  Cluny,  he  visited  Peter  the 
Venerable,  who  was  abbot  there.  This 
humane  and  enlightened  divine  effect- 
ed a  reconciliation  between  him  and 
his  enemies,  but  Abelard  resolved  to 
end  his  days  in  retirement.  The  se- 
vere penances  which  he  imposed  upon 
himself,  together  with  the  grief  which 
never  left  his  heart,  gradually  con- 
sumed his  strength,  and  he  died,  a  pat- 
tern of  monastic  discipline,  in  1142, 
at  the  abbey  of  St.  Marcel,  near  Cha- 
lon-sur-Saone.  Heloise  begged  his 
body,  and  had  him  buried  in  the  Para- 
clete, of  which  she  was  at  that  time 
the  abbess,  with  the  view  of  reposing 
in  death  by  his  side.  In  1800  the 
ashes  of  both  were  carried  to  the 


Museum  of  French  Monuments  at 
Paris,  and  in  November,  1817,  were 
deposited  under  a  chapel  within  the 
precincts  of  the  church  of  Monamy. 
The  small  chapel,  in  the  form  of  a 
beautiful  marble  monument,  in  which 
the  figures  of  the  ill-fated  pair  are 
seen  reposing  side  by  side,  is  now  one 
of  the  most  interesting  objects  in  the 
Parisian  cemetery  of  Pere  la  Chaise. 

Abelard  was  distinguished  as  a 
grammarian,  orator,  logician,  poet, 
musician,  philosopher,  theologian,  and 
mathematician.  As  a  philosopher  he 
founded  an  eclectic  system  commonly, 
but  erroneously,  termed  Conceptual- 
ism,  which  lay  midway  between  the 
prevalent  Realism,  represented  in  its 
most  advanced  form  by  William  of 
Champeaux,  and  extreme  Nominalism, 
represented  in  the  teaching  of  his  other 
master  Roscellin,  and  largely  ap- 
proached the  Aristotelian  philosophy. 
In  ethics  Abelard  placed  much  empha- 
sis on  the  subjective  intention,  which 
he  held  to  determine  the  moral  value 
as  well  as  the  moral  character  of  man's 
action.  Along  this  line  his  work  is 
notable,  owing  to  the  fact  that  his 
successors  did  little  in  connection  with 
morals,  for  they  did  not  regard  the 
rules  of  human  conduct  as  within  the 
field  of  philosophic  discussion.  His 
love  and  his  misfortunes  have  secured 
his  name  from  oblivion ;  and  the  man 
whom  his  own  century  admired  as  a 
profound  dialectician  is  now  celebrated 
as  the  martyr  of  love.  The  letters  of 
Abelard  and  Heloise  have  been  often 
published  in  the  original  and  in  trans- 
lations. Pope's  poetical  epistle 
"  Eloisa  to  Abelard "  is  founded  on 
them.  Abelard's  autobiography,  en- 
titled "  Historia  Calamitatum,"  is  still 
extant.  The  chief  work  on  the  life 
of  Abelard  is  Remusat's  "  Abelard " 
(two  vols.  Paris,  1845).  See  also 
Compayre's  "  Abelard  and  the  Origin 
and  Early  History  of  Universities " 
(1893  ;  series  of  "  Great  Educators  "). 
A  complete  edition  of  his  work  was 
published  by  Cousin  (twyo  vols.  Paris, 
1849-1859). 

Abercrombie,  John,  in  his  day 
the  most  eminent  of  Scottish  physi- 
cians, was  born  in  1780,  at  Aberdeen, 
where  his  father  was  a  parish  min- 
ister. His  principal  professional  writ- 
ings were  treatises  on  the  pathology  of 
the  brain  and  on  diseases  of  the  stom- 


Abercrombie 


Abiathar 


ach.     Dr.  Abercrombie  died  suddenly, 
Nov.  14,  1844. 

Abercrombie,  Sir  Ralph,  a  Brit- 
ish general,  born  in  1738.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  in  the  West  Indies, 
in  1795;  in  the  attempt  against  Hol- 
land, in  1799,  and  in  the  expedition 
to  Egypt.  Mortally  wounded  in  the 
beginning  of  the  battle  of  Alexandria 
(March  21,  1801),  the  general  kept 
the  field  during  the  day,  and  died  some 
days  after  his  victory. 

Aberdeen,  the  chief  city  and  sea- 
port in  the  North  of  Scotland,  lies  at 
the  mouth  and  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
river  Dee,  111  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh. 
Population  of  the  parliamentary  burgh 
X1901)  153,108. 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton 
Gordon,  Earl  of,  born  in  1784.  He 
took  office  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  1828,  in  the  min- 
istry formed  under  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington, and  in  1843  in  the  Peel  min- 
istry. Entering  public  life  as  a  Tory, 
his  policy  was  that  of  non-interference 
in  the  affairs  of  foreign  states.  In 
1853,  Earl  Aberdeen  was  solected  to 
head  a  new  ministry,  which  for  some 
time  was  extremely  popular.  He  en- 
deavored to  prevent  the  country  from 
entering  upon  the  conflict  with  Rus- 
sia, but  all  his  efforts  were  unavail- 
ing. Failing  to  receive  sufficient  sup- 
port to  carry  out  his  measures,  he  re- 
signed in  1855.  Died  Dec.  14,  1860. 

Aberdeen,  Sir  John  Campbell, 
Hamilton  Gordon,  seventh  Earl 
of,  born  in  1847.  He  served  as  Gov- 
ernor-General of  Canada  (1893-1898), 
and  as  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
in  1886  and  after  1905.  His  wife, 
born  in  1857,  is  a  daughter  of  Lord 
Tweedmouth  and  a  direct  descendant 
of  Robert  Bruce.  She  is  an  accom- 
plished orator,  and  organized  the  Irish 
Village  at  the  Columbian  Exposition 
in  Chicago  in  1893.  For  many  years 
she  has  been  conspicuous  in  plans  for 
promoting  the  welfare  of  women. 

Abernethy,     James,     a     Scotch 
civil    engineer,    born    in   Aberdeen    in 
1815.     As  a  boy  he  assisted  his  father  : 
on  the  extension  of  the  London  docks,  i 
and  afterward  designed  and  built  the  j 
lock  and  dock  at  Aberdeen,  the  docks 
at    Swansea,    Newport,    Cardiff    and 
Hull,  and  the  Cavour  canal  in  Italy; 
designed  the  accepted  plan  for  the  im- 


provement of  the  Danube  at  Vienna ; 
reclaimed  Lake  Aboukir,  in  Egypt, 
and  proposed  the  Manchester  ship- 
canal.  He  was  the  first  to  apply  hy- 
draulic power  for  working  lock-gates. 
He  died  March  8,  1896. 

Abernethy,  John,  an  eminent 
English  surgeon,  founder  of  the  School 
of  St.  Bartholomew's ;  born  in  London, 
April  3, 1764.  He  died  at  Enfield,  April 
28,  1831. 

Abert,  John  James,  an  American 
military  engineer,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1788;  served  in  the  War  of  1812; 
was  made  chief  of  United  States  to- 
pographical engineers  in  1838 ;  assist- 
ed in  developing  important  canals  and 
other  works ;  member  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  France.  He  died 
in  1863. 

Abesta,  or  Avesta,  the  name  of 
one  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Persian 
magi,  which  they  ascribe  to  their  great 
founder  Zoroaster. 

Abgar,  or  Abgarus,  is  the  name 
or  title  of  28  princes  of  Edessa,  in 
Mesopotamia.  The  most  notable  of 
these  princes  is  the  14th  of  the  name, 
a  contemporary  of  Jesus,  and  was  said 
to  have  written  a  letter  to  Jesus  and 
to  have  received  an  answer  from  Him. 
These  letters,  translated  into  Greek 
from  the  Syriac  by  Eusebius  of  Caesa- 
rea,  were  denounced  as  spurious  by 
Pope  Gelasius  in  494  and  soon  lost  all 
credit.  The  letter  from  Abgar  con- 
tains a  request  that  Jesus  should  visit 
him,  and  heal  him  of  a  certain  dis- 
ease. In  the  reply,  Jesus  is  repre- 
sented as  promising  to  send  a  disci- 
ple to  heal  him  after  His  ascension. 
What  purported  to  be  copies  of  this 
correspondence  came  to  light  in  1900. 
For  other  fables  in  this  connection,  see 
Lipsius'  "  Die  Edessenische  Abgar- 
sage"  (1880). 

Abgillus,  surnamed  Prester  John, 
a  king  of  the  Frisons.  He  attended 
Charlemagne  to  the  Holy  Land,  and 
did  not  return  with  him,  but  made 
great  conquests  in  Abyssinia,  which 
was  called,  from  him,  the  empire  of 
Prester  John.  He  lived  in  the  8th 
century. 

Abiathar  (the  father  of  abun- 
dance ) ,  a  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  son 
of  Ahimelech,  who  had  borne  the  sam^ 
office,  and  received  David  in  his  house. 
This  so  enraged  Saul  that  he  put  Ahim- 


Ablb 


Aboukir- 


elech  and  81  priests  to  death ;  Abi- 
athar  alone  escaped  the  massacre.  He 
afterward  was  high-priest,  and  often 

fave  King  David  testimonies  of  his 
delity.  But  after  this  he  conspired 
with  Adonijah,  in  order  to  raise  him 
to  the  throne  of  King  David,  his  fa- 
ther, which  so  exasperated  Solomon 
against  him  that  he  divested  him  of 
the  priesthood,  and  banished  him  A.  M. 
3021  (B.  c.  1014). 

Abib,  a  name  given  by  the  Jews 
to  the  first  month  of  their  ecclesiasti- 
cal year,  afterward  called  Nisan.  It 
answered  to  the  latter  part  of  March 
and  beginning  of  April. 

Abigail,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Na- 
bal,  a  wealthy  owner  of  goats  and 
sheep  in  Carmel.  When  David's  mes- 
sengers T*ere  slighted  by  Nabal,  Abi- 
gail took  the  blame  upon  herself,  and 
succeeded  in  appeasing  the  anger  of 
David.  Ten  days  after,  Nabal  died, 
and  David  sent  for  Abigail  and  made 
her  his  wife.  ( I  Sam.  xxv :  14,  etc. ) 

Abilene,  city  and  capital  of  Tay- 
lor county,  Tex.;  on  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  railroad;  200  miles  N.  of 
Austin;  has  flour,  cotton-seed  oil,  and 
planing  mills,  machine  shops,  cream- 
ery, chair  and  mattress  factories,  and 
large  cattle  trade.  Pop.  (1910)  9,204. 

Abiogenesis,  name  given  by  Prof.' 
Huxley  to  the  theory  of  spontaneous 
generation,  i.  e.,  that  living  matter  can 
be  produced  from  that  which  is  not  in 
itself  living  matter.  It  is  the  antith- 
esis of  biogenesis. 

Abishai,  son  of  David's  sister 
Zeruiah,  and  brother  to  Joab. 

Abo,  Archipelago  of,  an  exten- 
sive group  of  low,  rocky  islands  in 
the  Baltic  Sea,  spreading  along  the 
S.  and  W.  coasts  of  Finland,  opposite 
the  city  of  Abo,  rendering  the  naviga- 
tion difficult  and  dangerous. 

Abo,  Peace  of,  a  treaty  concluded 
Aug.  17,  1743,  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  by  which  Russia  retained  a 
part  of  Finland  and  restored  to  Swe- 
den the  remainder  on  condition  that 
the  latter  power  should  elect  the  Prince 
of  Holstein-Gottorp  successor  to  the 
throne. 

Abolitionists,  in  United  States 
history,  those  who  advocated  the  abo- 
lition of  African  slavery  in  the  South- 
ern States.  The  anti-slavery  agita- 
tion dates  back  even  to  colonial  days. 


Agitation  became  acute  after  the  set- 
tlement of  the  war  troubles  of  1812- 
1815.  In  1833,  the  formation  of  a  Na- 
tional Anti-Slavery  Society  took  place 
in  Philadelphia,  and  in  1848  of  the 
Free  Soil  Party.  The  abolition  move- 
ment ivas  powerfully  promoted  by 
William  Lloyd  Garrison,  who  issued 
a  newspaper,  "  The  Liberator,"  for 
the  better  dissemination  of  his  views ; 
and  also  by  Wendell  Phillips,  Charles 
Sumner  and  others.  The  more  extreme 
agitators  among  them  denied  the  duty 
of  obedience  to  the  Constitution,  since 
it  contained  the  clause  warranting  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  and  they  de- 
nounced it  as  "  a  covenant  with  death 
and  an  agreement  with  hell."  In  prac- 
tice they  violated  it  by  systematically 
assisting  in  the  escape  of  runaway 
slaves.  A  line  of  stations  known  as 
the  "  Underground  Railroad  "  was  se- 
cretly arranged,  along  which  the  fu- 
gitives were  passed  from  point  to 
point,  concealed  from  pursuers,  and 
cared  for  until  they  reached  safety  in 
Canada.  In  Boston,  Garrison  was 
mobbed,  and  the  abolition  cause  in 
the  United  States  counted  among  its 
martyrs  Elijah  Lovejoy,  shot  in  Al- 
ton, 111.,  in  1837,  and  John  Brown, 
hanged  in  Virginia  in  1859.  In  1840 
the  abolitionists  divided  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  formation  of  a  political 
anti-slavery  party,  and  the  two  wings 
remained  active  on  separate  lines  to 
the  end.  It  was  largely  due  to  the 
abolitionists  that  the  Civil  War,  when 
it  came,  was  regarded  by  the  North 
chiefly  as  an  anti-slavery  conflict,  and 
they  looked  upon  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation  as  a  vindication  of  this 
view. 

Aboma,  a  large  and  formidable 
American  snake,  called  also  the  ringed 
boa.  Anciently  it  was  worshipped  by 
the  Mexicans. 

Aborigines,  the  earliest  known 
inhabitants  of  any  other  land. 

Aboukir,  a  small  village  on  the 
Egyptian  coast,  10  miles  E.  of  Alex- 
andria. Aboukir  bay  is  celebrated  for 
the  naval  battle  in  which  Nelson  an- 
nihilated the  French  fleet  on  Aug.  1-2, 
1798.  This  decisive  victory  gained 
Nelson  the  title  of  Baron  Nelson  of 
the  Nile ;  and  the  battle  is  often  spo- 
ken of  as  the  battle  of  the  Nile.  See 
APPENDIX:  World  War. 


About 

About,  Edmond,  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  in  Dieuze,  Lorraine.  Feb. 
14,  1828;  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  17, 1885. 

Abra,  a  province  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pine Islands;  on  the  N.  W.  coast; 
area,  1,484  square  miles;  pop.  (1903) 
51,860,  of  whom  14,037  were  wild; 
capita],  Bangued. 

Abracadabra,  a  magical  word 
among  the  ancients,  recommended  as 
an  antidote  against  several  diseases. 
It  was  to  be  written  upon  a  piece  of 
paper  as  many  times  as  the  word 
contains  letters,  omitting  the  last  let- 
ter of  the  former  every  time,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  neck  by  a  linen 
thread.  It  was  the  name  of  a  god  wor- 
shipped by  the  Syrians,  the  wearing 
of  whose  name  was  a  sort  of  invoca- 
tion of  his  aid. 

ABRACADABRA 

ABRACADABR 

ABRACADAB 

ABRACADA 

A  B  R  A  C  A  D 

A  B  R  A  C  A 

A  B  R  A  C 

ABRA 

A  B  R 

A  B 

A 

At  present,  the  word  is  used  chiefly  in 
jest,  to  denote  something  without 
meaning. 

Abraham,  son  of  Terah,  and 
brother  of  Nahor  and  II a  run,  the 
progenitor  of  the  Hebrew  nation  and 
of  several  cognate  tribes.  At  the 
goodly  age  of  175,  he  was  "  gathered 
to  his  people,"  and  laid  beside  Sarah, 
in  the  tomb  of  Machpelah,  by  his  sons 
Isaac  and  Ishmael. 

A  b  r  a  h  a  m,  Plains  of  and 
Heights  of,  a  table-land  near  Que- 
bec, rising  above  the  St.  Lawrence, 
wher«  the  battle  of  Quebec  was  fought 
between  the  British  and  French 
(1759). 

Abranyi,  Kernel,  a  Hungarian 
poet,  novelist,  and  publicist ;  born  in 
Budapest,  Dec.  31,  1849.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hungarian  diet  and  as  ed- 
itor of  the  "  Pesti  Naplo,"  he  is  an 
important  political  figure  in  Hungary. 

Abrogation.  The  term  is  used 
popularly  as  the  equivalent  of  repeal, 
whether  by  statute  or  contrary  usage. 

Abruzzi,  Prince  Lnigi  Amadep, 
Dnke  of,  Italian  explorer ;  born  in 
Rome,  Jan.  30,  1873;  a  nephew  of 


Abstinence 

King  Humbert*;  in  May,  1899,  he 
started  on  an  expedition,  in  the  spe- 
cially prepared  steamer  "  Star  of 
Italy,"  for  Franz  Josef  Land,  intend- 
ing, when  frozen  in,  to  use  sledges  in 
a  search  for  the  North  Pole  and  the 
balloon  explorer,  Dr.  Andrfie.  He  re- 
turned to  Norway  in  September,  1900, 
after  having  reached  a  point  in  lati- 
tude 86°  33'  N.,  surpassing  Nansen's 
furthest  N.  record  by  19'. 

Absalom,  the  third  son  of  David, 
king  of  Israel,  remarkable  for  his 
beauty  and  for  his  unnatural  rebel- 
lion against  his  father,  which  led  to 
his  untimely  death. 

Abscess,  a  gathering  of  pus  in  any 
tissue  or  organ  of  the  body.  Abscesses 
may  occur  in  almost  any  portion  of  the 
body.  They  are  of  three  types :  the  acute 
abscess,  or  phlegmon,  arising  from  an 
inflammatory  tendency  in  the  part ;  the 
chronic  abscess,  connected  with  scrof- 
ulous or  other  weakness  in  the  con- 
stitution ;  and  the  diffused  abscess,  due 
to  contamination  in  the  blood. 

Absenteeism,  a  term  applied  to 
the  owners  of  estates  in  a  country 
who  habitually  absent  themselves  from 
that  country,  and  spend  the  income 
of  their  estates  in  it  in  another  coun- 
try. Used  more  particularly  regard- 
ing Irish  landlords  who  live  elsewhere. 

Absinthe,  a  liqueur  made  princi- 
pally in  Switzerland,  and  much  used 
by  the  French ;  composed  of  volatile 
oil  of  wormwood,  oil  of  anise  and  oth- 
er ingredients  mixed  in  alcohol.  It  is 
an  intoxicant,  more  agreeable  to  the 
taste  than  usual  alcoholic  beverages, 
but  its  persistent  use  leads  to  extreme 
physical  and  mental  disorders. 

Absolution.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  since  the  fourth  Lateran  coun- 
cil in  1215  A.  D.,  invests  the  priest  with 
power  in  his  priestly  office  to  pro- 
nounce absolution  from  sins  that  have 
been  confessed.  In  most  other  Church- 
es, absolution  is  no  more  than 
a  general  or  formal  declaration  that 
God  will  forgive  the  sins  of  penitents, 
with  exhortation  to  seek  such  forgive- 
ness. 

Abstinence,  the  act  or  habit  of 
refraining  from  something  to  which 
we  have  a  propensity,  or  in  which  we 
find  pleasure ;  but  it  is  more  particu- 
larly applied  to  the  privation  or  spar- 
ing use  of  food.  Abstinence  has  been 
enjoined  and  practiced  for  various 


Abt 


Abyssinia 


ends,  as  sanitary,  moral,  or  religious. 
Abstinence  of  flesh  on  certain  days  is 
obligatory  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

The  time  during  which  life  can  be 
supported  under  total  abstinence  from 
food  or  drink,  is  usually  stated  to  vary 
from  eight  to  ten  days ;  the  period 
may,  however,  be  greatly  prolonged. 
Total  abstinence,  as  a  term,  has  also 
special  reference  to  alcoholic  drinks. 

Abt,  Franz,  a  German  song 
writer ;  born  in  Saxony,  Dec.  22, 1819. 
He  studied  theology  at  Leipsic,  but 
abandoned  it  for  music.  He  is  well 
known  as  composer  of  the  favorite 
song,  "  When  the  Swallows  Homeward 
Fly."  He  visited  the  United  States 
in  1872.  He  died  March  31,  1885. 

Abu-Klea,  a  place  in  Egypt,  on 
the  route  across  the  country  between 
Korti  and  Metammeh,  both  on  the 
great  bend  of  the  Nile  below  Khar- 
tum ;  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  on  Jan. 
17,  1885,  in  which  Sir  Herbert  Stew- 
art defeated  the  Mahdi's  forces. 

Abnl-Abbas,  Abd-Allah,  the 
first  of  the  Arabian  dynasty  of  Ab- 
bassides;  a  caliph  of  incredible  cruel- 
ty, on  account  of  which  he  was  called 
"al  Suffah"  ("The  Sanguinary"). 
On  assurances  of  amnesty,  he  be- 
guiled 90  members  of  the  Ommiad  fam- 
ily (the  preceding  dynasty)  into  a 
hall,  where  they  were  slain  with  whips 
and  rods.  He  died  in  754. 

Abnna,  the  title  given  by  the  Ethi- 
opian Christians  to  their  metropolitan. 
He  is  the  chief  of  the  secular  clergy. 

Abu-Simbel.  Tbsambnl,  or  Ip- 
sanibnl,  the  site  of  two  temples  on 
the  Nile,  constructed  by  Rameses  II. 
The  principal  beauties  of  the  facade  of 
the  larger  temple  (119  feet  broad,  and 
more  than  100  feet  high)  are  the  four 
sitting  colossi,,  each  more  than  65  feet 
in  height. 

Abydos,  a  town  and  castle  of  Na- 
tolia,  on  the  Straits  of  Gallipoli.  In 
its  neighborhood  Xerxes,  when  he  in- 
vaded Greece,  crossed  with  his  im- 
mense army  the  Hellespont,  on  a 
bridge  of  boats.  Memorable  also  from 
being  the  scene  of  the  loves  of  Hero 
and  Leander,  and  from  Byron  having 
adopted  its  name  in  his  "  Bride  of 
Abydos."  Also  an  ancient  city  of  Up- 
per Egypt,  supposed  to  hare  been  the 
ancient  This,  and  to  have  been  sec- 
ond only  to  Thebes. 


Abyssinia,  or  Habesb,  an  ancient 
kingdom  of  Eastern  Africa,  now  un- 
der a  monarch  who  claims  the  title  of 
emperor.  Abyssinia  may  be  said  to 
extend  between  lat.  8°  and  16°  N., 
and  Ion.  35°  and  41°  E.,  having  Nu- 
bia N.  and  W.,  the  Sudan  W.,  the  Red 
Sea  littoral  (Erythrsea,  Danakil  coun« 
try,  etc.),  E.,  and  to  the  S.  the  Galls 
country.  The  area  within  these  limit* 
is  about  160,000  square  miles,  but  thf 
present  ruler  claims  a  much  more  ex« 
tensive  territory ;  and  latterly  Abys* 
sinia  has  come  to  be  surrounded  by  re- 
gions belonging  to  or  influenced  more 
or  less  by  Italy,  France,  and  Great 
Britain.  The  principal  divisions  of 
Abyssinia  are  the  provinces  or  king- 
doms of  Shoa  in  the  S.,  Amhara  in  the 
center,  and  Tigre"  in  the  N.,  to  which 
may  be  added  Lasta,  Gojam,  and  other 
territories.  Addis  Abeba  in  Shoa  is 
the  present  residence  of  the  ruler,  but 
the  Abyssinian  royal  residences  large- 
ly consist  of  houses  very  slightly  built, 
and  thus  resemble  more  or  less  perma- 
nent camps  rather  than  towns.  Other 
towns  are  Gondar,  Adua,  Aksum,  An- 
talo,  and  Ankober,  none  with  a  pop- 
ulation exceeding  7,000. 

The  Abyssinians  are  of  mixed  Semi- 
tic and  Hamitic  descent  They  were 
converted  to  Christianity  in  the  time  of 
the  Emperor  Constantine,  by  some  mis- 
sionaries sent  from  Alexandria.  In  the 
6th  century  the  power  of  the  sover- 
eigns of  their  kingdom  had  attained 
its  height ;  but  before  another  had  ex- 
pired the  Arabs  had  invaded  the  coun- 
try, and  obtained  a  footing  in  Adel, 
though  they  were  unable  to  extend 
their  conquests  farther.  For  several 
centuries  subsequently  the  kingdom 
continued  in  a  distracted  state,  being 
now  torn  by  internal  commotions  and 
now  invaded  by  external  enemies  (Mo- 
hammedans and  Gallas).  To  protect 
himself  from  the  last  the  Emperor  of 
Abyssinia  applied,  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century,  to  the  King  of 
Portugal  for  assistance,  promising,  at 
the  same  time,  implicit  submission  to 
the  Pope.  The  solicited  aid  was  sent, 
and  the  empire  saved.  The  Roman 
Catholic  priests  taving  now  ingrati- 
ated themselves  with  the  emperor  and 
his  family,  endeavored  to  induce  them 
to  renounce  the  tenets  and  rites  of  the 
Coptic  Church,  and  adopt  those  of 
Rome.  This  attempt,  however,  was 


Acacia 


Academy  of  Fine  Art« 


resisted  by  the  ecclesiastics  and  the 
people,  and  finally  ended,  after  a  long 
struggle,  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  priests  about  1630.  The 
kingdom,  however,  gradually  fell  into 
a  state  of  anarchy,  which,  about  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century,  was  com- 
plete. The  king,  or  negus  as  he  was 
called,  received  no  obedience  from  the 
provincial  governors,  who,  besides, 
were  at  feud  with  one  another,  and 
severally  assumed  the  royal  title. 

Abyssinia  thus  became  divided  into 
a  number  of  petty  independent  states. 
A  remarkable,  but,  as  it  proved,  quite 
futile  attempt  to  resuscitate  the  unity 
and  power  of  the  ancient  kingdom  was 
commenced  about  the  middle  of  the 
19th  century  by  King  Theodore,  who 
aimed  at  the  restoration  of  the  an- 
cient kingdom  of  Ethiopia,  with  him- 
self for  its  sovereign.  He  introduced 
European  artisans,  and  went  to  work 
wisely  in  many  ways,  but  his  cruelty 
and  tyranny  counteracted  his  politic 
measures.  In  consequence  of  a  slight, 
real  or  fancied,  which  he  had  re- 
ceived at  the  hands  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment, he  threw  Consul  Cameron 
and  a  number  of  other  British  sub- 
jects into  prison  in  1863,  and  refused 
to  give  them  up.  To  effect  their  re- 
lease an  army  of  nearly  12,000  men, 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Robert  Na- 
pier, was  dispatched  from  Bombay  in 
1867.  The  force  landed  at  Zoulla  on 
the  Red  Sea  in  November,  and  march- 
ing up  the  country  came  within  sight 
of  Magdale,  the  capital  of  Theodore, 
in  the  beginning  of  April,  1868.  Af- 
ter being  defeated  in  a  battle  Theodore 
delivered  up  the  captives  and  shut 
himself  up  in  Magdala,  which  was 
taken  by  storm  on  April  13.  Theo- 
dore was  found  among  the  slain,  the 
general  opinion  being  that  he  had 
fallen  by  his  own  hand. 

In  1885  Italy  asserted  a  protectorate 
with  disastrous  results ;  defeat  by 
Menelek's  troops  at  Adowa  in  1896 
made  them  abandon  all  claims  except 
to  the  Eritrean  colony  on  the  Red 
Sea.  Menelek  transferred  his  capital 
to  Adis  Abeba,  where  British,  Ameri- 
can and  French  interests  became 
active.  On  Dec.  13,  1906,  an  agree- 
ment was  signed  between  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  and  Itaty  to  conserve 
their  interests  in  Abyssinia,  by  main- 
taining the  political  and  territorial 


status  quo  and  the  open  door.  The 
principal  States  are  Tigre  on  the  N., 
Amhara  in  the  center,  and  Shoa  in  the 
S.  Present  capital,  Adis  Ababa.  Pop. 
(est.),  8,000,000. 

Acacia,  plants  which  abound  in 
Australia,  in  India,  in  Africa,  tropical 
America,  and  generally  in  the  hotter 
regions  of  the  world.  Nearly  300  spe- 
cies are  known  from  Australia  alone.| 
They  are  easily  cultivated  in  green-- 
houses,  where  they  flower,  for  the  most' 
part,  in  winter  or  early  spring.  In 
Calfornia  several  species  are  cultivated 
in  the  open  for  tannin  and  for  timber. 
The  Black  Watte  has  in  its  bark  four 
times  as  much  tannin  as  the  best  oak. 

Acadenras,  a  Greek  mythical  hero 
who  upon  the  Tyndaridean  invasion 
to  rescue  Helen  after  her  abduction  by 
Thesues,  revealed  her  hiding-place  and 
was  thenceforth  held  in  honor  by  the 
Lacedaemonians.  The  term  'academy' 
is  derived  from  his  name. 

Academy,  the  gymnasium  in  the 
suburbs  of  Athens  in  which  Plato 
taught,  and  so  called  after  a  hero, 
by  name  Academus,  to  whom  it  was 
said  to  have  originally  belonged.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  a  high  school 
designed  for  the  technical  or  other  in- 
struction of  those  who  have  already 
acquired  the  rudiments  of  knowledge; 
also  a  university. 

Academy,  French,  an  institution 
founded  in  1635  by  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu for  the  purpose  of  refining  the 
French  language  and  style.  It  became 
in  time  the  most  influential  of  all  lit- 
erary societies  in  Europe.  Together 
with  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles  Lettres,  the  Academy  of  Moral 
and  Political  Sciences  and  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  it  composes  the  Na- 
tional Institute  of  France. 

Academy  of  Arts,  The  Royal,  a 
British  institution  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  painting,  sculpture,  and  de- 
signing; founded  in  1768  by  George 
III.,  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as 
president. 

Academy  of  Design,  National, 
an  American  institution,  in  New  York' 
city,  founded  in  1826,  conducting 
schools  in  various  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  and  holding  semi-annual  exhibi- 
tions at  which  prizes  are  awarded. 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  The,  a' 
French  institution,  originally  founded 


Academy  of  France 


Acanthus 


in  1648  at  Paris  under  the  name  of 
the  Academy  of  Painting  and  Sulp- 
ture.  In  1795  it  was  joined  to  the 
Academy  of  Architecture,  and  has 
borne  its  present  name  since  1819. 

Academy  of  France  at  Rome, 
an  institution  for  the  advanced  study 
of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome,  Italy,  found- 
ed by  Colbert  in  1666,  during  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  It  was  at  first  estab- 
lished in  the  ruined  villa  Mancini  on 
the  Cprso,  and,  in  1803,  at  the  villa 
Medicis.  The  young  artists,  painters, 
sculptors,  architects,  engravers  and 
musicians  who  secure  the  annual  prizes 
of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris 
spend  four  years  there,  with  an  an- 
nual pension  of  3,500  francs  and  trav- 
eling expenses. 

Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles  Lettres,  an  institution  found- 
ed at  Paris  by  Colbert  in  1663,  under 
the  name  of  Petite  Academic.  Com- 
parative philology.  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Roman  antiquities  and  epigraphy 
have  received  the  attention  of  the 
Academy,  which  has  published  a  series 
of  invaluable  records  and  works. 

Academy  of  Medicine,  a  French 
institution,  founded  in  Paris  in  1820, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  gov- 
ernment informed  on  all  subjects  ap- 
pertaining to  the  public  health. 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal Science,  founded  at  Paris  in 
1795,  is  composed  of  30  members,  di- 
vided into  5  sections,  with  5  free  acad- 
demicians,  5  foreign  associates,  and 
30  corresponding  members. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia,  an  institution 
founded  in  1812. 

Academy  of  Political  and  So- 
cial Science,  American,  an  insti- 
tution organized  at  Philadelphia  in 
1889  and  incorporated  in  1891. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  an  insti- 
tution founded  at  Paris,  in  1666,  by 
Colbert  and  approved  by  Louis  XIV. 
in  1699,  has  now  66  members,  in  11 
sections,  with  two  perpetual  secreta- 
ries and  100  corresponding  members. 

Academy  of  Sciences  and  Arts, 
American,  an  academy  established 
in  Boston  in  1780  by  the  Council  and 
House  of  Representatives  of  Massa- 
chusetts ;  the  successor  of  an  institu- 
tion founded  by  Franklin. 


Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Im- 
perial, a  Russian  institution,  found- 
ed in  St.  Petersburg  by  Catherine  I., 
in  1725,  and  largely  endowed  by  Cath- 
erine II. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Na- 
tional, an  American  institution, 
founded  in  1863,  consisting  of  100 
members,  elected  from  among  the  most 
distinguished  scientific  men  of  the 
United  States ;  analogous  to  the  Roy- 
al Society  of  London. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Roy- 
al,  a  German  institution,  in  Berlin, 
founded  by  Frederick  I.,  in  1700 ;  is 
divided  into  four  sections,  devoted  to 
mathematics,  physics,  philosophy,  and 
history. 

Acadia,  a  former  French  colony  in 
North  America,  including  Nova  Scotia 
and  nearly  all  of  New  Brunswick,  set- 
tled in  1604.  It  grew  so  slowly  that 
it  numbered  only  900  inhabitants  in 
1684.  When,  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht 
(1713),  it  was  given  to  the  English, 
the  inhabitants,  having  refused  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  were  ordered 
to  leave  their  homes,  and  5,000  emi- 
grated to  Louisiana  and  Georgia,  and 
2,000  were  transported'  and  scattered 
over  New  England.  The  story  of  their 
sorrow  is  touchingly  introduced  into 
Longfellow's  "  Evangeline." 

Acanthus,  the  name  of  three  an- 
cient  cities  of  Egypt,  of  Caria  and  of 
Macedonia.  The  latter  is  noted  for. 


COIN  OF  ACANTHUS. 


the  canal  across  the  peninsula  of  Mt 
Athos  through  which  Xerxes  sailed  on 
his  way  to  Greece. 

Acanthus,  a  genus  of  herbaceous 
shrubs,  order  Acanthacese,  mostly  trop- 
ical, two  species  of  which,  A.  mollis 
and  A.  spinosus  (the  bears-breech  or 
brankursine),  are  characterized  by 
large  white  flowers  and  deeply  indent- 
ed  shining  leaves.  They  are  favorite  or- 
namental plants  in  gardens.  —  In  archi- 
tecture the  name  is  given  to  a  kind  of 
foliage  decoration  said  to  have  been 


Acapnloo 

'suggested  by  this  plant,  growing 
around  a  basket,  and  much  employed 
in  Roman  and  later  styles. 

Acapnlco,  a  seaport  of  Mexico,  on 
the  Pacific,  with  a  capacious,  well- 
sheltered  harbor ;  a  coaling  station  for 
steamers,  but  with  no  great  trade. 
Pop.  4,000. 

Acclimatization,  the  process  of 
accustoming  plants  or  animals  to  live 
and  propagate  in  a  climate  different 
from  that  to  which  they  are  indige- 
nous. The  numerous  varieties  which 
many  species  of  plants  and  animals 
present  are  sufficient  in  any  view  to 
afford  considerable  scope  for  adapta- 
tion to  climate. 

Accolade,  in  heraldry,  the  cere- 
mony by  which  in  mediaeval  times  one 
was  dubbed  a  knight. 

Accolti,  Bernardo,  an  Italian 
poet  (1465-1535.  Leo  X.  esteemed 
him  highly,  and  made  him  apostolic 
secretary,  cardinal,  and  papal  legate 
at  Ancona.  He  drew  up  the  papal 
bull  against  Luther  (1520). 

Accordion,  a  well-known  keyed 
instrument  with  metallic  reeds.  The 
accordion  was  introduced  into  Amer- 
ica from  Germany  about  1828.  Im- 
provements have  been  made  on  it  in 
the  flutina,  the  organ-accordion,  and 
the  concertina. 

Account,  in  banking,  commerce 
law,  and  ordinary  language,  a  regis- 
try of  pecuniary  transactions. 

Aceldama,  a  field  purchased  by  the 
Jewish  chief  priests  and  elders  with 
the  30  pieces  of  silver  returned  by 
Judas.  It  was  used  as  a  place  of  in- 
terment for  strangers.  The  tradition- 
ary site  is  on  a  small  plateau  half  way 
up  the  southern  slope  of  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  near  the  junction  of  the  lat- 
ter with  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat. 
(See  Matt,  xxvii:  3-10;  Acts  i:  18. 

Acetic  Acid,  an  acid  produced  by 
the  oxidation  of  common  alcohol,  and 
of  many  other  organic  substances. 
Pure  acetic  acid  has  a  very  sour  taste 
and  pungent  smell,  burns  the  skin,  and 
is  poisonous.  From  freezing  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures  (58°  or  59°)  it  is 
known  as  glacial  acetic  acid.  Vinegar 
is  simply  dilute  acetic  acid.  Acetic 
acid  is  largely  used  in  arts,  in  medi- 
cine, and  for  domestic  purposes. 

Acetylene,  a  gas  composed  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  colorless  and  with 

E.3 


Achemsia 

a  disagreeable  odor,  suggesting  garlic. 
Subjected  to  pressure  it  will  liquefy  at 
a  weight  of  68  atmospheres.  It  is  best 
produced  by  the  action  of  water  on 
carbide  of  calcium,  and  is  used  thus  in 
bicycle  lamps.  The  production  of  the 
gas  is  attended  with  considerable  risk, 
as  a  too  sudden  application  of  water 
to  the  carbide  will  generate  enormous 
quantities  which  is  liable  to  explode 
when  mixed  with  air  and  subjected  to 
the  slightest  heat,  even  rubbing  the 
vessel  in  which  it  is  contained  being 
sufficient  to  produce  an  explosion.  The 
gas  is  much  less  poisonous  than  the  or- 
dinary illuminating  gas,  and  under 
proper  conditions  can  be  used  as  a  safe 
and  cheap  illuminant. 

Achneans,  one  of  the  four  races 
into  which  the  ancient  Greeks  were  di- 
vided. In  early  times  they  inhabited 
a  part  of  Northern  Greece  and  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  They  are  represented 
by  Homer  as  a  brave  and  warlike 
people.  A  confederacy  or  league  ex- 
isted among  the  twelve  towns  of  this 
region. 

Achard,  Franz  Karl,  a  German 
chemist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1754.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  development  of 
the  beet-sugar  manufacture,  and,  after 
six  years  of  laborious  endeavor,  he  dis- 
covered the  true  method  of  separating 
the  sugar  from  the  plant.  He  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  class  of  physics 
in  the  Academy  of  Science,  in  Berlin, 
and  died  in  1821. 

Achard,  Louis  Amedee,  a  French 
novelist  and  publicist,  born  in  1814. 
He  died  in  1875. 

Achates,  a  friend  of  JEneas,  whose 
fidelity  was  so  exemplary  that  fidus 
Achates  (the  faithful  Achates)  be- 
came a  proverb. 

Achenwoll,  Gottfried,  a  German 
scholar,  born  in  Elbing,  Prussia,  Oct. 
20,  1719 ;  became  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Gottingen,  first  of  philoso- 
phy and  afterward  of  law ;  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  science  of  statis- 
tics. He  died  in  Gottingen,  May  1, 
1 T  T^. 

Acheron,  the  river  of  sorrow, 
which  flowed  around  the  infernal 
realms  of  Hades,  according  to  the 
mythology  of  the  ancients. 

Acherosia,  a  lake  of  Campania, 
near  Capua.  Diodorus  mentions  that, 
in  Egypt,  the  souls  of  the  dead  were 


Achilles 

conveyed  over  a  lake  called  Acherusia, 
and  received  sentence  according  to  the 
actions  of  their  lives.  The  boat  which 
carried  them  was  called  Baris,  and  the 
ferryman  Charon,  etc. 

Achilles,  son  of  Peleus,  king  of 
the  Myrmidons,  in  Thessaly,  and  of 
Thetis.  His  mother's  desire  for  his 
safety  made  her  try  to  make  him  in- 
vulnerable when  a  child  by  anointing 
him  with  ambrosia,  and  again  by  dip- 
ping him  in  the  river  Styx,  from 
which  he  came  out  proof  against 
wounds,  all  but  the  heel,  by  which  she 
held  him.  He  was  the  bravest  of  the 
Greeks  in  the  Trojan  War,  in  which  he 
was  slain.  He  is  the  hero  of  Homer's 
Iliad,  and  was  said  to  be  invulnerable. 

Achilles'  Tendon,  TENDON  OF 
ACHILLES,  the  strong  tendon  which 
connects  the  muscles  of  the  calf  with 
the  heel,  and  may  be  easily  felt  with 
the  hand.  The  origin  of  name  will  be 
understood  from  the  above  article. 

Achmet  Tewfik  Pasha,  a  Turk- 
ish statesman,  born  in  1818,  at  Con- 
stantinople. His  father  was  a  Greek 
convert ;  his  mother  was  a  Jewess.  In 
1877  the  Sultan  appointed  him  Presi- 
dent of  the  first  Turkish  Chamber  of 
Deputies ;  then  he  became  Governor- 
General  of  Adrianople,  and  showed 
himself  a  stern  ruler  in  the  war  of 
1877.  In  1878  he  was  Premier  and 
signed  the  Peace  of  Santo  Stefano. 
He  died  in  June,  1891. 

Achromatic,  in  optics,  transmit- 
ting colorless  light,  that  is,  not  de- 
composed into  the  primary  colors, 
through  having  passed  through  a  re- 
fracting medium.  A  single  convex  lens 
does  not  give  an  image  free  from  the 
prismatic  colors,  because  the  rays  of 
different  color  made  up  of  white  light 
are  not  equally  refrangible,  and  thus 
do  not  all  come  to  a  focus  together, 
the  violet,  for  instance,  being  nearest 
the  lens,  the  red  farthest  off.  If  such 
a  lens  of  crown-glass,  however,  is 
combined  with  a  concave  lens  of  flint- 
glass — the  curvatures  of  both  being 
properly  adjusted — as  the  two  mate- 
rials have  somewhat  different  optical 
properties,  the  latter  will  neutralize 
the  chromatic  aberration  of  the  form- 
er, and  a  satisfactory  image  will  be 
produced.  Telescopes,  microscopes,  &c., 
in  which  the  glasses  are  thus  com- 
posed are  called  achromatic. 


Acoustics 

Acids,  in  chemistry,  a  salt  of  hy- 
drogen in  which  the  hydrogen  can  be 
replaced  by  a  metal,  or  can,  with  a 
basic  metallic  oxide,  form  a  salt  of 
that  metal  and  water.  Many  organic 
acids  occur  in  the  juices  of  vegetables, 
some  in  animals,  as  formic  acid  in  ants. 

Acland,  Christina  Harriet  Car- 
oline Fox,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Ilchester,  born  in  1750;  died  at  Tet- 
ten,  near  Taunton,  England,  July  21, 
1815.  Her  husband,  Major  John  Dyke 
Acland,  of  the  British  Army,  was  cap- 
tured with  Burgoyne  at  Saratoga.  He 
being  severely  wounded,  she  joined 
him  in  the  American  lines,  and  ten- 
derly nursed  him.  Major  Acland  was 
so  touched  by  the  kindness  of  the 
Americans  to  himself  and  wife  that, 
after  his  return  to  England  he  fought 
a  duel  with  an  officer  who  spoke  in- 
sultingly of  Americans. 

Acne,  a  genus  of  skin  diseases  con- 
taining those  characterized  by  pustules, 
which,  after  suppurating  imperfectly, 
become  small,  hard,  red,  circumscribed 
tubercles  on  the  skin. 

Acolyte,  Acolyth,  and  Acolo- 
thist,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
one  of  the  inferior  orders  of  the  clergy, 
whose  office  it  is  to  attend  upon  the 
deacons  and  subdeacons  in  the  minis- 
try of  the  altar,  to  light  and  hold  the 
candles,  to  bear  the  incense,  to  present 
the  priest  with  wine  and  water,  etc. 

Aconite,  a  plant  familiarly  known 
as  the  monk's-hood,  or  wolf's-bane. 
Its  active  principle  is  aconitine. 

Acorn,  the  well  known  fruit  of  the 
oak.  In  the  early  ages,  acorns  consti- 
tuted a  principal  part  of  the  food  of 
man.  At  present  they  are  used  for  the 
feeding  of  pigs,  etc. 

Acosta,  Joseph,  a  Spanish  Jesuit, 
who,  from  being  a  missionary  in  Peru, 
became  provincial  of  his  order ;  born 
at  Medina  del  Campo  in  1547 ;  died  at 
Salamanca  in  1600.  His  "History  of 
the  West  Indies,"  first  printed  in 
Spanish,  is  universally  known. 

Aconstics,  the  science  of  sound. 
We  are  sensible  of  sound  when  we  are 
affected  by  certain  vibrations  in  the 
air  or  other  matter  in  contact  with  our 
organs  of  hearing.  In  ordinary  cases 
of  hearing  the  vibrating  medium  is  air, 
but  fishes  hear  under  water,  and  all 
substances  that  vibrate  may  be  em- 
ployed to  propagate  and  conyey  sound. 


Acre 


Actinism 


Sound  is  reflected  in  a  manner  anal- 
ogous to  the  reflection  of  light.  When 
it  is  reflected  from  a  plain  surface  the 
reflected  sound  comes  as  if  it  was  prop- 
agated from  a  point  beyond  the  sur- 
face at  a  distance  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance of  the  real  point  of  propagation 
from  the  surface.  Sounds  produced 
in  one  focus  of  a  hollow  ellipsoid  are 
reflected  to  the  other  focus.  Whisper- 
ing galleries  are  instances  of  the  re- 
flection of  sound  to  a  focus,  or  to  form 
sound  caustics.  Echoes  are  familiar 
instances  of  reflection  of  sound.  Lens- 
es have  been  formed  of  collodion  filled 
with  different  gases,  and  by  means  of 
these  sound  has  been  refracted  in  a 
manner  which  is  analogous  to  the  re- 
fraction of  light  by  glass  lenses. 

Acre,  an  American  and  English 
measure  of  land,  containing  4,840 
square  yards. 

Acre,  or  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  a  sea- 
port of  Syria,  formerly  called  Ptole- 
mais ;  on  a  promontory  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel.  This  town,  capital  of 
the  pashalic  of  the  same  name,  is  fa- 
mous for  the  memorable  sieges  it  has 
sustained. 

Acropolis,  the  high  part  of  any 
ancient  Greek  city,  usually  an  emi- 
nence overlooking  the  city,  and  fre- 
quently its  citadel.  Notable  among 
such  citadels  were  the  Acropolis  of 
Argos,  that  of  Messene,  of  Thebes,  and 
of  Corinth,  but  pre-eminently  the  Ac- 
ropolis of  Athens,  to  which  the  name 
is  now  chiefly  applied. 

Acrostic,  a  poetical  composition, 
disposed  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
initial  letters  of  each  line,  taken  in  or- 
der, form  a  person's  name  or  other 
complete  word  or  words. 

Act,  in  dramatic  language,  a  por- 
tion of  a  play  performed  continuously, 
after  which  the  representation  is  sus- 
pended for  a  little,  and  the  actors  have 
the  opportunity  of  taking  a  brief  rest. 
Acts  are  divided  into  smaller  por- 
tions called  scenes.  (See  Shakespeare 
throughout.) 

In  parliamentary  language,  an  ellip- 
sis for  an  act  of  congress,  legislature, 
etc. 

In  law:  (1)  Anything  officially  done 
by  the  court.  (2)  An  instrument  in 
writing  for  declaring  or  proving  the 
truth  of  anything.  Such  is  a  report,  a 
certificate,  a  decree,  a  sentence,  etc. 


In  bankruptcy,  an  act,  the  commis- 
sion of  which,  by  a  debtor,  renders  him 
liable  to  be  adjudged  a  bankrupt. 

Act  of  Settlement,  an  act  of  the 
Parliament  of  England  in  1701,  vest- 
ing the  hereditary  right  to  the  English 
throne  in  Sophia,  Electress  of  Han- 
over, and  her  Protestant  descendants, 
constituting  the  source  of  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  house  of  Hanover  or 
Brunswick,  the  present  ruling  line. 

Act  of  Supremacy.  (1)  An  act 
of  the  Parliament  of  England,  in  1534, 
by  which  the  king  was  made  the  sole 
and  supreme  head  of  the  Church  of 
England.  (2)  A  re-enactment  of  the 
above,  with  changes,  in  1559. 

Act  of  Toleration,  an  act  of  the 
reign  of  William  and  Mary,  granting 
freedom  of  religious  worship,  under 
certain  comparatively  moderate  con- 
ditions, to  all  dissenters  from  the  es- 
tablished Church  of  England,  except 
Roman  Catholics  and  persons  denying 
the  Trinity. 

Act  of  Uniformity.  (1)  An  act 
of  the  Parliament  of  England  (1559), 
adopting  a  revised  liturgy  for  the 
Church  of  England,  entitled  "An  Act 
for  the  Uniformity  of  Common  Prayer 
and  Service  in  the  Church,  and  Admin- 
istration of  the  Sacraments."  (2)  An 
act  of  Parliament  (1662),  requiring 
that  the  revised  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  and  Ordination  of  Ministers, 
and  no  other,  should  be  used  in  all 
places  of  public  worship  and  be  assent- 
ed to  by  clergymen.  By  this  test  more 
than  2,000  non-conforming  clergymen 
were  ejected  from  their  churches. 

Acta  Sanctorum,  or  Martyrnm, 
the  collective  title  given  to  several  old 
writings,  respecting  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic 
Churches,  but  now  applied  especially 
to  one  extensive  collection  begun  by 
the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  century. 

Actinic  Rays,  rays  capable  of 
producing  chemical  decomposition,  as 
in  photography,  in  the  coloring  of 
flowers  and  fruit.  All  ether  waves, 
from  all  sources  and  of  all  lengths, 
may  now  be  considered  as  actinic,  some 
substances  being  decomposed  by  cer- 
tain wave  lengths  and  other  substances 
by  different  wave  lengths. 

Actinism,  the  chemical  principle 
of  light.  Three  distinct  principles  ema- 


Actimn 


nate  from  the  sun  —  light,  heat,  and 
actinism.  Numerous  examples  of  the 
effects  of  their  influence  occur  daily, 
which  are  erroneously  attributed  to 
the  light  which  we  see.  Itjs  actinism 
which  fades  colors,  bleaches  linen,  rots 
fabrics,  tans  the  human  skin,  puts  out 
the  fire,  and  performs  the  operations  of 
photography.  It  acts  principally  by 
abstracting  oxygen  from  the  bodies 
which  it  affects.  There  may  be  actin- 
ism without  light,  or  vice  versa.  Yel- 
low glass  transmits  the  latter,  but 
Btops  the  former.  Dark  blue  glass, 
which  transmits  but  little  light,  is 
quite  pervious  to  actinism.  Blue  ob- 
jects reflect  great  quantities  of  it, 
while  red  or  yellow  ones  reflect  but 
little  or  none.  The  electric  and  lime 
lights  give  out  great  quantities  of  ac- 
tinism from  their  blue  tinge ;  and  gas 
and  candles  but  very  little,  from  their 
yellow  color.  The  amount  of  actinism 
received  from  the  sun  differs  consider- 
ably, according  to  the  time  of  year, 
being  at  its  maximum  about  the  end  of 
March,  and  gradually  diminishing  un- 
til the  end  of  December,  when  it  ar- 
rives at  its  minimum.  Actinism,  in 
large  quantities,  is  necessary  to  the 
proper  condition  of  the  human  system. 

Actiuni,  a  promontory  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Greece,  jutting  out  on  the 
N.  W.  extremity  of  Acarnania,  not  far 
from  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian 
Gulf  (Gulf  of  Arta),  at  present  called 
La  Punta.  It  is  memorable  on  ac- 
count of  the  naval  battle  fought  here 
between  Antony  and  Octavianus  Sept. 
2,  31  B.  0.,  ending  in  victory  for  Octa- 
vianus. 

Actor,  in  the  drama,  one  who  rep- 
resents some  part  or  character  on  the 
stage. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  fifth 
book  of  the  New  Testament.  It  con- 
tains a  narrative  of  the  achievements 
of  the  leading  apostles,  and  especially 
of  St.  Paul,  the  greatest  and  most  suc- 
cessful of  them  all.  Its  author  was 
St.  Luke  (compare  Luke  i :  1-4  with 
Acts  i:  1),  who  was  Paul's  companion 
from  the  time  of  his  visit  to  Troas. 
(Acts  xvi :  8-11)  to  the  period  of  his 
life,  when  he  penned  the  second  epis- 
tle to  Timothy  (II  Tim.  iv :  11). 

Adab.     See  UD-NUN-KI. 

Adalbert,  a  great  German  eccle- 
siastic, born  of  a  noble  family  about 


1000 ;  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Bremen  and  Hamburg  in  1045,  and 
papal  legate  to  the  North  in  1053.  He 
soon  extended  his  spiritual  sway  over 
Scandinavia,  and  carried  Christianity 
to  the  Wends.  He  died  at  Goslar. 
March  16,  1072. 

Adam  and  Eve,  the  names  of  the 
first  pair  of  human  beings  in  the  ac- 
count of  the  creation  given  in  the  book 
of  Genesis.  Adam  is  strictly  a  generic 
name,  applicable  to  both  man  and 
woman,  as  used  in  the  book  of  Genesis, 
but  it  came  to  be  a  proper  name,  used 
with  the  article,  as  in  chapters  ii,  iii, 
and  iv.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  un- 
certain, but  is  usually  connected  with 
the  Hebrew  root  Adam,  "to  be  red." 
It  is  often  derived  from  Adamah,  "the 
ground,"  but  this  is  taking  the  simpler 
from  the  more  developed  form. 

Adam,  Juliette  (Miue.  Edmond 
Adam,  ne'e  Lamber),  a  French  jour- 
nalist and  author  of  many  works ; 
born  Oct.  4,  1836 ;  editor  of  the  "Nou- 
velle  Revue"  (the  organ  of  the  Ex- 
treme Republicans),  which  she  found- 
ed in  1879.  Her  second  husband,  Ed- 
mond Adam,  was  a  prominent  politi- 
cian ;  became  a  life  senator,  and  died 
in  1877.  She  retired  from  journalism 
in  1899. 

Adam's  Apple,  in  botany  (1) 
the  name  given  by  Gerarde  and  other 
old  authors  to  the  plantain  tree,  from 
the  notion  that  its  fruit  was  that  sin- 
fully eaten  by  Adam  in  Eden.  (2) 
The  name  given,  for  the  same  reason, 
to  a  species  of  citrus. 

In  anatomy,  a  protuberance  on  the 
fore  part  of  the  throat,  formed  by  the 
"  os  hyoides."  The  name  is  supposed  to 
have  arisen  from  the  absurd  popular 
notion  that  a  portion  of  the  forbidden 
fruit,  assumed  to  have  been  an  apple, 
stuck  in  Adam's  throat  when  he  at- 
tempted to  swallow  it. 

Adam's  Peak,  a  mountain  in  the 
middle  of  the  island  of  Ceylon.  It  is 
a  resort  of  Moslem  and  Buddhist  pil- 
grims, and  also  notable  on  account  of 
an  upright  shadow  which  it  casts,  ap- 
parently projected  on  vapor.  Height, 
7,420  feet. 

Adams,  Abigail,  wife  of  John 
Adams,  second  President  of  the  United 
States;  ".orn  at  Weymouth,  Mass., 
Nov.  23,  1744.  Her  letters,  contain** 


Adams 

in  "Familiar  Letters  of  John  Adams 
and  His  Wife,  Abigail  Adams,  during 
the  Revolution,"  evince  keen  political 
sagacity,  and  throw  valuable  light  upon 
the  men  and  the  public  affairs  of  the 
time.  She  died  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  Oct. 
28,  1818. 

Adams,  Brooks,  an  American  es- 
sayist and  politician,  born  at  Quincy, 
Mass.,  1848.  He  is  the  son  of  Charles 
Francis  Adams,  and  a  lawyer  by  pro- 
fession. Besides  contributions  to  mag- 
azines, he  has  written  "The  Emanci- 
pation of  Massachusetts"  (1887),  and 
"The  Law  of  Civilization  and  Decay." 

Adams,  Charles,  an  American  his- 
torical and  religious  writer,  born  in 
New  Hampshire  in  1808 ;  was  a  Meth- 
odist clergyman.  He  died  in  1890. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  Boston, 
Aug.  18,  1807 ;  was  candidate  for  Vice- 
president  in  1848,  twice  elected  to 
Congress,  was  Minister  to  England 
from  1861  to  1868,  and  member  of  the 
Geneva  Arbitration  Commission  of 
1871.  His  chief  literary  work  was 
"Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams"  ( 10 
vols.,  1850-1856),  his  grandfather.  He 
also  edited  the  writings  of  his  father, 
John  Quincy  Adams.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Nov.  21,  1886. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  Jr,  an 
American  soldier  and  writer,  born  in 
Boston,  May  27,  1834.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1856,  served  in  the 
Civil  War  from  1861  until  1866  when 
he  retired  with  the  brevet  rank  of 
brigadier-general  in  the  regular  army. 
After  1874  he  chiefly  gave  attention 
to  historical  and  financial  questions, 
everything  he  published  attracting 
widespread  attention.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  un- 
til 1890,  and  was  regarded  as  one  of 
the  chief  living  authorities  on  railroad 
matters.  He  died  March  20,  1915. 

Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  an 
American  educator  and  historian,  born 
at  Derby,  Vt.,  Jan.  24,  1835;  died, 
July  26,  1902.  After  graduating  from 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1861,  he 
studied  abroad,  and  after  holding  vari- 
ous professorships,  became  president  of 
Cornell  University  in  1885.  In  1892, 
he  became  President  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  He  was  editor  of  John- 
ston's Encyclopaedia. 


Adams 

Adams,  Henry,  an  American  his- 
torian, born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  16, 
1838 ;  grandson  of  J.  Q.  Adams.  He 
was  for  some  time  editor  of  the  "North 
American  Review,"  and  Professor  of 
History  In  Harvard  College.  His 
principal  work  is  the  "History  of  the 
United  States  from  1801  to  1817." 

Adams,  John,  2d  President  of  the 
United  States ;  born  in  Braintree, 
Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1735.  He  was  educat- 
ed at  Harvard  and  adopted  the  law  as 
a  profession.  His  attention  was  di- 
rected to  politics  by  the  question  which 
began  to  excite  the  colonies  as  to  the 
right  of  the  English  Parliament  to  im- 
pose taxation  upon  them,  and  he  took 
up  a  position  strongly  opposed  to  the 
claims  of  the  mother  country.  In  1765 
he  published  in  the  Boston  "Gazette" 
some  essays,  which  were  reprinted  in 
London  in  1768,  under  the  title  of  "A 
Dissertation  on  Canon  and  Feudal 
Law,"  the  subject  really  treated  in 
which  was  the  government  of  the  colo- 
nies and  the  rights  of  the  colonists, 
In  1774  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  from 
Massachusetts  to  the  1st  Continental 
Congress.  On  his  return  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  Provincial 
Congress,  which  had  already  begun  to 
take  aggressive  measures  against  the 
home  government.  In  1775  he  again 
attended  the  Continental  Congress  at 
Philadelphia,  in  which  he  set  himself 
in  determined  opposition  to  all  at- 
tempts at  reconciliation  with  the  home 
government,  and  succeeded  in  persuad- 
ing Congress  to  take  means  of  national 
defense.  To  secure  the  good-will  of 
Virginia  he  proposed  Washington  for 
the  command  of  the  army.  Next  ses- 
sion he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
committee  on  naval  affairs  and  drew 
up  the  regulations  which  still  form  the 
basis  of  the  American  naval  code.  At 
the  beginning  of  1776  he  accepted  the 
post  of  chief-justice  of  Massachusetts, 
but  he  soon  after  resigned  the  ap- 
pointment. He  published  at  this  time 
"Thoughts  on  Government,  applicable 
to  the  Present  State  of  the  American 
Colonies,"  in  which  he  supported  self- 
government  by  the  different  colonies 
with  confederation.  He  seconded  the 
motion  for  a  declaration  of  independ- 
ence proposed  by  Richard  Henry  Lee 
of  Virginia,  and  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  committee  to  draw  it  up,  He 


Adams 

was  a  signer  of  the  Declaration. 
He  was  also  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  He 
was  next  appointed  chairman  of  the 
board  of  war  and  ordnance,  a  position 
which  he  held  for  18  months.  Near 
the  end  of  1777  he  was  sent  to  France 
on  a  special  mission,  and  for  10  years 
he  resided  abroad  as  representative  of 
his  country  in  France,  Holland,  and 
England.  He  succeeded  in  negotiating 
various  loans  with  Holland,  and  after 
taking  part  in  the  peace  negotiations 
was  appointed,  in  1785,  the  first  min- 
ister of  the  United  States  to  the  court 
of  St.  James.  He  was  recalled  in  1788 
and  elected  Vice-President  of  the  re- 
public under  Washington.  In  1790  he 
published  "Discourses  on  Davila,"  in 
which  he  opposed  the  principles  of  the 
French  revolution.  In  1792  he  was 
reflected  Vice-President,  and  at  the 
following  election  he  became  President. 
The  country  was  then  divided  into  two 
parties,  the  Federalists,  who  favored 
aristocratic  and  were  suspected  of 
monarchic  views,  and  the  Republicans. 
Adams  adhered  to  the  former  party. 
Hamilton  did  his  utmost  with  his  own 
party  to  prevent  the  election  of  Ad- 
ams, and  his  term  of  office  proved  a 
stormy  one,  which  broke  up  and  dis- 
solved the  Federalist  party.  His  re- 
election was  again  opposed  by  Hamil- 
ton, which  ended  in  effecting  the 
return  of  the  Republican  candidate 
Jefferson.  Living  to  a  great  age  he  be- 
came, as  one  of  the  last  survivors  of 
the  Revolution,  a  hero  to  the  following 
generation.  In  1820  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  a  State  convention  to  revise  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts.  He  died 
July  4,  1826,  on  the  50th  anniversary 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  on  the  same  day  as  Jefferson. 
Adams's  works  were  ably  and  care- 
fully edited  by  his  grandson  Charles 
Francis  Adams. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  6th  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  son  of  John 
Adams,  2d  President ;  born  in  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  July  11,  1767.  In  his  llth 
year  he  accompanied  his  father  on  his 
first  embassy  to  France,  and  was 
placed  at  school  near  Paris.  He  re- 
turned with  his  father  in  about  18 
months,  but  soon  went  back  to  Europe, 
and  attended  school  in  Holland  and  at 
the  University  of  Leyden.  At  the  age 


Adams 

of  15  Francis  Dana,  his  father's  secre- 
tary of  legation,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed on  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
Russia,  took  him  with  him  as  his  pri- 
vate secretary.  After  14  months'  stay 
in  Russia  he  traveled  back  alone 
through  Sweden  and  Denmark  to  The 
Hague.  Soon  after  his  father's  ap- 
pointment as  ambassador  at  London 
he  returned  home  to  complete  his 
studies.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1788,  entered  the  office  of  Theophilus 
Parsons,  and  in  1791  was  admitted  to 
the  bar.  He  now  began  to  take  an 
active  interest  in  politics.  He  wrote 
a  series  of  letters  to  the  Boston  "Sen- 
tinel" under  the  signature  of  "Publi- 
cola,"  in  reply  to  Payne's  "Rights  of 
Man,"  and  in  1793  defended  Washing- 
ton's policy  of  neutrality  under  the 
signature  of  "Marcellus."  These  let- 
ters attracted  attention,  and  in  1794 
Washington  appointed  him  minister  to 
The  Hague.  In  1798  he  received  a 
commission  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
commerce  with  Sweden.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Jefferson  to  the  presidency  he 
was  recalled.  The  Federalist  party 
had  still  sufficient  influence  in  Massa- 
chusetts to  elect  him  to  the  Senate  in 
1803.  On  the  question  of  embargo,  he 
abandoned  his  party.  Having  lost  his 
reelection  on  this  account,  be  immedi- 
ately resigned  his  seat  and  retired  to 
the  professorship  of  rhetoric  at  Har- 
vard, which  he  held  from  1806  to  1809. 
On  the  accession  of  Madison  he  was 
appointed  (1809)  ambassador  to  Rus- 
sia. He  assisted  in  negotiating  the 
peace  of  1814  with  England,  and  was 
afterward  appointed  resident  minister 
at  London.  On  the  accession  of  Mon- 
roe to  the  presidency  he  was  offered 
and  accepted  the  post  of  Secretary  of 
State,  and  at  the  expiration  of  Mon- 
roe's term  of  office  he  succeeded  him 
in  the  presidency  (1825).  In  1831  he 
was  returned  to  Congress  by  Massa- 
chusetts,, and  represented  that  State 
till  his  death,  Feb.  21,  1848. 

Adams,  Julius  "Walker,  an 
American  civil  engineer,  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Oct.  18,  1812 ;  took  part  of 
the  course  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy ;  was  Colonel  of  the 
G7th  New  York  Volunteers  in  the  Civil 
War ;  and  was  the  pioneer  engineer  ol 
the  East  River  bridge.  He  died  Dec. 
13,  1899. 


Adams 


Adelsberg 


Adams,  Maude,  an  American  act- 
ress, born  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Nov.  11, 
1872;  daughter  of  an  actress  who  was 
leading  woman  of  a  stock  company  in 
that  city,  under  the  stage  name  of  Ad- 
ams. At  16  years  of  age  Miss  Adams 
joined  B.  H.  Sothern's  company  in  the 
"  Midnight  Bell ;  "  afterward  she  was  I 
in  Charles  Frohman's  stock  company, 
and  later  supported  John  Drew.  She 
made  a  great  success  in  J.  M.  Barrie's 
"  Little  Minister  "  in  1899-1900. 

Adams,  Oscar  Fay,  an  American 
compiler  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  in  Worcester,  Mass. 

Adams,  Samuel,  an  American 
statesman  and  Revolutionary  patriot, 
born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1722.  He 
was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  legis- 
lature in  1765,  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  Continental  Congress  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  a  signer  of  the  Declaration! 
of  Independence.  He  was  active  ^in: 
framing  the  constitution  of  his  native  j 
state,  which  he  served  as  President! 
of  the  Senate,  Lieutenant-Governor ! 
(1789-1794),  and  Governor  (1794-! 
1797).  He  was  zealous  for  popular 
rights,  and  fearless  in  his  opposition  to 
monarchism.  He  died  in  1803. 

Adams,  Sarah  Flower,  an  Eng- 
lish hymn-writer ;  born  at  Great  Har- 
low,  Essex,  Feb.  22,  1805.  In  1834 
she  was  married  to  William  Bridges 
Adams,  a  noted  inventor.  She  wrote 
many  lyrics  and  hymns,  the  most  pop- 
ular of  which  is  "  Nearer,  My  God,  to 
Thee."  She  died  in  August,  184& 

Adams,  "William  Taylor,  an 
American  author  and  editor,  best 
known  by  the  pseudonym  "  Oliver  Op- 
tic ;  "  born  July  30,  1822.  He  was  a 
voluminous  and  highly  popular  writer 
of  fiction  for  young  readers,  his  works 
including  several  series  of  travel  and 
adventure.  He  died  March  27,  1897. 
'  Addams,  Jane,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  Cedarville,  111., 
Sept.  6,  1860.  She  was  graduated  at 
Rockford  College  in  1881,  and  after 
post-graduate  studies  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  became  an  active 
social  reformer.  She  inaugurated  in 
1889  the  establishment  known  as  Hull 
House,  an  adaptation  of  the  "  social 
settlement "  plan  to  Chicago  condi- 
tions. She  has  acted  as  street  clean- 
ing inspector  in  Chicago,  and  has  lec- 


tured on  the  improvement  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  poor  in  great  cities.  In 
1909  she  became  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Conference  on  Charities  and 
Correction,  and  in  1917  was  chairman 
of  the  Woman's  Peace  Party.  Notable 
publications  :  "Democracy  and  Social 
Ethics"  (1902),  and  "A  New  Con- 
science and  an  Ancient  Evil"  (1911). 

Addison,  Joseph,  an  English  es- 
sayist, son  of  the  Rev.  Lancelot  Addi- 
son, subsequently  dean  of  Lichfield ; 
born  at  his  father's  rectory,  Milston, 
Wiltshire,  May  1,  1672.  Died  at  Hol- 
land House,  June  17,  1719.  He  was 
one  of  England's  greatest  writers. 

Beside  the  independent  efforts  of  his 
own  he  aspired  to  be  a  judge  and  cen- 
sor of  the  literary  productions  of  oth- 
ers, and  he  was,  perhaps,  beyond  any 
man  of  his  day,  well  qualified  for  the 
task.  Certainly  his  judgments  had 
less  force  and  perhaps  less  depth  than 
Johnson's,  but  they  had  much  more 
breadth,  harmony,  and  completeness, 
were  woven  with  more  art  into  a  sys- 
tem depending  on  theoretical  princi- 
ples, and  were  delivered  with  a  grace 
and  eloquence  of  which  the  oracular 
moralist  was  no  master.  If  his  system 
was  somewhat  shallow,  it  had  probably 
the  merit  of  directing  attention  more 
to  criticism,  and  preparing  the  way 
for  better  and  more  philosophic  stan- 
dards of  appreciation.  Addison  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Ade,  George,  an  American  jour- 
nalist and  author,  born  in  Kentland, 
Ind.,  Feb.  9,  1866.  He  has  published 
ftbles,  etc.,  and  is  a  popular  writer. 

Adee,  Alvey  Augustus,  Second 
Assistant  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States  since  1886,  born  in  As- 
toria, N.  Y.,  Nov.  27,  1842 ;  appointed 
Secretary  of  Legation  at  Madrid, 
1870;  Chief  of  Diplomatic  Bureau, 
1878;  Third  Assistant  Secretary  of 
State,  1882;  Second  Assistant  Secre- 
tary of  State,  1886.  Appointed  Secre- 
tary of  State  ad  interim  to  fill  vacan- 
cy, Sept.  17  to  Sept.  29,  1898;  was 
acting  Secretary  of  State  during  a 
critical  period  of  the  Chinese  troubles 
in  Aug.  and  Sept.  1900. 

Adelsberg,  a  town  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  remarkable  for  stalactical 
caves  in  its  vicinity.  The  principal 


Adelnng 

one,  in  the  mouth  of  which  the  Poik 
disappears  in  a  vast  chasm,  extends  to 
the  distance  of  two  or  three  miles,  and 
is  found  to  terminate  in  a  lake.  After 
proceeding  200  yards  into  it  a  vast 
gloomy  space,  called  the  Dome,  form- 
ing a  hall  3*00  feet  long  by  100  feet 
high,  is  entered.  The  river  is  heard 
rushing  below,  and  on  crossing  it  by  a 
wooden  bridge  and  ascending  a  flight 
of  steps  cut  in  the  rock,  a  series  of 
lofty  halls,  supported  by  gigantic  con- 
cretions resembling  lofty  Gothic  col- 
umns, and  apparently  filled  with  stat- 
ues of  exquisite  whiteness  and  delicacy, 
meets  the  view. 

Adelnng,  Joliann  Christoph,  a 
German  philologist  and  lexicographer ; 
born  in  Spantekow,  Aug.  8,  1732.  His 
life  was  devoted  to  an  exhaustive  in- 
vestigation of  his  native  language, 
which  he  traced  to  its  remotest  origins 
with  a  patience  and  a  thoroughness 
that  have  remained  unsurpassed.  He 
died  in  Dresden,  Sept.  10,  1806. 

Aden,  a  peninsula  and  town  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain,  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  Arabia,  105  miles  E.  of  the 
strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  the  entrance 
to  the  Red  Sea.  The  peninsula  is  a 
mass  of  volcanic  rocks,  5  miles  long 
from  E.  to  W.,  and  rising  to  1,776 
feet.  It  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by 
a  narrow,  level,  and  sandy  isthmus. 
The  town  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
peninsula,  stands  in  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano,  and  is  surrounded  by 
barren,  cinder-like  rocks.  Frequently 
the  heat  is  intense ;  but  the  very  dry, 
hot  climate,  though  depressing,  is  un- 
usually healthy  for  the  tropics.  It  has 
a  garrison  and  strong  fortifications, 
and  a  population  of  over  41,000. 

Adirondack  Mountains,  the 
highest  range  in  New  York  State, 
covering  an  area  of  about  12,500 
square  miles,  and  occupying  parts 
of  Clinton,  Essex,  Franklin,  and 
Hamilton  counties.  These  mountains, 
the  geological  formation  of  which  are 
chiefly  granite,  run  in  five  parallel 
ranges;  the  highest  range,  or  Adiron- 
dack proper,  is  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
district,  and  the  peaks  rise  to  a  great 
height  Mt.  Marcy  is  5,345  feet ;  Gray 
peak,  4,900  feet;  White  Face,  4,870 
feet,  etc.  This  whole  district,  some- 
times called  the  Adirondack  Wilder- 
ness, is  covered  with  dense  forests,  ex- 


Administration 

cept  the  tallest  peaks,  and  some  of 
these  forests  are  still  unexplored.  The 
1,000  lakes  in  the  valleys  beautifully 
diversify  the  scenery. 

Adirondack  Park,  a  large  district 
principally  forest  land,  set  apart  by 
the  State  of  New  York,  in  1892,  for 
the  protection  of  the  watershed  of  the 
Hudson  and  other  rivers  of  the  State, 
for  public  recreation,  and  for  the  prac- 
tical study  of  forestry.  It  covers 
Hamilton  county,  and  parts  of  Essex, 
Franklin,  Herkimer  and  St.  Lawrence 
counties,  and  contains  many  moun- 
tains and  lakes.  Area,  4,387  square 
miles. 

Adjutant,  in  military  language,  in 
the  United  States  army,  an  officer  se- 
lected by  the  colonel,  whose  duties  in 
respect  to  his  regiment  are  similar  to 
those  of  an  adjutant  general  with  an 
army.  Adjutant  general :  the  principal 
organ  of  the  commander  of  an  army  in 
publishing  orders.  The  same  organ  of 
the  commander  of  a  corps,  or  depart- 
ment, is  styled  assistant  adjutant  gen- 
eral. The  adjutant  general  has  charge 
of  the  drill  and  discipline  of  the  army. 

Adjutant  Bird,  a  large  grallato- 
rial  or  wading  bird  of  Asia  belonging 
to  the  stork  family. 

Adler,  Felix,  an  American  lecturer 
and  scholar,  born  at  Alzey,  Germany, 
1851.  The  son  of  an  eminent  Jewish 
rabbi,  he  emigrated  when  young  to  the 
United  States,  where,  and  at  Berlin 
and  Heidelberg,  he  was  educated.  Af- 
ter being  for  some  time  professor  at 
Cornell  University,  he  founded  in  New 
York  (1876)  the  Society  of  Ethical 
Culture,  of  which  he  is  lecturer.  Sim- 
ilar societies  have  been  established 
elsewhere  in  the  United  States  and  in 
other  countries.  He  is  an  effective 
writer  and  speaker.  He  has  published 
"Creed  and  Deed"  (1878);  "The 
Moral  Instruction  of  Children " 
( 1892) .  In  June,  1902,  he  was  called 
to  the  newly-created  professorship  of 
social  and  political  «thics  in  the  de- 
partment of  philosophy  in  Columbia 
University. 

Adler,  Hermann,  a  German  writ- 
er, born  in  Hanover,  May  29,  1839. 
He  has  lived  most  of  his  life  in  Eng- 
land, having  been,  since  1891,  Chief 
Rabbi  of  the  British  Empire. 

Administration,  in  law,  the  man- 
agement of  the  personal  estate  of  any- 


'Admiral 

one  dying  intestate,  or  without  an 
executor.  The  word  is  also  applied  to 
the  official  terms  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  Governors 
of  States,  mayors,  etc.,  and  to  their 
official  advisers. 

Admiral,  the  title  of  the  highest 
rank  of  naval  officer.     In  1917   the 
United  States  navy  had  on  the  active 
list  one  admiral  and  twenty-four  rear- 
admirals    and    on    the    retired    list 
seventy-four  rear-admirals.    After  the  j 
declaration   of  war  against  the   Im-  | 
perial  German  Government  many  re-  j 
tired   rear-admirals  were  recalled   to 
active  service. 

Admiralty  Island,  a  mountain- 
ous island,  90  miles  long,  off  the  W. 
coast  of  Alaska,  to  the  N.  E.  of  Sitka ; 
belongs  to  the  United  States. 

Admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of 
40  islands,  to  the  N.E.  of  New  Guinea ; 
Basco,  the  largest  of  them,  being  60 
miles  in  length,  and  is  mountainous, 
but  fruitful.  The  total  area  of  the 
islands  is  878  square  miles.  Together 
with  New  Britain  and  some  adjoining 
groups,  they  were  annexed  by  Ger- 
many, in  1885,  and  now  form  part  of 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago. 

Adobe,  the  name  given  in  south- 
western America  to  sun-dried  bricks, 
and  the  structures  built  of  them. 

Adonai,  a  Hebrew  name  for  the 
Supreme  Being;  a  plural  form  of 
Adon,  "lord,"  combined  with  the  pro- 
noun of  the  first  person.  In  reading 
the  Scriptures  aloud,  the  Jews  pro- 
nounce "Adonai"  wherever  the  old 
name  "Jhvh"  is  found  in  the  text, 
and  the  name  Jehovah  has  risen  out 
of  the  consonants  of  "Jhvh,"  with  the 
vowel  points  of  Adonai. 

Adonis,  a  pheasant's  eye.  A  genus 
of  plants  so  called  because  the  red 
color  of  the  species  made  them  look  as 
if  they  had  been  stained  by  the  blood 
of  Adonis.  It  is  a  beautiful  plant, 
with  bright,  scarlet  flowers,  and  hav- 
ing very  markedly  composite  leaves, 
with  linear  segments.  Plants  of  this 
genus  are  easily  cultivated. 

Adoption,  the  act  of  taking  a 
stranger  into  one's  family,  as  a  son  or 
daughter;  or  the  taking  of  a  person,  a 
society,  etc.,  into  more  intimate  rela- 
tions than  formerly  existed  with  an- 
other person  or  society ;  or  the  taking 


Adrian  IV. 

as  one's  own,  with  or  without  acknow- 
ledgment, an  opinion,  plan,  etc.,  orig- 
inating with  another ;  also  the  selecting 
one  from  several  courses  open  to  a 
person's  choice. 

Adrian,  or  Hadrian,  Publins 
JElins,  a  Roman  emperor,  born  at 
Rome,  76  A.  D.  Entering  the  army 
quite  young,  he  became  tribune  of  a 
legion,  and  married  Sabina,  the  heiress 
of  Trajan,  whom  he  accompanied  on 
his  expeditions,  and  became  successive- 
ly praetor,  governor  of  Pannonia,  and 
consul.  On  Trajan's  death,  in  117,  he 
assumed  the  government,  made  peace 
•with  the  Persians,  and  remitted  the 
debts  of  the  Roman  people.  In  his 
reign,  the  Christians  underwent  a 
dreadful  persecution.  He  built  a  tem- 
ple to  Jupiter,  on  Mount  Calvary,  and 
placed  a  statue  of  Adonis  in  the 
manger  of  Bethlehem ;  he  also  had  im- 
ages of  swine  engraved  on  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem,  all  of  which  acts  indi- 
cate a  contempt  for  Christianity.  Ad- 
rian died  at  Baiae,  in  139. 

Adrian  I.,  Pope,  born  at  Rome; 
succeeded  Stephen  III.  in  772.  Adrian 
died  after  a  pontificate  of  nearly  24 
years,  795. 

Adrian  II.,  born  at  Rome;  suc- 
ceeded Nicholas  I.  in  the  papal  chair 
in  867.  He  had  been  married,  and 
had  a  daughter  by  his  wife  Stephania, 
from  whom  he  afterward  separated  in 
order  to  live  in  celibacy.  During  the 
pontificate  of  Adrian,  Photius,  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  withdrew  from 
the  Church  of  Rome,  from  which  time 
the  schism  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Churches  dates,  which  continues 
to  this  day.  Adrian  died  in  872,  and 
was  succeeded  by  John  VIII. 

Adrian  IV.,  the  only  Englishman 
who  was  ever  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
the  papal  chair,  succeeded  Anastasiua 
IV.  in  1154.  His  name  was  Nicholas 
Breakespere;  and  for  some  time  he 
filled  a  mean  situation  in  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Albans.  Being  refused  the 
habit  in  that  house,  he  went  to  France, 
and  became  a  clerk  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Rufus,  of  which  he  was  after- 
ward chosen  abbot.  Eugenius  III. 
created  him  cardinal,  in  1146,  and,  in 
1148,  made  him  legate  to  Denmark 
and  Norway,  which  nations  he  con* 
verted  to  the  Christian  faith.  When 
nominated  pope,  he  granted  to  Henry 


Adrianople 


1  1.  a  bull  for  the  conquest  of  Ireland. 
In  1155,  be  excommunicated  tbe  King 
of  Sicily;  and,  about  the  same  time, 
the  Emperor  Frederic,  meeting  him 
near  Sutinam,  held  his  stirrup  while 
he  mounted  his  horse.  Adrian  took 
the  Emperor  with  him,  and  conse- 
crated him  King  of  the  Romans,  in 
St.  Peter's  church.  The  next  year  the 
King  of  Sicily  submitted,  and  was  ab- 
solved. Died,  supposed  of  poison,  in 
1159. 

Adrianople,  the  third  city  in  what 
was  European  Turkey,  on  the  naviga- 
ble Maritza  (ancient  Hebrus),  198 
miles  by  rail  W.  N.  W.  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  pop.  over  80,000.  The  city  was 
the  seat  of  the  Ottoman  sultanate  in 
1366-1453,  and  contains  the  most  mag- 
nificent Moslem  temple  extant  —  that 
of  the  Sultan  Selim.  It  has  been  con- 
spicuous in  warfare  several  times.  See 
APPENDIX:  World  War. 

Adriatic  Sea,  a  large  arm  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  extending,  in  a 
N.  W.  direction,  between  the  E.  coast 
of  Italy  and  the  W.  coast  of  the  Bal- 
kan peninsula. 

Adulteration,  a  term  applied  to 
the  fraudulent  mixture  of  articles  of 
commerce,  food,  drink,  drugs,  seeds, 
&c.,  with  noxious  or  inferior  ingre- 
dients. The  chief  objects  of  adultera- 
tion are  to  increase  the  weight  or  vol- 
ume of  the  article,  to  give  a  color 
which  either  makes  a  good  article  more 
pleasing  to  the  eye  or  else  disguises 
an  inferior  one,  to  substitute  a  cheap- 
er form  of  the  article,  or  the  same 
Bubtances  from  which  the  strength  has 
been  extracted,  or  to  give  it  false 
strength.  Laws  against  the  practice 
have  existed  since  the  13th  century; 
it  is  forbidden  in  civilized  countries. 

Advent,  a  term  applied  to  cer- 
tain weeks  before  Christmas.  An- 
ciently, the  season  of  Advent  con- 
sisted of  six  weeks,  and  this  is 
still  the  duration  of  it  in  the 
Greek  Church.  In  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church,  however,  and  in  the 
Protestant  Churches  that  observe  Ad- 
vent, it  only  lasts  four  weeks,  begin- 
ning with  the  Sunday  nearest  St.  An- 
drew's Day  (Nov.  30),  either  before 
or  after. 

Adventists,  a  sect  in  the  United 
States,  founded  by  William  Miller, 
ind  sometimes  called  Millerites,  which 


believed  that  Christ's  second  coming 
would  occur  in  October,  1843.  When 
their  hopes  were  not  realized,  the  num- 
ber of  believers  decreased.  The  Ad- 
ventists still  look  with  certainty  for 
the  coming  of  Christ,  but  not  at  a 
fixed  time.  They  are  now  divided  into 
the  following  bodies :  Evangelical,  Ad- 
vent Christian,  Seventh  Day,  Church 
of  God,  Life  and  Advent  Union,  and 
Churches  of  God  in  Jesus  Christ.  The 
following  table  gives  a  summary  of  the 
various  Adventist  Churches  in  the 
United  States  as  reported  in  1916  in 
the  "Bulletin  of  Church  Statistics"  for 
the  previous  year : 

Com- 

Minis-  itiuni- 

Denominations      ters    Churches    cants 

1.  Evangelical    8  18  481 

2.  Advent  Christian.    566         637        28,990 

3.  Seventh  Day 552      1,987       73,343 

4.  Church  of  God...      34  22  800 
6.  Life    and    Advent 

Union    12  12  509 

6.  Churches    of    God 

in  Jesus  Christ.      61  66          2,224 


Total  Adventists..  1,233      2,742      106,347 

Advocate.  (1)  Originally  one 
whose  aid  was  called  in  or  invoked; 
one  who  helped  in  any  business  mat- 
ter; (2)  In  law,  at  first,  one  who 
gave  his  legal  aid  in  a  case,  without, 
however,  pleading. 

Now,  in  English  and  American  law, 
one  who  pleads  a  cause  in  any  court, 
civil  or  criminal.  It  is  not,  properly 
speaking,  a  technical  word,  but  is  used 
only  in  a  popular  sense,  as  synony- 
mous with  barrister  or  counsel. 

In  the  army  the  judge-advocate  is 
the  officer  through  whom  prosecutions 
before  courts-martial  are  conducted. 
There  is  also  a  judge-advocate-general 
for  the  army  at  large. 

.ZEdile,    in    ancient    Rome    magis- 

i  trates  who  had  charge  of  public  and 

I  private  buildings,  of  .aqueducts,  roads. 

I  sewers,  weights,  measures,  the  national 

worship,    and,    specially    when    there 

were  no  censors,  public  morality. 

.ZEgean  Sea,  the  old  name  of  the 
gulf  between  Asia  Minor  and  Greece, 
now  usually  called  the  Grecian  Archi- 
|  pelago. 

.Xgina,  a  Greek  island  about  40 
i  square  miles  in  area,  in  the  Gulf  of 


Aeronautics 


JEgis,  the  shield  of  Zeus,  which  had 
been  fashioned  by  Hephaestus  (Vul- 
can). It  was  the  symbol  of  divine 
protection. 

JEneas,  a  Trojan  prince,  the  hero 
of  Virgil's  great  epic. 

JEneid,  one  of  the  great  epic  poems 
of  the  world.  It  was  written  in  Latin 
by  Virgil,  and  published  after  his 
death,  which  took  place  about  16  B.  c. 

JEolian  Harp,  a  harp  played  by 
yEolus — in  other  words,  by  the  wind. 
It  is  made  by  stretching  strings  of  cat- 
gut over  a  wooden  sound-box. 

-?£olus,  the  god  ef  the  winds,  who 
was  fabied  by  the  early  poets  to  have 
his  seat  in  the  floating  island  of 
^Colia ;  but  the  Latin  and  later  Greek 
poets  placed  him  in  the  Lipari  isles. 

JEpinns,  Francis  Maria  Tllric 
Theodore,  a  distinguished  electrician, 
who  was  the  first  to  see  the  affinity 
between  magnetism  and  electricity  in 
its  full  extent.  Born  at  Rostock,  Ger- 
many, in  1724 ;  died  at  Dorpat,  in  Li- 
vonia, in  1802. 

Aerodynamics,  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  force  exerted  by  air  when 
in  motion. 

Aeronautics,  the  art  of  aerial 
navigation  by  ballooning  and  aviation. 
Ballooning  involves  the  use  of  a  bag- 
like  receptacle  which  is  made  in  vari- 
ous shapes,  of  silk  or  other  material, 
rendered  impervious  by  a  coating  of 
rubber,  linseed  oil  or  suitable  varnish, 
and  inflated  with  hydrogen,  coal-gas, 
or  other  gaseous  matter,  specifically 
lighter  than  air.  Aviation  discards 
anything  in  the  shape  of  a  balloon 
and  utilizes  aeroplanes  or  lifting  and 
sustaining  surfaces,  with  apparatus 
heavier  than  air.  Aerostation  or 
aerostatics,  the  science  of  weighing 
air,  has,  somewhat  erroneously  become 
a  synonym  for  aeronautics. 

The  first  form  in  which  the  idea  of 
aerial  locomotion,  naturally  suggested 
itself  was  that  of  providing  men  with 
wings,  and  the  myths  of  Daedalus  and 
Icarus  show  that  the  attempts  of  man 
to  soar  above  the  earth  commenced  in 
prehistoric  times.  A  wooden  pigeon 
which  sustained  itself  in  the  air  for  a 
few  minutes  is  recorded  as  having 
been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Taren- 
tum,  400  years  B.  c.  Suetonius  states 
that  Simon  Magus  was  killed  in  Rome 


during  the  reign  of  Nero  by  attempt- 
ing to  fly  from  one  house  to  another. 
Friar  Roger  Bacon  (1214-94)  con- 
structed a  machine  consisting  of  a 
pair  of  hollow  copper  globes,  ex- 
hausted of  air,  which  could  rise  in  the 
air  supporting  a  man  seated  on  a 
chair.  In  the  13th  century,  Elmerus, 
a  monk,  is  said  to  have  flown  more 
than  a  furlong  from  the  top  of  a  tower 
in  Spain.  Father  Francesco  Lana 
(1631-87),  an  Italian  physicist,  de- 
scribes an  ingenious  but  impracticable 
flying  machine.  Giovanna  Batista 
Dante,  a  mathematician  of  Perugia, 
made  several  flights  above  Lake 
Thrasimene  by  means  of  artificial 
wings  attached  to  the  body,  near  the 
close  of  the  15th  century,  but  dis- 
continued them  after  an  accident.  In 
the  17th  century,  Besnier,  a  locksmith 
of  Sable,  France,  prudently  began  to 
laap  from  one  story  windows,  and  at 
last  ventured  safely  on  flights  from  ele- 
vated positions,  passing  over  houses, 
and  over  rivers  of  considerable  breadth, 
Bishop  Wilkins,  Sir  George  Caylay 
end  others,  towards  the  end  of  the 
18th  century,  busied  themselves  with 
speculation  and  experiments  on  the 
subject  of  aviation. 

Henry  Cavendish,  about  1766,  dis- 
covered the  great  levity  of  hydrogen 
gas  —  slightly  over  14  times  less  than 
that  of  atmospheric  air  —  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  Dr.  Black,  of  Edinburgh, 
announced  in  his  lectures  that  a  thin 
bladder,  filled  with  this  gas,  must 
ascend  into  the  air.  Cavallo  made  the 
requisite  experiments  in  1782,  and 
found  that  a  bladder  was  too  heavy, 
paper  not  air-tight,  but  that  soap-bub- 
bles filled  with  hydrogen  rose  to  the 
ceiling  of  the  room,  where  they  burst. 
The  first  successful  balloon  was  made 
by  the  Montgolfier  brothers,  sons  of 
Peter  Montgolfier,  a  paper  manufac- 
turer of  Annonay,  France.  It  was 
a  parallelepiped  or  six-sided  bag  of 
silk,  containing  40  cubic  ft.  ;  inflated 
with  hot  air  from  burning  paper  it 
rose  to  a  height  of  36  ft.  The  broth- 
ers, after  seeing  a  petticoat  sail  to  the 
ceiling  when  left  to  dry  by  a  fire,  had 
conceived  the  idea  that  a  bag  filled 
with  a  cloud-like  substance,  such  as 
smoke,  would  float  in  the  air.  Larger 
machines  were  constructed  with  great- 
er success  in  ascension,  a  straw  fire, 
fed  by  chopped  wool  from  time  to 


LATEST   TYPES   OP         A 


1 — School  machine  in  flight. 

2  and  3 — Inside  views  at  an  aeroplane  factory. 

4 — Biplane  ready  to  take  flight. 


Copyright  U.  &  U. 


IRICAN   AEROPLANES 


5 — American  warplanes  on  the  French  front. 

6 — Speedy  biplane  with  135  H.P.  motor. 

7 — U.  S.  officers  inspecting  aeroplanes  at  a  training  camp. 


Aeronautics 

time,  being  kindled  under  the  aper- 
ture of  the  balloon  to  produce  the 
smoke  cloud ;  the  true  cause  of  ascen- 
sion, the  rarefaction  of  the  heated 
air,  was  not  discovered  till  a  later 
period.  The  Montgolfier  successes  led 
to  Charles'  experiments  with  hydrogen 
gas.  Within  a  short  time  several  cap- 
tive ascents  by  human  beings  were 
successfully  made  in  heated  air  bal- 
loons, and  on  Nov.  21,  1783,  Pilatre 
de  Rozier  and  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes 
made  the  first  independent  aerial  ex- 
pedition rising  3,000  ft.  and  descending 
safely,  though  not  without  being  ex- 
posed to  considerable  danger,  9,000  ft. 
from  their  starting  point.  Ten  days 
later,  on  Dec.  1,  Messrs.  Charles  and 
Roberts  ascended  in  a  hydrogen  bal- 
loon fitted  with  a  safety  valve,  and 
travelled  over  31  miles.  Over  52  bal- 
loon ascents  are  recorded  in  1784. 
Blanchard,  the  first  professional  aero- 
naut, with  Dr.  John  Jeffries  of  Bos- 
ton, crossed  the  English  Channel  from 
Dover  to  France,  in  a  heated  air  bal- 
loon, Jan.  1,  1785.  On  June  14,  1785, 
Pilatre  de  Rozier  with  Mr.  Remain  at- 
tempted to  cross  from  the  French  side, 
in  a  combination  hydrogen  and  heated- 
air  balloon,  but  the  machine  caught 
fire  3,000  ft.  in  the  air  and  both  men 
were  killed.  The  disaster  was  caused 
through  unfortunate  negligence  and 
the  cause  of  aeronautics  did  not  suffer. 
The  parachute  (q.  v.)  was  invented  by 
Garnerin,  who  first  made  a  descent 
Oct.  22,  1797. 

Following  these  early  experiments, 
among  notable  ascensions  during  the 
19th  century  taken  in  the  interests  of 
science  were  those  of  Messrs.  Robert- 
son and  Lhoest  in  1803-04,  of  Gay 
Lussac  and  Biot  in  1804,  of  Carlo 
Brioschi  and  Andreani  in  1806,  of 
Green,  the  English  aeronaut,  with 
Messrs.  Holland  and  Mason  in  183G, 
of  Bixio  and  Barral  in  1850,  of  Messrs. 
Glaisher  and  Coxwell  in  1862,  when 
they  reached  a  height  of  7  miles,  and 
of  Messrs.  Camille  Flammarion,  W. 
de  Fonvieville,  and  Gaston  Tissandier, 
1867-69.  In  July,  1859,  Mr.  John 
Wise,  the  American  aeronaut  with 
Mr.  John  La  Mountain  and  two 
others  made  a  remarkable  journey 
from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  Henderson  in 
Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  a  distance  of 
1,150  m.,  in  19  h.  50  m.,  or  at  an  aver- 
age speed  of  nearly  a  mile  a  minute. 


Aeronautics 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  20th  cent, 
this  has  been  exceeded  onlv  by  Count 
de  la  Vaulx's  flight  of  1,200  m.  from 
Paris  to  Russia. 

Regular  balloon  corps  are  attached 
to  the  armies  of  leading  nations,  and 
in  their  interests  numerous  attempts 
have  been  made  to  construct  dirigible 
balloons.  Gaston  and  Albert  Tissen- 
dier  achieved  some  success  in  1884, 
but  the  first  notable  dirigible  flight 
was  that  of  Col.  Renard  on  Apr.  9, 
1884,  when,  in  a  cigar-shaped  balloon, 
with  a  powerful  motor  and  a  front 
screw,  he  left  Chalais-Meudqn,  and  re- 
turned to  his  starting  .point  in  23  min- 
utes after  describing  an  oblong  course 
of  five  miles.  Since  then  aerial  navi- 
gation has  developed  along  the  lines 
of  dirigible  balloons  and  motor  aero- 
planes. 

Two  new  forms  of  air-craft  were 
developed  practically  during  1913, 
viz :  the  hydro-aeroplane,  an  aero- 
plane capable  of  rising  from  the  sur- 
face of  water  with  the  aid  of  a  float- 
ing device,  and  the  flying-boat,  a  com- 
bination of  a  speed  motor-boat  that 
can  be  operated  as  slowly  as  two 
miles  an  hour  or  as  rapidly  as 
fifty  miles,  to  which  is  attached  a 
standard  aeroplane.  The  apparatus 
can  be  used  on  the  water,  in  the  air, 
and,  with  an  equipment  of  wheels,  on 
the  ground,  with  equal  ease  and  sur- 
prising speed,  and  it  quickly  gave  birth 
to  a  new  and  exhilarating  sport — 
yachting  in  the  air. 

Owing  to  the  commandeering  of  air- 
craft and  the  enlistment  of  aviators  for 
military  service  in  all  the  belligerent 
armies,  competitive  aviation  was  so 
restricted  that  from  the  outbreak  of 
the  World  War  the  International 
Aviation  Federation  accepted  no  rec- 
ords as  claimed. 

In  1915  many  improvements  were 
made  in  air-craft,  the  better  to  fit  the 
various  types  for  use  as  engines  of 
war.  Their  speed  and  carrying  capac- 
ity were  greatly  increased  so  that  they 
could  convey  more  men  and  also  bombs 
and  machine  guns. 

In  the  United  States  the  Congress 
passed  an  act,  approved  July  18,  1914, 
creating  an  aviation  section  of  the 
signal  corps  to  be  composed  of  60 
captains  and  first  lieutenants  and  260 
enlisted  men.  The  act  provided  for  an 
increase  in  the  pay  of  military  avia- 


Aeronautics 


Aeronautic* 


tors  of  75  per  cent.,  of  juniors  of  50 
per  cent.,  and  of  students  of  25  per 
cent.  Enlisted  men  were  required  to 
take  part  at  regular  periods  in  aerial 
flights. 

The  Army  Appropriation  Act  of  Aug. 
29,  1916,  appropriated  $13,000,000  for 
the  extension  of  the  aerial  service,  and 
plans  which  had  been  previously  for- 
mulated for  extending  the  service  were 
further  enlarged  by  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  July  24,  1917,  appropriating 
$640,000,000  for  the  construction  of 
air  craft.  This  latter  action,  it  is  to 
be  noted,  was  taken  after  the  United 
States  had  entered  the  war  (April  6, 
1917). 

The  task  of  construction  was  speed- 
ily undertaken  in  various  sections  of 
the  country,  aviation  schools  were  es- 
tablished, American  inventors  made 
many  contributions  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  latest  types  of  foreign  machines, 
and  experienced  instructors  from 
France  and  England  aided  in  the 
training  of  the  American  airmen.  As 
rapidly  as  construction  and  instruc- 
tion permitted  machines  and  men  were 
hurried  to  the  battle-fronts  of  France, 
the  first  contingent  being  designated 
the  Lafayette  Escadrille. 

The  war  was  still  young  when  the 
Germans  inaugurated  Admiral  Von 
Tirpits's  "campaign  of  frightfulness," 
by  bombing  English  coast  sections  from 
Zeppelins  and  other  types  of  craft, 
killing  inoffensive  non-combatants, 
and  destroying  property  that  should 
have  been  immune,  without  gaining 
any  military  advantage  whatever. 
Later  the  entente  belligerents  began 
retaliating  in  kind,  seeking,  how- 
ever, bases  of  supplies  and  munition 
works. 

No  more  terrible  exposition  of  aero- 
nautic warfare  can  be  found  than  in 
the  record  of  six  days  in  March,  1918, 
viz: 

March  9.  Ten  or  twelve  squadrons 
of  German  bombing  aircraft  raided 
Paris,  killing  13  persons  and  wounding 
50. 

March  10.  British  army  aviators 
raided  motor  and  munition  factories 
and  other  objectives  at  Stuttgart,  Ger- 
many, dropping  over  one  and  a  quarter 
tons  of  bombs. 

March  11.  Germans  raided  Naples, 
Italy,  without  damage  of  a  military 
character,  a  hospital  and  private  dwell- 
ings chiefly  being  injured. 


British  made  daylight  raid  on 
Mainz,  Germany,  with  but  slight  casu- 
alties. 

March  12.  Nine  squadrons  of 
German  craft,  aggregating  nearly  60 
units,  attacked  Paris ;  34  persons 
killed,  79  injured,  66  suffocated  while 
in  a  refuge. 

British  aviators  dropped  a  ton  of 
bombs  on  Coblenz,  Prussia. 

German  Zeppelins  made  night  raid 
on  eastern  coast  of  England  and 
dropped  bombs  on  Hull. 

British  dropped  over  thirteen  and  a 
half  tons  of  explosives  on  various  tar- 
gets at  Mons  and  Bavay,  on  large 
ammunition  depots  northeast  of  St. 
Quentin,  and  on  billets  east  of  Lens, 
and  7  tons  of  bombs  on  billets  between 
Lille  and  Cambrai. 

March  13.  British  dropped  3  tons 
of  bombs  on  docks  at  Bruges. 

March  14.  Zeppelins  made  night 
raid  on  northeast  coast  of  England. 

British  airplanes  attacked  German 
munition  works  and  barracks  at  Frei- 
burg, dropping  nearly  10  tons  of 
bombs. 

For  a  concise  record  of  bombing 
raids  by  airplanes  from  the  beginning 
of  the  war  to  the  end  of  1917  see 
APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  pacific 
side  of  aeronautics  was  the  provision 
for  an  aeroplane  mail  service  between 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Wash- 
ington, scheduled  for  inauguration 
about  May  15,  1918. 

Excluding  the  records  of  phenome- 
nal achievements  in  war  air-flights 
and  of  most  courageous  operations  in 
France  by  American  aviators,  the  fol- 
lowing shows  the  most  notable  of 
recent  records : 

Oct.  6,  1908.  Wilbur  Wright,  in 
France,  made  first  flight  of  more  than 
1  h.  with  a  passenger. 

Oct.  30,  1908.  Farman,  in  France, 
made  first  cross-country  flight,  20 
miles  in  17  m. 

July  25,  1909.  Louis  BleYiot  made 
first  flight  across  English  Channel  in 
31  m. 

Aug.  28,  1909.  Glenn  H.  Curtiss, 
at  Rheims,  won  first  Gordon-Bennett 
Aviation  Cup,  by  12.42  miles  in  15 
m.  501  s. 

Oct.  19,  1909.  Count  Charles  de 
Lambert  made  first  flight  over  a  city, 
at  Paris,  rounding  the  Eiffel  Tower  at 
height  of  nearly  1,500  feet,  making 


Aeronautics 


Aeronautics 


journey  of  50  kilometers  in  as  many 
minutes. 

Jan.  7,  1910.  Hubert  Latham,  at 
Mourmelon,  France,  broke  height  rec- 
ord with  3,600  feet. 

Jan.  11,  1910.  Curtiss,  at  Los  An- 
geles, Cal.,  broke  record  flight  with 
passenger,  55  miles  an  hour. 

April  19,  1910.  Louis  Paulhan,  at 
Rheims,  made  new  cross-country  aero- 
plane record,  130  miles. 

April  28,  1910.  Paulhan  won  $50,- 
000  prize  for  flight  from  London  to 
Manchester,  Eng.,  185  miles,  in  3  h. 
56  m. 

May  29,  1910.  Curtiss  won  $10,- 
000  prize  for  flight  from  Albany  to 
Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  150  miles,  in 
2  h.  32  m. ;  also  making  both  an 
American  cross-country  record  and 
the  world's  speed  record  for  such 
flights. 

June  2,  1910.  Sir  Charles  S.  Rolls 
made  first  round-trip  flight  across 
English  Channel  without  stop,  42 
miles  in  90  m.  He  was  killed  in  a 
flight,  July  12,  following. 

June  22,  1910.  Count  Zeppelin 
opened  the  first  regular  airship  pas- 
senger service  with  his  "Deutsch- 
land,"  and  carried  20  passengers  from 
Friedrichshaven  to  Diisseldorf,  300 
miles,  in  9  h.  On  the  28th  the  air- 
ship was  wrecked  in  a  gale. 

July  7,  1910.  Latham  broke  pre- 
vious height  record  with  over  5,000 
feet. 

July  7,  1910.  M.  Olieslagers,  at 
Rheims,  made  new  world's  endurance 
record,  158  miles  without  stop,  in  2  h. 
35  m.  30  s. 

July  9,  1910.  M.  Labouchere,  at 
Rheims,  made  world's  record  for  dis- 
tance, 211.14  miles,  in  4  h.  37  m.  45  s. 

July  9,  1910.  Leon  Morane,  at 
Rheims,  made  new  speed  record,  6.20 
miles,  in  5  m.  27  s. 

July  9,  1910.  Walter  Brooking,  at 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  broke  world's 
record  for  height,  6,100  feet. 

July  15, 1910.  J.  Armstrong  Drexel, 
at  Bournemouth,  Eng.,  made  an  over- 
sea flight  of  21  miles  in  34  m.,  and 
Morane  covered  the  distance  in  25  m. 

Aug.  11,  1910.  Drexel,  at  Lanark, 
Scotland,  made  height  of  6,750  feet. 

Sept.  23,  1910.  Chavez  crossed  the 
Alps  between  Switzerland  and  Italy 
and  died  from  injuries,  27th. 

Oct.    15,    1910.     Walter    Wellman, 


with  five  others,  attempted  to  cross 
the  Atlantic  from  Atlantic  City,  N. 
J.,  in  the  dirigible  balloon  "America," 
but  was  compelled  by  storm  to 
abandon  the  balloon  off  Cape  Hat- 
teras  on  the  18th,  having  been  in  the 
air  nearly  72  hours  and  covered  about 
850  miles. 

Oct.  17-19,  1910.  Alan  R.  Haw- 
ley  and  Augustus  Post,  in  balloon 
"America  II,"  made  record  for  sus- 
tained flight,  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to 
Chicoutimi  county,  Quebec,  Canada, 
about  1,350  miles. 

Oct.  29,  1910.  Grahame-White,  at 
Belmont  Park,  won  the  Bennett  cup, 
beating  world's  speed  record  for  100 
kilometers  (62.1  miles)  in  •€!  m., 
4  74-100  s. 

Oct.  31, 1910.  Ralph  Johnstone,  at 
Belmont  Park,  made  biplane  height 
record,  9,714  feet ;  was  killed  in  flight 
at  Denver,  Nov.  17. 

Nov.  7,  1910.  Phil  O.  Parmelee 
made  fastest  cross-country  flight  and 
was  the  first  to  carry  freight :  Dayton 
to  Columbus,  O.,  65  miles  in  65  m. 

Nov.  23,  1910.  Drexel.  at  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  claimed  height  of  9,970 
feet,  world's  record ;  claim  rejected 
by  Aero  Club,  but  accepted  by  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau. 

Dec.  9,  1910.  M.  Legagneux,  at 
Pau,  France,  in  monoplane,  made 
height  of  10,499  feet ;  world's  record. 

Dec.  10,  1910.  Captain  Bellanger, 
French  Army  Aviation  Corps,  broke 
speed  records,  Vincennes  to  Mour- 
melon, 100  miles,  in  70  m. 

April  12,  1911.  Prier  flew  from 
London  to  Paris  (251  miles)  in  2  h. 

56  m.  with  stop. 

Aug.  2,  1911.  Vedrines,  from  Lon- 
don to  Dieppe  to  Paris  (267  miles) 
in  3  h.  50  m. 

Dec.    2,   1911.     Prevost,    with    one 

gassenger,    made    altitude    flight    at 
ourcy,  France   (9,840  ft.). 
Feb.  17,  1912.     Tabuteau  broke  the 
world's  record  for  2  hours'  flight  by 
covering  a  distance  of  227  kilom.  454 
metres   (141^  miles). 

March  14,  1912.  Salmet  flew  from 
London  to  Paris  (222  miles)  in  2  h. 

57  m.,  taking  this  short  route  with- 
out stop. 

July  27,  1912.  H.  E.  Honeywell 
won  American  National  Champion- 
ship balloon  race  from  Kansas  City, 
914  m. 


Aeronautics 


Afghanistan 


Aug.  15,  1912.  R.  E.  Scott,  late  U. 
S.  A.,  won  Michelin  bomb-dropping 
contest,  France. 

Sept.  9,  1912.  Jules  Vedrines 
(France)  won  international  contest 
for  Bennett  Cup,  Chicago ;  average 
speed,  105.03  m.  per  h. 

Oct.  6,  1912.  Pierre  Daucourt 
(France)  made  new  world  record 
for  single-day  cross-country  flight, 
570  miles,  in  8  h.  48  m. 

Oct.  27,  1912.  World's  distance 
record  broken  in  balloon  race  for 
Bennett  Cup,  Stuttgart,  Bienaine  of 
France  covering  1,364  miles,  Le 
Blanc  of  France,  1,240,  and  Watts  of 
U.  S.,  1,000. 

Feb.  9,  1913.  H.  Faller  made  dura- 
tion record  with  five  passengers,  Ger- 
many, 1  h.  10  m.  17  s. 

March  11,  1913.  J.  Perreyon  alone 
made  height  record,  France,  19,600 
ft. ;  and  June  3,  made  similar  record 
with  one  passenger.  16,270  feet. 

March  19-21,  1913.  E.  Rumpel- 
mayer  made  balloon  distance  record, 
Lamotte-Voltchy-Iar,  1,503  miles. 

April  15,  1913.  F.  Champel  made 
duration  record  with  four  passengers, 
over  circuit,  France,  3  h.  1  m.  17  s. 

Sept.  29,  1913.  M.  Prevost  won 
international  contest  for  Bennett 
Cup,  Rheims,  France,  average  speed, 
101.82  miles  per  h. 

Dec.  22.  1913.  German  military 
officer  made  balloon  flight  of  1,740 
miles  in  87  h. 

Feb.  11,  1914.  M.  Parmelin 
(France)  made  flight  over  Mont 
Blanc  from  Geneva,  Switzerland,  to 
Aosta,  Italy,  rising  to  height  of  17,384 
ft. 

June  24,  1914.  Walter  S.  Brock 
(U.  S.)  won  race  from  London  to 
Manchester  and  return,  322  m.  in  4 
h.  42  m.  26  s. 

July  11,  1914.  Walter  S.  Brock 
won  race  from  London  to  Paris  and 
return,  502  m.  in  7  h.  3  m.  6  s. 

Reinhold  Boehm  (Ger.)  set  endur- 
ance record  at  Johannisthal,  Ger- 
many, at  24  h.  12  m.,  covering  1,350 
m. 

July  14,  1914.  Seinrich  Oebreich 
(Ger.)  made  altitude  flight  at  Leipsic, 
reaching  24,606  ft. 

July  27,  1914.  Achillo  Laudini 
(It.),  with  passenger,  crossed  the 
Monte  Rosa  range  of  the  Alps  from 
Novara,  Italy,  to  Visp,  Switzerland,  at 


elevation  of  over  15,000  ft.,  in  about 
3  h. 

Oct.  8,  1914.  Capt.  H.  L.  Muller 
(U.  S.  A.)  made  altitude  flight  at  San 
Diego,  Cal.,  reaching  17,441  ft. 

April  30,  1916.  Theodore  Mac- 
Cauley  (U.  S.),  in  hydroplane  with 
6  passengers,  remained  in  the  air  1  h. 
10  m.  51  s.,  traveled  85  m.,  and  as- 
cended 950  ft.,  at  Newport  News. 

Nov.  2,  1916.  Victor  Carlstrom 
(U.  S.),  in  military  biplane  in  attempt 
to  fly  from  Chicago  to  New  York  that 
was  interrupted  by  engine  trouble, 
traveled  652  m.  in  6  h.  7^  m.,  and 
made  480  m.  between  Chicago  and 
Erie,  Pa.,  without  a  stop  in  4  h.  1  m. 

Nov.  19, 1916.  Miss  Ruth  Law  (U. 
S.)  flew  from  Chicago  to  Hornell, 
N.  Y.,  590  m.,  without  a  stop ;  then 
went  on  to  Binghamton,  N.  Y.,  making 
967  m.  in  8  h.  26  m. 

Aug.  29,  1917.  Capt.  G.  Laureami 
made  flight  from  Turin  to  Naples  and 
return,  920  m.,  in  10  h.  33  m. 

Oct.  22,  1917.  Lieut.  A.  Baldioli 
made  cross-country  run  between  Nor- 
folk, Va.,  and  Mineola,  L.  L,  330  m., 
in  2  h.  55  m. 

Afghanistan,  the  land  of  the  Af- 
ghans, a  country  in  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  E.  mainly  by  India,  S.  by 
Baluchistan,  W.  by  Persia,  and  N.  by 
the  Russian  Transcaspian  territory, 
Bokhara  and  the  Russian  Pamir 
territory ;  length  about  560,  breadth 
about  450  miles ;  area  about  225,000 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  5,000.000. 

The  inhabitants  belong  to  different 
races,  but  the  Afghans  proper  form 
the  great  mass  of  the  people.  These 
call  themselves  Pushtaneh  or  Pukta- 
neh,  Afghans  being  the  Persian 
name._  ^They^  are  an  Iranic  race,  and 
are  divided  into  a  number  of  tribes, 
nmpng  which  the  Duranis  and 
Ghilzais  are  the  most  important,  the 
latter  being  the  strongest  of  all  the 
tribes.  A  tradition,  evidently  mod- 
ern and  legendary,  gives  them  an 
Israelitish  origin.  The  Afghans  are 
bold,  hardy,  and  warlike,  fond  of 
freedom  and  resolute  in  maintaining 
it,  but  of  a  restless,  turbulent  tem- 
per, and  much  given  to  plunder. 

The  boundary  between  Afghanistan 
and  British  India  was  long  uncertain, 
but  in  1893  an  arrangement  was  come 


Africa 


Africa 


to  between  the  Ameer  Abdur-Rah- 
man,  and  Sir  Mortimer  Durand. 
The  boundary  then  agreed  on  was 
demarcated  shortly  afterward  and 
is  so  drawn  as  to  leave  Chitral, 
Bajaur,  Swat,  Chilas,  and  Wazir- 
istan  to  Great  Britain,  while  Af- 
ghanistan is  given  the  territories  of 
Asmar,  Birmal,  and  Kafiristan.  The 
Ameer's  annual  subsidy  was  also  in- 
creased from  12  to  18  lacs,  and  restric- 
tions on  the  import  of  arms,  etc.,  were 
removed.  Abdur-Rahman  died  in  Ka- 
bul, Oct.  3,  1901.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Habibulla  Khan,  who  was 
said  to  be  more  friendly  to  Russian 
influence  than  his  father  was,  a  fact 
which  for  a  time  excited  much  anxiety 
in  Great  Britain. 

Africa,  one  of  the  three  great  di- 
visions of  the  Old  World,  and  the 
third  in  area  of  the  five  continents, 
lies  nearly  due  S.  of  Europe  and  S. 
W.  of  Asia.  It  is  of  a  compact  form, 
being  nearly  equal  at  its  extreme 
points  in  length  and  breadth.  The  N. 
section  of  the  continent,  however,  has 
an  average  breadth  of  nearly  double 
the  S.  This  great  change  of  form 
arises  mostly  from  the  greater  pro- 
jection of  the  upper  part  toward  the 
W.,  and  the  transition  on  this  side 
from  the  broad  to  the  narrow  section 
is  effected  suddenly  by  an  inward  turn 
of  the  W.  coast,  which  faces  S.  for 
nearly  20°  of  longitude,  forming  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  the  greatest  indenta- 
tion of  the  coast. 

Africa  is  united  to  Asia  at  its  N.  E. 
extremity  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
now  crossed  by  a  great  ship  canal. 
From  this  point  the  coast  runs  in  a 
W.  and  somewhat  N.  direction  to  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  the  point  of  great- 
est proximity  to  Europe.  This  N. 
coast  forms  the  S.  shore  of  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea,  and  brings  all  the  N. 
countries  of  Africa  into  close  proxim- 
ity with  the  European  and  Asiatic 
countries  lying  contiguous  to  that 
great  ocean  highway,  which  formed 
the  chief  medium  of  communication 
between  the  principal  divisions  of  the 
ancient  world. 

The  center  of  Africa  possesses  an 
exuberant  tropical  vegetation.  The 
open  pastoral  belt  at  the  extremities 
of  the  tropics  is  distinguished  by  a 
rich  and  varied  flora.  A  special  char- 
acteristic of  the  vegetation  of  the  S. 


extremity  of  Africa  is  the  remarkable 
variety,  size,  and  beauty  of  the  heaths, 
some  of  which  grow  to  12  or  15  feet, 
in  the  fertile  parts  of  Nubia. 

The  fauna  of  Africa  is  extensive 
and  varied,  and  numerous  species  of 
mammals  are  peculiar  to  the  conti- 
nent. According  to  a  common  view  of 
the  geographical  distribution  of  ani- 
mals, the  N.  of  Africa  belongs  to  the 
Mediterranean  sub-region,  while  the 
rest  of  the  continent  forms  the  Ethi- 
opian region.  Africa  possesses  nu- 
merous species  of  the  order  quadru- 
mana  (apes  and  monkeys),  most  of 
which  are  peculiar  to  it.  They  abound 
especially  in  the  tropics.  The  most 
remarkable  are  the  chimpanzee  and 
the  gorilla.  The  lion  is  the  typical 
carnivore  of  Africa.  Latterly  he  has 
been  driven  from  the  coast  settlements 
to  the  interior,  where  he  still  reigns 
king  of  the  forest.  There  are  three 
varieties,  the  Barbary,  Senegal,  and 
Cape  lions.  The  leopard  and  pan- 
ther rank  next  to  the  lion  among  car- 
nivora.  Hyenas  of  more  than  one 
species,  and  jackals,  are  found  all 
over  Africa.  Elephants  in  large  herds 
abound  in  the  forests  of  the  tropical 
regions,  and  their  tusks  form  a  prin- 
cipal article  of  commerce.  These  are 
larger  and  heavier  than  those  of 
Asiatic  elephants.  The  elephant  is 
not  a  domestic  animal  in  Africa  as  it 
is  in  Asia.  The  rhinoceros  is  found, 
like  the  elephant,  in  Middle  and 
Southern  Africa.  Hippopotami  abound 
in  many  of  the  large  rivers  and  the 
lakes.  The  zebra  and  quagga  used  to 
abound  in  Central  and  Southern  Af- 
rica, but  the  latter  is  said  to  be  now 
entirely  extinct  Of  antelopes,  the 
most  numerous  and  characteristic  of 
the  ruminating  animals  of  Africa,  at 
least  50  species  are  considered  pecu- 
liar to  this  continent,  of  which  23 
used  to  occur  in  Cape  Colony.  The 
giraffe  is  found  in  the  interior,  and  is 
exclusively  an  African  animal.  Sev- 
eral species  of  wild  buffaloes  have 
been  found  in  the  interior,  and  the 
buffalo  has  been  naturalized  in  the 
N.  The  camel,  common  in  the  N.  as 
a  beast  of  burden,  has  no  doubt  been 
introduced  from  Asia.  The  horse  and 
the  ass  (onager)  are  natives  of  Bar- 
bary. The  cattle  of  Abyssinia  and 
Bornu  have  horns  of  immense  size, 
hut  extremely  light  In  Barbary  and 


Africa 


the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  sheep  are  | 
broad-tailed;  in  Egypt  and  Nubia 
they  are  long-legged  and  short-tailed. 
Goats  are  in  some  parts  more  nu- 
merous than  sheep.  The  ibex  breed  ex- 
tends to  Abyssinia.  Dogs  are  numer- 
ous, but  cats  rare,  in  Egypt  and 
Barbary. 

There  is  a  marked  distinction  be- 
tween the  races  in  the  N.  and  E.  of  i 
the  great  desert  and  those  in  the  Cen- 
tral Sudan  and  the  rest  of  Africa  and  I 
the  S.  The  main  elements  of  the 
population  of  North  Africa,  including 
Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  are  Hamitic 
and  Semitic,  but  in  the  N.  the  Ham-  i 
ite  Berbers  are  mingled  with  peoples ! 
of  the  same  race  as  those  of  prehis- 
toric Southern  Europe,  and  other 
types  of  various  origins,  and  in  the 
E.  and  S.  E.  with  peoples  of  the  negro 
type.  The  Semitic  Arabs  are  found 
all  over  the  N.  region,  and  even  in 
the  Western  Sahara  and  Central  Su- 
dan, and  far  down  the  E.  coast  as 
traders.  The  Somalis  and  Gallas  are 
mainly  Hamitic.  In  the  Central  Su- 
dan and  the  whole  of  the  country 
between  the  desert  and  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  the  population  is  pure  negro 
—  people  of  the  black,  flat-  or  broad- 
nosed,  thick-lipped  type,  with  narrow 
heads,  woolly  hair,  high  cheek-bones, 
and  prognathous  jaws.  Scattered 
among  them  are  peoples  of  a  probably 
Hamitic  stock.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
the  narrow  S.  section  of  Africa  is  in- 
habited by  what  are  known  as  the 
Bantu  races,  of  which  the  Zulu  or 
Kaffir  may  be  taken  as  the  type. 
The  languages  of  the  Bantu  peoples 
are  all  of  the  same  structure,  even 
though  the  physical  type  vary,  some 
resembling  the  true  negro,  and  others 
having  prominent  noses  and  compara- 
tively thin  lips.  The  Bushmen  of 
South  Africa  are  of  a  different  type 
from  the  Bantu,  probably  the  remains 
of  an  aboriginal  population,  while  the 
Hottentots  are  apparently  a  mixture 
of  Bushmen  and  Kaffirs.  Scattered 
over  Central  Africa,  mainly  in  the 
forest  regions,  are  pigmy  tribes,  who 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  re- 
mains of  an  aboriginal  population. 
The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mada- 
gascar are  of  Malay  affinities.  The 
total  population  is  estimated  at  about 
175.000,000. 

As   regards  religion,   a  great  pro* 


portion  of  the  inhabitants  are  heath- 
ens of  the  lowest  type.  Mohamme- 
danism possesses  a  large  number  of 
adherents  in  Northern  Africa  and 
is  rapidly  spreading  in  the  Sudan. 
Christianity  prevails  chiefly  among 
the  Copts  of  Egypt,  the  Abyssinians, 
and  the  natives  of  Madagascar,  the 
latter  having  been  converted  in  recent 
times.  Elsewhere  the  labors  of  the 
missionaries  have  also  been  attended 
with  promising  success.  Over  a  great 
part  of  the  continent,  however,  civil- 
ization is  at  a  low  ebb,  and  in  the 
Kongo  region  cannibalism  is  exten- 
sively prevalent.  Yet  in  various  re- 
gions the  natives  who  have  not  come 
in  contact  with  a  higher  civilization 
show  considerable  skill  in  agriculture 
and  various  mechanical  arts,  as  in 
weaving  and  metal  working. 

Political  Divisions. — By  diplomatic 
arrangements,  mainly  since  1884, 
great  areas  in  Africa  were  allotted  to 
Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Por- 
tugal, Belgium,  and  Italy,  as  being 
within  their  respective  spheres  of  in- 
fluence, in  addition  to  colonial  pos- 
sessions proper.  The  areas  claimed 
by  the  European  powers  prior  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  were  esti- 
mated as  follows:  France,  4,000,000 
square  miles ;  Great  Britain,  2,700,- 
000;  Germany,  1,000,000;  Portugal, 
825,000 ;  Kongo  Free  State,  900,000 ; 
Italy,  200,000;  Spain,  80,000.  In 
1910  the  former  British  colonies  of 
Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Transvaal,  and 
Orange  River  were  federated  as  prov- 
inces in  a  Union  of  South  Africa,  with 
Gen.  Louis  Botha  as  the  first  premier, 
and  the  seat  of  the  executive  govern- 
ment at  Pretoria  and  the  legislative 
at  Cape  Town.  Other  British  colonies 
are  Lagos,  Gold  Coast,  Gambia,  Sier- 
ra Leone,  and  Mauritius.  Egypt  and 
Tripoli  were  long  under  Turkish  rule, 
but  Tripoli  became  an  Italian  colony 
in  1912,  and  Egypt  a  British  protec- 
torate in  1914.  The  Kongo  Free  State 
now  belongs  to  Belgium.  Abyssinia 
and  Morocco  are  the  chief  native 
African  independent  States.  Germa- 
ny lost  to  the  British,  German  South- 
west Africa  in  1915,  Kameroon  coun- 
try in  1916,  and  German  East  Africa 
also  in  1916. 

Commercial  Conditions. — The  an- 
nual commerce  of  Africa  amounts  to 
over  $700,000,000,  of  which  $429,000,- 


Agamemnon 

|000  represents  the  value  of  the  im- 
foorts.  Necessarily  in  so  large  an  area 
Vith  so  many  tribes  and  peoples  who 
keep  no  records  of  their  transactions, 
a  considerable  amount  of  commerce 
.must  pass  without  being  recorded  in 
|any  way. 

Railroad  development  in  Africa  has 
!been  rapid  in  the  past  few  years  and 
seems  but  the  beginning  of  a  great 
system  which  must  contribute  to  the 
rapid  development,  civilization,  and 
enlightenment  of  the  "  Dark  Conti- 
nent." Already  railroads  run  N.  from 
Cape  Colony  about  1,500  miles  and  S. 
from  Cairo  about  1,200  miles,  thus 
completing  2,700  miles  of  the  proposed 
'*  Cape  to  Cairo  "  railroad,  while  the 
intermediate  distance  is  about  3,000 
miles.  At  the  N.  numerous  lines  skirt 
the  Mediterranean  coast,  especially  in 
the  French  territory  of  Algeria  and 
lin  Tunis,  aggregating  Lbout  2,500 
miles;  while  the  Egyptian  railroads 
•are,  including  those  under  construc- 
tion, about  1,500  miles  in  length. 
Those  of  Cape  Colony  are  over  3,000 
miles  in  length,  and  those  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  and  the  Transvaal 
are  another  1,000  miles  in  length.  In- 
cluding all  of  the  railroads  construct- 
ed or  under  actual  construction,  the 
total  length  of  African  railways  is 
nearly  12,500  miles,  or  half  the  dis- 
!tance  around  the  earth.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  railways  thus  far  con- 
structed are  owned  by  the  several 
colonies  or  states  which  they  traverse, 
about  2,000  miles  of  the  Cape  Colony 
system  and  nearly  all  of  that  of  Egypt 
belonging  to  the  state. 

That  the  gold  and  diamond  mines 
Jof  South  Africa  have  been  and  still 
;are  wonderfully  profitable  is  beyond 
^question.  The  Kimberley  diamond 
.mines,  about  600  miles  from  Cape 
Town,  now  supply  98  per  cent,  of  the 
diamonds  of  commerce,  though  their 
existence  was  unknown  prior  to^  1867, 
and  the  mines  have  thus  been  in  op- 
eration but  about  30  years.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  $350,000,000  worth  of 
rough  diamonds,  worth  double  that 
sum  after  cutting,  have  been  produced 
from  the  Kimberley  mines  since  their 
opening  in  1868-1869,  and  this  enor- 
mous production  would  have  been 
greatly  increased  but  for  the  fact  that 
the  owners  of  the  various  mines  there 
formed  an  agreement  to  limit  the  out- 

E.  4.  ' 


Agapemone 

put   so   as   not   to    materially   exceed 
the  world's  annual  consumption. 

Equally  wonderful  and  promising 
are  the  great  Witwatersrand  gold 
fields  of  South  Africa,  better  known 
as  the  Johannesburg  mines.  Gold 
was  discovered  there  in  1883,  and  in 
1898  before  the  Boer  War,  which 
temporarily  suspended  work,  the  an- 
nual yield  had  reached  over  $55,000,- 
000.  Since  the  opening  of  the  20th 
century,  the  development  of  the  prin- 
cipal European  colonies  has  progressed 
more  rapidly  than  previously,  not- 
withstanding the  Herreros  war  in  Ger- 
man S.  W.  Africa,  and  the  maladmin- 
istration of  the  Congo  Free  State.  The 
projection  of  railroads  into  the  inte- 
rior from  seaboard  towns,  many  to 
eventually  connect  with  the  Cape  to 
Cairo  route,  is  a  powerful  factor  in 
internal  development.  On  that  line,  at 
the  great  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi 
River,  a  cantilever  bridge,  560  ft.  long, 
built  across  the  gorge  by  the  American 
Cleveland  Bridge  Co.,  was  opened  in 
1905.  Works,  costing  $3,000,000, 
develop  electric  power  at  the  falls  and 
operate  railroads,  copper  and  coal 
mines,  within  a  radius  of  600  miles. 

Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenae  and 
Argos,  son  of  Atreus  and  Eriphyle, 
brother  of  Menelaus  and  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Grecian  army  at  the 
siege  of  Troy.  Returning  from  Troy, 
Agamemnon  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  his  wife;  who,  during  his 
absence,  had  formed  an  attachment 
with  ^Egisthus,  son  of  the  noted  Thy- 
estes.  This  catastrophe  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  "  Agamemnon  "  of  JEschy- 
lus,  one  of  the  most  sublime  composi- 
tions in  the  range  of  the  Grecian 
drama. 

Agana,  town  and  seat  of  adminis- 
tration of  Guam,  the  largest  of  the 
Ladrone  Islands,  ceded  by  Spain  to 
the  United  States  after  the  war  of 
1898.  It  is  an  important  naval  and 
cable  station,  between  San  Francisco 
and  Luzon  in  the  Philippines. 

Agape,  a  love  feast,  a  kind  of  feast 
held  by  the  primitive  Christians  in 
connection  with  the  administration  of 
the  sacred  communion. 

Agapemone,  the  name  given  by  the 
Rev.  Henry  James  Prince,  a  clergy- 
man who  seceded  from  the  English 
Church,  to  a  religions  society  founded 


Agassis 

on  the  principle  of  a  community  of 
goods,  which  he  established  at  Char- 
linch,  near  Taunton,  England,  in 
1845.  New  attention  was  called  to 
this  sect  in  September,  1902,  when  J. 
H.  Smyth  Piggott,  successor  to  Prince, 
publicly  declared  in  the  church  of  the 
sect  at  Clapham,  near  London,  that 
he,  in  his  own  person,  was  Christ, 
who  had  come  again,  and  was  received 
as  such  by  his  congregation.  An 
angry  mob  sought  to  attack  him,  but 
he  was  protected  by  the  police. 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  an  Ameri- 
can zoologist  and  geologist,  son  of  J. 
L.  R.  Agassiz,  born  in  Neuchatel, 
Switzerland,  Dec.  17,  1835.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  with  his  father 
in  1849 ;  graduated  from  Harvard  in 
1855 ;  and  received  the  degree  of  B.  S. 
from  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School 
in  1857.  In  1859  he  went  to  Cali- 
fornia as  assistant  on  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey.  From  1860  to 
1865  he  was  assistant  curator  of  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at 
Harvard  University ;  and,  from  1860 
to  1869,  superintendent  of  the  Calu- 
met and  Hecla  mines,  Lake  Superior. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1873,  he 
was  appointed  curator  of  the  Museum 
of  Comparative  Zoology,  holding  that 
position  until  he  resigned  in  1885.  In 
1900  he  completed  a  series  of  deep  sea 
explorations  for  the  United  States 
government.  His  chief  works  are 
r'List  of  Echinoderms"  (1863); 
"  Exploration  of  Lake  Titicaca " 
(1875-1876)  ;  "Three  Cruises  of  the 
Blake"  (1880).  He  died  at  sea. 
March  28,  1910. 

Agassiz,  Jean  Louis  Rodolplie, 
a  Swiss  naturalist ;  born  in  Motier, 
Switzerland,  May  28,  1807.  In  1846 
he  came  to  the  United  States  on  a 
lecturing  and  exploring  tour.  The 
professorship  of  zoology  and  geology 
in  Harvard  College  was  offered  him  in 
1847,  and  as  he  had  previously  been 
offered  the  use  of  the  United  States 
survey  vessels  for  exploring  purposes 
he  accepted  the  offer.  While  at  Har- 
vard he  wrote  several  volumes,  some 
of  which  were  of  a  popular  nature, 
but  most  of  them  were  devoted  to 
scientific  research. 

Among  his  more  important  works 
were :  "  Principles  of  Zoology,"  in 
connection  with  Dr.  A.  Gould  (1848)  ; 
"  Lake  Superior,  its  Physical  Char- 


Agave 

acter"  (1850);  "Contributions  to 
the  Natural  History  of  the  United 
States "  (4  vols.  1857-1862)  ;  "  Zo- 
ulogie  Gene-rale"  (1854);  "Methods 
of  Study  in  Natural  History " 
(1863).  His  contributions  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  principles  of  natural 
science  in  his  special  departments  are 
very  numerous  and  of  high  authority. 
In  1855  he  was  enabled  by  the  liber- 
ality of  Nathaniel  Thayer  to  make, 
for  the  sake  of  his  failing  health,  a 
long-contemplated  voyage  to  Brazil. 
He  was  accompanied  by  his  wife,  who 
wrote  an  account  of  the  voyage.  In 
1871  he  visited  the  S.  shores  both  of 
the  E.  and  of  the  W.  coast  of  North 
America.  After  some  years  of  un- 
successful efforts  to  get  a  government 
marine  station  established,  he  was  en- 
abled by  private  munificence  to  fit  up 
one  on  Penekese  Island  in  Buzzard's 
bay.  Agassiz's  last  work  was  the  or- 
ganization of  this  establishment,  ol 
which  he  wrote  an  account  in  1873 
to  the  British  Association.  He  died 
in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.  14,  1873. 

His  widow,  ELIZABETH  CAEY  AGAS- 
SIZ, was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 
1823;  died  June  27, 1907.  She  closely 
identified  herself  with  her  husband's 
scientific  work,  accompanying  him  on 
many  of  his  travels,  and  supplement- 
ing his  researches  with  her  own  lit- 
erary work.  Probably  she  will  be  best 
remembered  for  her  early  agitation 
for  the  collegiate  education  of  women, 
and  as  the  president  of  the  Harvard 
Annex,  now  Radcliffe  College,  from 
its  institution  till  November,  1899, 
when  she  resigned.  Mrs.  Agassiz  pub- 
lished "  Louis  Agassiz ;  His  Life  and 
Correspondence,"  and  was  joint  au- 
thor, with  Alexander  Agassiz,  of 
"Seaside  Studies  in  Natural  History." 

Agate,  a  mineral  classed  by  Dana 
as  one  of  the  cryptocrystalline  vari- 
eties of  quartz,  some  of  the  other  min- 
erals falling  under  the  same  category 
being  chalcedony,  carnelian,  onyx, 
hornstone,  and  jasper. 

Agave,  an  extensive  genus  of 
plants.  The  best-known  species  is  the 
American  aloe,  called  maguey  by  the 
Mexicans.  Its  hard  and  spiny  leaves 
form  impenetrable  hedges.  The  fiber 
makes  excellent  cordage.  The  expressed 
juice  is  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
soap;  also  manufactured  into  a  cider- 


Age 

like  liquor,  called  pulque  by  the  Mexi- 
cans. 

Age,  any  period  of  time  attributed 
to  something  as  the  whole,  or  part, 
of  its  duration ;  as  the  age  of  man,  the 
several  ages  of  the  world,  the  golden 
age. 

Ageda,  the  name  of  a  plain,  90 
miles  from  Buda,  where  the  Jewish 
rabbis  held  a  meeting,  in  1650,  to  de- 
bate whether  the  Messiah  had  come ; 
the  question  was  decided  in  the  nega- 
tive. 

Agesilaus,  King  of  Sparta  (397- 
3GO  B.  c.),  was  elevated  to  the  throne 
chiefly  by  the  exertions  of  Lysander. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  sol- 
diers of  antiquity.  He  died  in  his 
84th  year. 

Agincourt,  now  Azinconrt,  a 
email  village  in  the  center  of  the 
French  department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
celebrated  for  a  bloody  battle  between 
the  English  and  French,  Oct.  25, 
1415.  The  battle  lasted  three  hours, 
and  was  a  signal  victory  for  the  Eng- 
lish, due  mainly  to  the  archers. 

Agnew.  Cornelius  Rea,  an 
American  physician,  born  in  New 
York,  Aug.  8,  1830 ;  Professor  of  Dis- 
eases of  the  Eye  and  Ear  in  New 
York  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons. He  was  a  graduate  of  Colum- 
bia College,  and  later  studied  in  Eu- 
rope ;  was  surgeon-general  of  the 
State  of  New  York  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  became 
medical  director  of  the  New  York 
State  Volunteer  Hospital.  As  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission,  he  contributed  largely  to 
its  success.  In  1868,  he  founded  the 
Brooklyn  Eye  and  Ear  Hospital.  He 
was  interested  in  the  public  schools  of 
New  York ;  became  founder  of  the 
Columbia  College  School  of  Mines, 
and,  in  1874,  one  of  the  trustees  of 
the  college.  His  writings  are  chiefly 
monographs  on  diseases  of  the  eye  and 
ear.  He  died  April  8,  1888. 

Agnew,  David  Hayes,  an  Amer- 
ican surgeon  and  medical  writer,  born 
Nov.  24,  1818;  for  many  years  Pro- 
fessor of  Surgery  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  died  1892. 

Agnosticism,  a  word  used  by 
Professor  Huxley,  to  express  the 
thought,  that  beyond  what  man  can 
know  by  his  senses,  or  feel  by  his 


Agrarian 

higher  affections,  nothing  can  be 
known.  Facts,  or  supposed  facts, 
both  of  the  lower  and  the  higher  life, 
are  accepted,  but  all  inferences  de- 
duced from  these  facts  as  to  the  ex- 
istence of  an  unseen  world,  or  of 
beings  higher  than  man,  are  consid- 
ered unsatisfactory,  and  are  ignored. 
Agnostics,  positivists,  and  secularists 
have  much  in  common,  and  many  peo- 
ple exist  to  whom  any  one  of  the  three 
names  might  be  indifferently  applied. 

Agouti,  a  South  American  animal. 
The  agoutis  live  for  the  most  part 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  not 
climbing  nor  digging  to  any  depth; 
and  they  commonly  sit  upon  their 
haunches  when  at  rest,  holding  their 
food  between  their  forepaws,  in  the 
manner  of  squirrels.  By  eating  the 
roots  of  the  sugar-cane,  they  are  often 
the  cause  of  great  injury  to  the  plant- 
ers. The  ears  are  short,  and  the  tail 
rudimentary.  The  animal  is  nearly  2 
feet  long.  It  is  found  in  Guiana, 
Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  some  of  the 
Antilles.  It  feeds  voraciously  on  veg- 
etable food. 

Agra.  (1)  A  former  division  of 
British  India;  now  a  part  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh; 
area,  83,198  square  miles ;  pop.  (1911) 
34,624,040.  (2)  The  capital  of  Agra 
district,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Jumna,  139  miles  S.  E.  of  Delhi,  by 
rail,  and  841  miles  N.  W.  of  Cal- 
cutta. The  city  is  considered  espe- 
cially sacred  through  Vishnu's  incar- 
nation there  as  Parasu  Rama.  Pop. 
(1911)  185,449. 

Agrarian,  as  adjective  (1)  gener- 
al, pertaining  to  fields  or  lands;  (2) 
special,  pertaining  to  laws  or  cus- 
toms, or  political  agitation  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ownership  or  tenure  of 
land. 

The  agrarian  laws,  in  the  ancient 
Roman  republic,  were  laws  of  which 
the  most  important  were  those  carried 
by  C.  Licinius  Stolo,  when  tribune  of 
the  people,  in  B.  c.  367.  The  second 
rogation,  among  other  enactments, 
provided  (1)  that  no  one  should  oc- 
cupy more  than  500  jugera  (by  one 
calculation,  about  280,  and  by  an- 
other, 333,  acres)  of  the  public  lands, 
or  have  more  than  100  large  and  500 
small,  cattle  grazing  upon  them ;  (2) 
that  such  portion  of  the  public  lands 
above  500  jugera,  as  was  in  possession 


Agricola 


Agricnltnral  College* 


of  individuals  should  be  divided 
among  all  the  plebeians,  in  lots  of 
seven  jugera,  as  property;  (3)  that 
the  occupiers  of  public  land  were  \ 
bound  to  employ  free  laborers,  in  a 
certain  fixed  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  their  occupation.  When,  at  a  later  | 
period,  efforts  were  made  to  revive  the  j 
Licinian  rogations,  such  opposition 
was  excited  that  the  two  Gracchi  lost 
their  lives  in  consequence,  and  this, 
with  their  other  projects,  proved 
abortive.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  the  land  with  which  the  Licinian, 
or  agrarian,  laws  dealt  was  public 
land,  belonging  to  the  State,  and  not, 
as  is  popularly  supposed,  private  prop-  j 
erty.  The  homestead  laws  of  the 
.United  States  are  inspired  by  a  pur- 
pose similar  to  the  old  Roman  agrarian 
agitation  —  the  distribution  of  lands 
among  the  people.  "  Agrarian "  in 
Germany  is  the  name  of  a  political 
party  which  seeks  to  secure  special 
protection  for  agricultural  products. 

Agricola,  Cnaeus  Julius,  Roman 
statesman    and    general,    born    in    37 : 
A.  D.     He  went  to  Britain  in  77  A.  D.,  | 
strengthened   the   Roman   power,   and 
extended  it  to  the  Scotch  Highlands. 
He  died  in  93. 

Agricola,  John,  a  polemical 
writer  of  celebrity,  born  at  Eisleben, 
Saxony,  in  1492 ;  died  at  Berlin,  in 
1566.  From  being  the  friend  and 
scholar,  he  became  an  antagonist,  of 
Martin  Luther.  He  entered  into  a 
dispute  with  Melanchthon,  advocating 
the  doctrine  of  faith  in  opposition  to 
the  works  of  the  law,  whence  the  sect 
of  which  he  became  leader  received 
the  name  of  Antinomians. 

Agricola,  Rudolphus,  the  fore- 
most scholar  of  the  "  New  Learning," 
in  Germany,  was  born  near  Gron- 
ingen,  in  Friesland,  Aug.  13,  1443. 
His  real  name,  ROELOF  HUYSMANN 
(husbandman),  he  Latinized  into  Ag- 
ricola ;  and  from  his  native  place  he 
was  also  called  Frisius,  or  Rudolf  of 
Groningen.  He  died  at  Heidelberg, 
Oct.  28,  1485. 

Agricultural  Chemistry,  that 
department  of  chemistry  which  treats 
of  the  composition  of  soils,  manures, 
plants,  etc.,  with  the  view  of  improv- 
ing practical  agriculture.  The  sci- 
ence is  comparatively  young.  The 
most  important  bases  of  agricultural 


chemistry  to-day  are  the  experimental 
stations  which  are  found  in  agricul- 
tural colleges,  and  in  many  of  the 
universities  in  the  United  States  and 
elsewhere.  The  literature  on  the  sub- 
ject is  particularly  rich. 

Agricultural  Colleges,  educa- 
tional institutions,  chiefly  under  gov- 
ernment patronage,  for  the  promotion 
of  scientific  farming.  In  1862,  the 
United  States  Congress  passed  a  so- 
called  land  grant  act,  by  which  land 
scrip,  representing  30,000  acres  for 
every  Senator  and  Representative,  was 
issued  to  the  States  and  Territories, 
the  object  being  to  provide  a  special 
fund  for  the  creation  of  State  and 
Territorial  agricultural  colleges.  The 
land  granted  to  the  States  by  the  act 
of  Congress  of  1862  amounted  to 
10,929,215  acres,  of  which  1,090.924 
acres  remained  unsold  in  1916.  From 
the  sale  of  lands  permanent  funds 
were  created  amounting  to  $14.493.441 
and  yielding  an  income  of  $964,579 
for  the  benefit  of  the  colleges.  The 
total  appropriation  for  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1915,  from  the  U.  S. 
Treasury  in  aid  of  colleges  of  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts  under 
the  acts  of  Congress  of  1890  and  1907 
was  $2,500,000,  each  of  the  forty- 
eight  States  and  the  two  insular  pos- 
sessions receiving  $50,000.  In  1916 
there  were  52  agricultural  colleges  for 
white  students  with  an  enrollment  of 
114,905,  and  nineteen  for  colored 
students  with  an  enrollment  of  10,070 
The  property  held  for  the  benefit  of 
the  land-grant  colleges  had  a  total 
value  of  $171,800,597  in  1915,  and  th», 
total  income  from  the  National  ano1 
State  governments  and  private  funds 
was  $36,027,005. 

Several  of  the  land-grant  colleges  in 
Southern  States  have  established 
courses  of  study  in  textile  industry, 
with  special  reference  to  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods.  These  insti- 
tutions have  provided  buildings  «f 
regular  cotton-mill  design,  equipped 
with  machinery  and  apparatus  for 
textile  work. 

The  Act  of  1862  was  supplemented 
by  a  second  (Aug.  30.  1890),  so  that 
under  both  acts,  each  State  and  Terri- 
tory having  an  agricultural  college  re- 
ceives an  appropriation  annually  from 
the  United  States  treasury  for  its  sup- 
port. 


MODERN  AGRICUU 


I — Tractor  and  Power  Plow  in  Operation.     2 — Combined  Reaper  and  Thresher 


Agrippa 


Agriculture,  the  art  of  cultivating 
the  ground  more  especially  with  the 
plow  and  in  large  areas  or  fields,  in 
order  to  raise  grain  and  other  crops 
for  man  and  beast ;  including  the  art 
of  preparing  the  soil,  sowing  and  plant- 
ing seeds,  removing  the  crops,  and  also 
the  raising  and  feeding  of  cattle  or 
other  live  stock.  This  art  is  the  basis 
of  all  other  arts,  and  in  all  countries 
is  coeval  with  the  first  dawn  of  civiliza- 
tion. At  how  remote  a  period  it  must 
have  been  successfully  practised  in 
Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  and  China  we 
have  no  means  of  knowing.  Egypt 
was  renowned  as  a  wheat  country  in 
the  time  of  the  Jewish  patriarchs,  who 
themselves  were  keepers  of  flocks  and 
herds  rather  than  tillers  of  the  soil. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  agriculture  ad- 
vanced but  slowly,  the  tools  remained 
unchanged,  and  the  work  was  done  la- 
boriously and  by  rule  of  thumb,  with- 
out thought  of  scientific  methods.  The 
first  treatise  on  farming  in  English, 
was  published  in  1534,  but  it  was  not 
until  more  than  200  years  later  that 
real  progress  was  made,  after  the 
introduction  of  clover  into  English 
fields.  Potatoes  were  cultivated  in  the 
16th  century,  and  early  in  the  17th 
the  Dutch  gave  particular  attention  to 
the  cultivation  of  root  crops.  So  each 
decade  saw  some  improvement  and 
growth,  but  it  was  not  until  the  devel- 
opment of  the  virgin  lands  of  the 
United  States  called  for  improved  ma- 
chinery and  methods,  that  agriculture 
advanced  with  leaps  and  bounds.  Un- 
der scientific  culture,  old  lands  are  re- 
claimed and  made  as  fruitful  as  ever ; 
irrigation  and  the  choice  of  crops  j 
suited  to  the  soil,  bring  into  profitable 
use  lands  once  so  hopeless  as  to  be 
called  desert,  and  the  world's  food  sup- 
ply promises  to  keep  up  with  the 
growth  of  population. 

As  a  result  of  the  new  conditions,  to 
be  a  thoroughly  trained  and  competent 
agriculturist  requires  a  special  educa- 
tion, partly  theoretical,  partly  practi- 
cal. In  particular,  no  scientific  culti- 
vator can  now  be  ignorant  of  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  which  teaches  the  con- 
stituents of  the  various  plants  grown 
as  crops,  their  relation  to  the  various 
soils,  the  nature  and  function  of  differ- 
ent manures,  &c.  In  most  countries 
there  are  now  nsr'cultiirpl  schools  or 
colleges  supported  by  the  state.  In  the 


From  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War  till  July,  1917,  when  Congress 
sanctioned  an  embargo  on  the  expor- 
tation of  specified  commodities,  under 
the  belief  that  many  shipments  to 
neutral  countries  found  their  way  into 
Germany,  the  United  States  was  the 
granary  of  the  world.  The  following 
figures,  relating  especially  to  the  grain 
crops  in  the  calendar  year  1916,  in- 
dicate the  wonderful  resource  of  the 
country  in  this  branch  of  the  agricul- 
tural industry  : 

Corn:  Acreage,  105,954.000;  pro- 
duction, 2.583.241.000  bushels;  farm 
value,  $2,295,783,000. 

All  wheat:  Acreage.  52.785.000; 
production,  639,886,000  bushels  ;  value, 
$1,025,765,000. 

Oats:  Acreage,  41.539,000;  pro- 
duction, 1,251,992,000  bushels  ;  value, 
$656.179,000. 

Barley:  Acreage,  7,674,000;  pro- 
duction, 180,927,000  bushels;  value, 
$159,534,000. 

Rye:  Acreage,  3,096,000;  pro- 
duction, 47,383,000  bushels;  value, 
$57,857,000. 

Buckwheat  :  Acreage,  845,000  ; 
production,  11,840,000  bushels  ;  value, 
$13.364,000. 

Flax  seed:  Acreage,  1,605,000; 
production,  15,459,000  bushels  ;  value, 
$38,350,000. 

Rice:  Acreage,  878,000;  produc- 
tion, 41,982,000  bushels;  value,  $37,- 
186.000. 

Total  farm  value,  $4,284,018,000. 

Agriculture,  Department  of, 
an  executive  department  of  the  United 
States  Government,  established  by 
Congress  in  1889  ;  originally  a  bureau. 
It  disseminates  throughout  the  United 
States,  by  daily,  monthly,  and  annual 
reports,  the  latest  and  most  valuable 
agricultural  information,  and  intro- 
duces and  distributes  new  and  desir- 
able seeds,  plants,  etc. 

Agrippa  II.,  Herod,  tetrarch  of 
Abilene,  Galilee,  Iturea  and  Trachon- 
itis,  born  in  27  A.  D.  During  his 
reign  he  enlarged  Caesarea  Philippi 
and  named  it  Neronias,  in  honor  of 
Nero.  Maintained  in  his  power  by 
the  Romans,  he  remained  faithful  to 
their  interests,  and  tried  to  dissuade 
the  Jews  from  rebelling.  After  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  he  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  died.  Before  him  the  Apos- 
tle Paul  made  his  memorable  defense. 


Agne 

Ague,  an  intermittent  fever,  in 
whatever  stage  of  its  progress  or 
whatever  its  type.  A  person  about  to 
be  seized  by  it  generally  feels  some- 
what indisposed  for  about  a  fortnight 
previously.  Then  he  is  seized  with  a 
shivering  fit,  which  ushers  in  the  cold 
stage  of  the  disease.  This  passes  at 
length  into  a  hot  stage,  and  it  again 
into  one  characteristic  of  great  per- 
spiration, which  carries  off  the  disor- 
der for  a  time.  The  remedy  is  quinine 
or  some  other  anti-periodic. 

Agnilar,  Grace,  an  English  nov- 
elist, born  at  Hackney,  June  2,  1816; 
was  the  daughter  of  Jewish  parents  of 
Spanish  origin.  She  died  in  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Sept.  16,  1847. 

Agninaldo,  Emilio,  a  leader  in 
the  Philippine  insurrection  of  1896,  and 
their  chief  in  the  Spanish-American 
War  of  1898.  He  was  born  at  Imus, 
in  the  island  of  Luzon,  in  1870,  and 
received  all  the  advantages  of  such 
educational  facilities  as  existed  in 
Manila  under  the  Spanish  rule.  In 
course  of  time  he  became  mayor  of 
Cavite  Viejo,  and  because  of  the  inter- 
est he  took  in  the  troubles  of  1896, 
was  forced  to  go  to  Hong  Kong,  re- 
maining there  in  exile  on  condition  of 
a  considerable  payment  by  Spain.  He 
returned  in  1898,  and  succeeded  in  rais- 
ing a  revolt  against  Spain.  He  or- 
ganized a  provisional  government  in 
June  1898,  of  which  he  became  presi- 
dent later.  During  the  next  year  he 
attacked  the  American  troops,  and  aft-  | 
er  many  conflicts  was  captured  by  a 
stratagem,  and  in  1901  took  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  United  States  and 
ceased  to  be  a  troublesome  factor  in 
the  Philippine  problem.  He  proved 
himself  to  be  a  man  of  great  cunning, 
of  marked  ability,  and  of  extraordi- 
nary personal  magnetism. 

Aliasuerns,  a  King  of  Persia,  the 
husband  of  Esther,  to  whom  0  the 
Scriptures  ascribe  a  singula^  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews  from  extirpation, 
which  they  commemorate  to  this  day 
by  the  annual  feast  of  Purim. 

Ahmedabad,  (better  Ahmadabad) , 
chief  town  of  a  district  in  Guzerat, 
India,  second  among  the  cities  of  the 
Province  of  Bombay.  Pop.  148,412. 

Aliriman,  a  Persian  deity,  the  de- 
mon or  principle  of  evil,  the  principle 
of  good  being  Oromasdes  or  Ormuzd. 


Air-engine 

Al,  a  species  of  sloth,  with  three 
toes,  on  each  foot,  in  this  respect  dif- 
fering from  the  unau,  which  has  but 
two.  It  extends  from  Brazil  to  Mexico. 

Ailantlius,  Aliantus,  or  Alian- 
thus,  a  tree  introduced  into  the  Uni- 
ted States  in  1784.  During  the  first 
half-dozen  years  it  outstrips  almost 
any  other  deciduous  tree,  the  leading 
stems  grow  12  or  15  feet  in  a  single 
season.  In  four  or  five  years,  there- 
fore, it  forms  a  bulky  head,  but  after 
that  period  it  advances  more  slowly. 
The  odor  of  ailanthus  trees  is  disgust- 
ing to  many  persons,  and  for  this  rea- 
son they  are  not  so  much  in  favor  as 
when  first  introduced. 

Ainu,  or  Aino,  the  name  of  an  un- 
civilized race  of  people  inhabitating  the 
Japanese  island  of  Yezo,  as  also  Sag- 
halien,  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  and  be- 
lieved to  be  the  aboriginal  inhabitants 
of  Japan.  They  do  not  average  over  5 
feet  in  height,  but  are  strong  and  ac- 
tive. They  have  matted  beards  5  or  6 
inches  in  length,  and  black  hair  which 
they  allow  to  grow  till  it  falls  over 
their  shoulders.  Their  complexion  is 
dark  brown,  approaching  to  black. 
They  worship  the  sun  and  moon,  and 
pay  reverence  to  the  bear.  They  sup- 
port themselves  by  hunting  and  fishing, 

Air,  the  gaseous  substance  of  which 
our  atmosphere  consists,  being  a  me- 
chanical mixture  of  79.19  per  cent,  by 
measure  of  nitrogen  and  20.81  per 
cent,  of  oxygen.  The  latter  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  animal  life,  while 
the  purpose  chiefly  served  by  the  nitro- 
gen appears  to  be  to  dilute  the  oxygen. 
Oxygen  is  more  soluble  in  water  than 
nitrogen,  and  hence  the  air  dissolved 
in  water  contains  about  10  per  cent, 
more  oxygen  than  atmospheric  air.  The 
oxygen  therefore  available  for  those 
animals  which  breathe  by  gills,  is  very 
much  diluted  with  water. 

Air-brake.     See  BRAKE. 

Air-engine,  an  engine  in  which  air 
heated,  and  so  expanded,  or  compressed 
air  is  used  as  the  motive  power.  They 
may  be  said  to  be  essentially  similar  in 
construction  to  the  steam-engine, 
though  the  expansibility  of  air  by  heat 
is  small  compared  with  the  expansion 
that  takes  place  when  water  is  con- 
verted into  steam.  Engines  working 
by  compressed  air  have  been  found 
very  useful  in  mining,  tunneling,  &C^ 


Air-gun 

and  the  compressed  air  may  be  con- 
veyed to  its  destination  by  means  of 
pipes.  In  such  cases  .the  waste  air 
serves  for  ventilation  and  for  reducing 
the  oppressive  heat. 

Air-gun,  an  instrument  for  the 
projection  of  bullets  by  means  of  con- 
densed air,  generally  in  the  form  of 
an  ordinary  gun. 

Air-pump,  an  apparatus  by  means 
of  which  air  or  other  gas  may  be  re- 
moved from  an  inclosed  space ;  or  for 
compressing  air  within  an  inclosed 
space.  An  ordinary  suction-pump  for 
water  is  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
air-pump  ;  indeed,  before  water  reaches 
the  top  of  the  pipe  the  air  has  been 
pumped  out  by  the  same  machinery 
which  pumps  the  water. 

Airships.  See  AERONAUTICS  ; 
FLYING  MACHINE. 

Aisne,  a  river  of  France  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  same  name ;  an  af- 
fluent of  the  Oise ;  scene  of  a  French 
defeat  in  1915.  See  APPENDIX  :  World 
War. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (Ger.  Aachen), 
the  capital  of  a  district  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  situated  in  a  fertile  hollow, 
surrounded  by  heights,  and  watered  by 
the  Wurm,  39  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Cologne.  Pop.  (1905)  144,095. 

Ajaccio,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Island  of  Corsica,  which  forms  a  De- 
partment of  France.  It  is  the  hand- 
somest city  of  Corsica,  and  the  birth- 
place of  Napoleon  I.,  whose  house  is 
still  to  be  seen.  Pop.  18,846. 

Ajax,  the  name  of  two  heroes  of 
the  Trojan  War.  Ajax,  son  of  Tela- 
mon,  King  of  Salamis,  was  next  in 
warlike  prowess  of  Achilles. 

Aked,  Charles  F.,  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  Nottingham,  England,  in 
1864.  He  visited  the  U.  S.  several 
times,  and  in  1907-11  was  pastor  of 
the  Fifth  Ave.  Baptist  Church,  N. 
Y.  C. 

Akron,  city  and  capital  of  Sum- 
mit county,  Ohio ;  on  the  Ohio  canal 
and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  other 
railroads ;  40  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleve- 
land. It  is  the  trade  center  of  a 
large  farming  and  manufacturing 
section ;  has  one  of  the  largest  pri- 
vate printing  offices  in  the  world  and 
extensive  manufactories  of  rubber 


Alabama 

goods ;  is  the  seat  of  Buchtel  College 
(Universalist)  ;  and  has  a  property 
valuation  exceeding  $27,500,000. 
Pop.  (1910)  69,067. 

Akers,  Benjamin  Paul,  an 
American  sculptor,  born  in  1825. 
Studied  in  Florence  and  was  espe- 
cially noted  for  the  rapidity  of  his 
work.  He  died  in  May,  1861. 

Alabama,  a  State  in  the  East 
South  Central  Division  of  the  North 
American  Union ;  bounded  by  Ten- 
nessee, Georgia,  Florida,  Mississippi, 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  area,  52,250 
square  miles  ;  admitted  into  the  Union, 
Dec.  14,  1819 ;  seceded,  Jan.  11,  1861 ; 
readmitted,  June  25,  1868 ;  number  of 
counties,  67;  pop.  (1900)  1,828,697; 
(1916)  2,332,608;  capital,  Mont- 
gomery. 

The  State  has  large  wealth  in  its 
mineral  resources,  which  include  coal, 
iron,  asbestos,  asphalt,  pottery  and 
porcelain  clays,  marble,  granite,  phos- 
phates, natural  gas,  gold,  silver,  and 
copper.  The  most  valuable  of  these 
at  present  are  coal  and  iron.  The 
coal  is  all  bituminous,  and  the  iron  is 
red  and  b,rown  hematite.  The  value 
of  all  mineral  products  in  1915  was 
$29,457,407;  coal,  $8,545,555;  iron, 
$23,757,124. 

In  the  S.  part  of  the  State  the  soil 
is  a  light  alluvial  and  diluvial ;  in  the 
central,  the  cotton  belt,  limestone  and 
chalk  lands  predominate ;  and  in  the 
N.  part,  which  contains  the  Tennessee 
valley,  there  are  very  rich  mineral 
lands.  Besides  the  agricultural,  min- 
eral, and  grazing  lands,  there  are  large 
tracts  of  valuable  yellow  pine  forests. 
The  most  valuable  productions  are  cot- 
ton and  corn.  In  1916  the  cotton  out- 
put was  valued  at  $48,956,000;  the 
corn  at  $47,622,000;  and  all  farm 
crops  at  $118,687,000. 

In  1914  there  were  reported  3,242 
manufacturing  establishments,  em- 
ploying $227,505,000  capital  and 
78,717  wage  earners,  paying  $33,897,- 
000  for  wages  and  $107,412,000  for 
materials  for  use  in  manufacturing, 
and  yielding  products  valued  at  $178,- 
798,000. 

Under  the  Federal  Reserve  banking 
system  of  1913,  Alabama  is  in  the 
Sixth  district,  of  which  Atlanta,  Ga., 
is  the  reserve  city.  Official  reports 
for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1916, 


Alabama  Claims 


Aladdin 


excluding  Federal  Reserve  banks, 
showed  a  total  of  361  reporting  banks, 
with  $21,704,000  capital,  $86,792,000 
in  deposits,  $10,555,000  in  surplus, 
and  total  liabilities  and  assets  balanc- 
ing at  $142,292,000. 

Commercial  activities  at  the  Port 
of  Mobile  were  seriously  affected  by 
the  World  War,  the  imports  of  mer- 
chandise during  the  calendar  year 
1916  being  reduced  to  $3,990,389,  and 
the  exports  to  $32,660,338. 

The  school  population  was  reported 
in  1916  at  774,976,  of  whom  473,150 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools, 
and  292,540  were  in  average  daily 
attendance.  There  were  over  7,000 
public  schools,  white  and  colored 
pupils  being  taught  separately  ;  10,212 
teachers ;  public  school  property 
valued  at  $2,127,054,930.  For  higher 
instruction,  there  were  174  public 
high  schools ;  52  private  secondary 
schools ;  9  public  normal  schools ;  9 
universities  and  colleges  for  men  and 
for  both  sexes ;  and  a  State  Agricul- 
tural and  Mechanical  College  at 
Auburn. 

The  strongest  denominations  numer- 
ically in  the  State  are  the  Baptist, 
Methodist,  and  Presbyterian  bodies, 
and  all  church  property  has  a  value 
exceeding  $15,000,000. 

The  railroad  mileage,  exclusive  of 
switching  and  terminal  lines,  exceeds 
5,500,  having  been  greatly  increased 
by  the  demands  of  industrial  activ- 
ities. 

The  governor  is  elected  for 
four  years  ;  legislature  meets  quadren- 
nially ;  Senate  has  35  members, 
House  106 ;  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress, 9 ;  State  Democratic. 

Alabama  Claims,  a  series  of 
claims  made  in  1871,  by  the  United 
States  against  the  English  Govern- 
ment for  damages  done  to  shipping 
during  the  Civil  War,  after  a  formal 
discussion  between  the  two  govern- 
ments in  1865,  and  fruitless  conven- 
tions for  their  settlement  in  1868  and 
1869.  These  damages  were  inflicted 
chiefly  by  the  "Alabama,"  an  armed 
vessel  of  the  Confederate  States, 
which  was  fitted  out  in  a  British  port 
and  permitted  to  sail  in  violation  of 
existing  international  law.  A  tribunal, 
created  in  1871  to  pass  upon  these 
claims,  held  its  sessions  in  Geneva, 


Switzerland,  during  the  year  1872, 
and  awarded  the  Unted  States  the 
sum  of  $15,500,000  in  gold,  in  satis- 
faction of  all  claims  at  issue.  The 
Geneva  tribunal  was  important  as  es- 
tablishing an  example  of  arbitration 
in  place  of  war  in  the  settlement  of 
international  differences,  which,  in 
this  case,  barely  averted  a  war,  and  in 
defining  the  attitude  of  neutrals 
toward  nations  at  war. 

Alabama,  The,  a  Confederate 
cruiser  which  devastated  American 
shipping  during  the  Civil  War.  She 
was  a  bark-rigged  steamer  of  1,040 
tons,  built  under  secret  instructions 
at  Birkehhead,  England.  Her  desti- 
nation was  suspected  by  the  United 
States  minister,  but  when  orders  for 
her  detention  were  finally  obtained, 
she  had  departed  (July  31,  1862). 
She  made  for  the  Azores,  where  she 
was  equipped  and  manned  by  an  Eng- 
lish crew,  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
Raphael  Semmes,  of  Maryland.  She 
then  proceeded  to  capture  and  burn 
vessels  bearing  the  American  flag,  and 
the  destruction  wrought  in  less  than 
two  years  amounted  to  65  vessels,  and 
about  $4,000,000  in  property.  .  In 
June,  1864,  she  put  into  Cherbourg, 
France,  for  repairs.  Here  she  was  in- 
tercepted by  the  Federal  corvette 
"Kearsarge,"  Captain  Winslow,  and, 
after  an  hour's  severe  battle,  the  Ala- 
bama was  sunk.  The  vessel  was  vir- 
tually a  British  privateer,  and  the 
course  of  the  British  authorities  in 
permitting  her  to  leave  on  her  mission 
of  piracy  showed  connivance  and  sym- 
pathy with  the  Confederacy  (see  ALA- 
BAMA CLAIMS  preceding).  ^yhen 
the  Alabama  was  sinking,  a  private 
British  yacht,  in  rescuing  survivors 
(including  Captain  Semmes),  also 
saved  them  from  capture  by  the  Fed- 
eralists. 

Alabaster,  in  mineralogy,  mas- 
sive gypsum,  white,  delicately  shaded 
or  banded. 

Aladdin,  the  hero  of  an  Arabian 
Nights'  tale.  A  poor  boy  in  China,  he 
secures  possession  of  a  lamp  and  ring 
possessing  magical  powers.  Rubbing 
the  lamp  brings  to  the  service  of  the 
owner  the  powers  of  the  slave  of  the 
lamp,  who  gratifies  every  desire.  The 
lamp  is  lost,  but  the  slave  of  the  ring 
enables  Aladdin  to  recover  it,  and  he 


Alamo 

lives  happily  ever  afterwards,  enjoying 
wealth  and  health. 

Alamo,  The,  a  mission  church  at 
San  Antonio,  in  what  is  now  Bexar 
co.,  Tex.,  converted  into  a  fort.  In 
1836  it  was  occupied  by  about  150  of 
the  revolutionists  in  the  Texan  War 
of  Independence.  Though  attacked 
by  4,000  Mexicans  under  Santa  Ana, 
the  Texans  held  it  from  Feb.  23  to 
March  6,  when  Santa  Ana  took  it  by 
storm.  All  but  seven  of  the  garrison 
perished,  six  of  these  being  murdered 
after  their  surrender,  and  one  man 
escaping  to  report  the  affair.  In  this 
garrison  were  the  celebrated  David 
Crockett  and  Col.  James  Bowie, 
inventor  of  the  bowie-knife.  The 
memory  of  this  massacre  became  an 
incitement  to  the  Texans  in  subse- 
quent encounters,  and  "Remember  the 
Alamo !"  became  a  war-cry  in  their 
struggle  for  freedom. 

Alaska,  a  Territory  in  the  West- 
ern Division  of  the  North  American 
Union,  comprising  the  extreme  north- 
western part  of  the  American  conti- 
nent; bounded  by  the  Arctic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  Bering  Sea,  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories of  Canada ;  gross  area,  as  far 
as  determined,  590,884  square  miles ; 
purchased  from  Russia,  in  1867, 
for  $7,200,000;  seat  of  government, 
Juneau;  pop.  (1915)  64,751. 

When  the  United  States  acquired 
this  region,  and  till  gold  mining 
set  in,  fur  sealing  was  the  only 
industry.  Oats,  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
and  buckwheat,  among  cereals ;  pota- 
toes, turnips,  peas,  onions,  and  many 
minor  vegetables ;  a  variety  of  fruit 
and  excellent  hay  are  grown  to  ad- 
vantage. Large  tracts  for  farming 
have  been  reclaimed  from  wild  areas, 
and  agricultural  experiment  stations 
have  been  established  at  Sitka,  Ram- 
part, Fairbanks,  Kadiak,  and  Matan- 
aska. 

The  waters  of  Alaska  contain  over 
100  species  of  food  fish,  but  the 
principal  fisheries  are  those  confined 
to  salmon,  cod  and  herring.  In  con- 
nection with  the  Alaska  coast  there 
are  at  least  125,000  square  miles 
of  cod  fishing  banks,  the  greater 
part  of  which  still  awaits  develop- 
ment. Whales  and  halibut  also 


Alaska 

abound,  but  as  yet  they  do  not  sup- 
port distinct  industries. 

Alaska's  greatest  wealth  is  found  in 
its  vast  mineral  resources,  which  are 
still  subject  to  systematic  exploitation. 
Lignite  coal,  native  copper,  cinnabar, 
graphite,  iron  ore,  white  marble,  sul- 
phur, mica,  kaolin,  manganese,  as- 
phalt, petroleum,  and  mineral  springs 
are  found  in  various  sections.  Until 
recently  the  quest  of  gold  was  the 
leading  mineral  industry,  but  this  has 
been  supplanted,  largely  through 
government  promotion,  by  profitable 
operations  in  coal,  copper,  silver,  pe- 
troleum, gypsum,  marble,  and  tin. 

Gold  was  discovered  here,  on  the 
Kenai  peninsula,  in  1848,  but  mining 
did  not  set  in  systematically  till  about 
1880.  It  is  interesting  to  note  here 
that  while  the  territory  cost  the 
United  States  in  1867  the  sum  of 
$7,200,000,  the  production  of  gold 
alone  up  to  1916  amounted  in  value  to 
$260,488,175.  And  all  minerals,  with 
the  output  of  fur  sealing  and  the 
fisheries,  brought  the  total  to  $612,- 
614,004 — a  striking  result  of  "Se- 
ward's  folly." 

Means  of  communication  greatly 
retarded  the  economic  development  of 
the  territory.  Now,  the  old  trails  and 
wagon  roads  are  giving  way  to  the 
modern  railroad.  In  1898  an  aerial 
railway  was  completed  over  Chilkoot 
Pass,  which  greatly  reduced  the  time 
between  tidewater  and  the  headwaters 
of  the  Yukon,  and  in  1914,  after  a 
prolonged  agitation,  Congress  appro- 
priated $35.000,000  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  government  railroad. 

The  territory  is  well  provided  with 
banking,  educational,  religious,  and 
manufacturing  activities,  and  has  a 
considerable  trade  with  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries  through 
the  port  of  Juneau.  During  1915  the 
exports  of  merchandise,  precious 
metals,  and  copper  had  a  value  of 
$55,000,000.  and  the  imports,  $28,000,- 
000.  The  World  War  greatly  reduced 
these  figures  in  1916. 

When  first  occupied  Alaska  was 
constituted  a  military  district;  in 
1884  it  was  given  a  district  govern- 
ment ;  and  in  1912,  a  civil  government 
with  a  legislature,  consisting  of  a 
Senate  of  15  members  and  a  House  of 
30.  It  is  represented  in  Congress  by 
one  delegate. 


Alaska-Yukon 

Alaska- Yukon-Pacific  Exposi- 
tion, an  international  exhibition  held 
at  Seattle,  Wash.,  from  June  1  to 
Oct.  16,  1909,  to  exploit  the  re- 
sources of  Alaska  and  Yukon  terri- 
tories. 

Albani,  Marie  Emma  (Lajeu- 
nesse),  a  dramatic  soprano  and  opera 
Binger,  born  in  1852,  at  Chambly, 
near  Montreal,  Canada.  After  study- 
ing with  Lamperti,  at  Milan,  she  made 
her  debut  at  Messina  (1870),  in  "La 
Sonnambula,"  under  the  name  Albani, 
in  compliment  to  the  city  of  Albany, 
where  her  public  career  began.  In 
1878  she  married  Ernest  Gye,  of  the 
Covent  Garden  Theater. 

Albania,  the  name  given  to  a  re- 
gion of  West  European  Turkey  be- 
tween the  Adriatic  Sea,  Greece,  Mace- 
donia, and  Montenegro.  The  inhab- 
itants form  a  peculiar  people,  the 
Albanians,  called  by  the  Turks  Ar- 
nauts,  and  by  themselves  Skipetar. 
The  Albanians  are  half  civilized 
mountaineers,  frank  to  a  friend, 
vindictive  to  an  enemy.  They  are 
constantly  under  arms,  and  are  more 
devoted  to  robbery  than  to  cattle 
rearing  and  agriculture.  They  live 
in  perpetual  anarchy,  every  village 
being  at  war  with  its  neighbor. 
Many  of  them  serve  as  mercenaries 
in  other  countries,  and  they  form  the 
best  soldiers  of  the  Turkish  army.  At 
one  time  the  Albanians  were  all  Chris- 
tians ;  but  after  the  death  of  their  last 
chief,  the  hero  Skanderbeg,  in  1467, 
and  their  subjugation  by  the  Turks,  a 
large  part  became  Mohammedans. 
The  Albanians  took  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  massacres  in  Macedonia 
in  1903.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
World  War  Prince  William  of  Wied 
became  emperor,  but  was  forced  to 
retire  by  Essad  Pasha.  The  Italians 
occupied  Avlona,  Dec.  25,  1914,  and 
Allied  warships  scattered  an  Austrian 
squadron  bombarding  Durazzo,  Dec. 
29,  1915.  See  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Albany,  a  city  of  the  United 
States,  capital  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  with  a  population  (1910)  of 
100,253.  Settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1610- 
14.  The  State  capitol  is  one  of  the 
grandest  buildings  in  America.  Al- 
bany has  a  university,  an  observatory, 


Albert 

and  a  State  Library  with  over  90,000 
volumes. 

Albany  Congress,  an  assembly  of 
representatives  of  the  most  important 
British  North  American  colonies, 
which  was  called  together  in  1754  by 
the  British  Government  to  consult  in 
regard  to  the  threatening  French  war. 
Two  plans  were  proposed :  First,  a 
league  with  the  Indians,  which  was 
carried  out,  and,  second,  a  proposal 
offered  by  Franklin  for  a  political 
union.  In  this  a  common  president 
was  proposed  and  a  great  council,  rep- 
resenting the  different  colonies.  This 
plan  was  rejected  by  the  British 
crown,  because  it  gave  too  much  power 
to  the  colonies,  and  by  the  colonies 
because  it  gave  top  much  power  to  the 
crown.  The  significance  of  this  con- 
gress lies  in  the  fact  that  it  stimulated 
the  union  of  the  colonies. 

Albert  I.,  King  of  the  Belgians, 
was  born  April  8,  1875,  son  of  Prince 
Philippe  of  Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha 
and  Princess  Marie  of  Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen ;  succeeded  his  uncle, 
King  Leopold  II.,  on  Dec.  17, 
1909 ;  married  Princess  Elizabeth  of 
Bavaria,  Oct.  2,  1900;  offspring, 
Prince  Leopold,  born  Nov.  3,  1901, 
Prince  Charles,  born  Oct.  10,  1903, 
Princess  Marie-Jose',  born  Aug.  4, 
1906.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  (1914),  the  Germans  violated 
the  guaranteed  neutrality  of  Belgium 
by  invading  it  in  order  to  get  into 
France  for  a  dash  on  Paris.  A  reign 
of  terror  was  immediately  inaug- 
urated, and*the  King  and  government 
were  forced  into  flight.  ^  France 
promptly  offered  protection  and 
asylum,  resulting  in  the  temporary 
establishment  of  the  capital  at  Havre. 
See  APPENDIX:  World  War. 

Albert,  Prince  (Albert  Francis 
Augustus  Charles  Emmanuel), 

Prince  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  hus- 
band of  the  late  Queen  Victoria, 
of  England ;  the  second  son  of  Er- 
nest I.,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg,  and 
of  his  first  wife  Louise,  only 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha ;  born  Aug.  26,  1819.  He  died 
Dec.  14,  1861,  after  a  short  illness, 
and  was  buried  in  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor,  whence  his  remains  were 
afterward  removed  to  the  mausoleum 
built  by  the  queen  at  Frogmore. 


Alberta 

Alberta,  a  N.  W.  Province  of  Can- 
ada (the  former  Territory  of  Alberta 
with  parts  of  Athabaska  and  Assini- 
boia,  organized  1881),  admitted  to  the 
Federation,  Sept.  1,  1905.  It  lies  N. 
of  the  State  of  Montana  and  E.  of 
British  Columbia,  with  the  Rocky 
Mountains  on  the  W.  Area,  255,285 
square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  374,663. 
From  the  peaks  11,000  to  13,000  ft. 
high,  with  abundant  forests,  coal  and 
other  minerals  in  the  foothills,  the 
land  slopes  N.,  E.,  and  S.,  to  well- 
watered  rolling  prairies,  containing  the 
great  cattle  ranges  of  Canada,  of 
which  the  chief  centres  are  McLeod 
and  Calgary,  the  capital.  Sheep  are 
raised  in  the  south  and  cattle  and 
horses  in  the  north.  Around  the  grow- 
ing towns  of  Lethbridge  and  Raymond, 
Mormons  from  Utah  and  Idaho,  with 
irrigation  works,  have  placed  large 
tracts  under  wheat  and  beet  cultiva- 
tion, and  facilitated  by  neighboring 
coal  fields  work  flour  and  sugar  mills, 
exporting  the  products.  The  Cana- 
dian Pacific  R.  R.  Co.  is  placing  1,500,- 
000  acres  of  land  under  irrigation  be- 
tween Calgary  and  Medicine  Hat,  and 
is  offering  advantageous  inducements 
for  practical  farmers  to  settle  in  the 
province.  The  revenue  of  the  Province 
in  1915  was  $5.628,763;  expenditure, 
$5,402.195  ;  and  the  public  debt  (1913) 
was  $22,733,533.  Taxation  is  almost 
wholly  confined  to  land  values. 

Albertus  Magnus,  or  Albert 
the  Great,  Count  of  Bollstadt,  Bish- 
op of  Ratisbon,  a  distinguished  scholar 
of  the  13th  century ;  born  in  Lauin- 
gen,  Suabia,  in  1193,  or  according  to 
some  authorities  in  1205.  Among  the 
sciences  studied  or  illustrated  by  him 
were  chemistry,  botany,  mechanics, 
optics,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  He 
fell  into  dotage  some  time  previous  to 
his  death,  in  1280.  Albertus  was 
probably  the  most  learned  man  of  his 
age,  and  of  course  did  not  escape  the 
imputation  of  using  magical  arts  and 
trafficking  with  the  Evil  One. 

Albigenses,  a  religious  sect  op- 
posed to  the  Church  of  Rome,  coming 
first  into  prominence  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury, and  taking  its  name  from  Albiga, 
the  old  form  of  Albi,  a  city  of  South- 
ern France,  now  capital  of  the  de- 
partment of  Tarn.  What  their  doc- 
trines were  has  not  been  determined, 
as  no  formal  statement  of  them  was 


Albret 

ever  drawn  up.  They  inveighed  against 
the  vices  and  worldliness  of  the  clergy, 
and  there  was  sufficient  truth  in  their 
censures  to  dispose  their  hearers  to  be- 
lieve what  they  advanced,  and  reject 
what  they  decried.  They  had  increased 
very  much  toward  the  close  of  the 
12th  century  in  the  S.  of  France, 
about  Toulouse  and  Albi,  and  in  Ray- 
mond, Count  of  Toulouse,  they  found 
a  patron  and  protector.  As  the  con- 
demnation of  their  doctrines  by  the 
Church  produced  no  effect,  ecclesias- 
tical officials  were  specially  sent  by 
the  Pope  to  endeavor  to  extirpate  the 
heresy.  The  assassination  of  the 
papal  legate  and  inquisitor,  Peter  of 
Castelnau,  in  1208,  led  to  the  procla- 
mation of  a  crusade  against  them  by 
Pope  Innocent  III.,  and  after  a  strug- 
gle of  many  years,  in  which  hundreds 
of  thousands  perished,  they  were  vir- 
tually extirpated  by  the  sword  and  the 
Inquisition. 

Albinos,  the  name  given  to  those 
persons  from  whose  skin,  hair,  and 
eyes  the  dark  coloring  matter  is  ab- 
sent. The  skin  of  albinos,  therefore, 
no  matter  to  what  race  they  belong,  is 
of  a  pale  milky  hue,  their  hair  is 
white,  while  the  iris  of  their  eyes  is 
pale  rose  color.  Their  eyes  are  not 
well  suited  to  endure  the  bright  light 
of  day,  and  they  see  best  in  shade  or 
by  moonlight.  The  peculiarity  of  al- 
binism or  leucopathy  is  not  confined  to 
the  human  race,  having  been  observed 
in  horses,  rabbits,  rats,  birds,  and  fishes. 

Albion,  the  oldest  name  by  which 
the  island  of  Great  Britain  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Alboni,  Marietta,  an  Italian 
contralto,  born  in  Romagna,  1823. 
She  made  her  debut  as  Orsini  in  "  Lu- 
crezia  Borgia."  After  singing  in  Eu- 
rope for  some  years,  she  made  a  suc- 
cessful tour  of  the  United  States.  On 
the  death  of  her  husband,  Count  Pe- 
poli,  in  1866,  she  left  the  stage,  and 
in  1877  she  married  M.  Ziegir,  a 
French  officer.  She  died  in  France 
in  1894. 

Albret,  Jeanne  d',  daughter  of 
Margaret,  Queen  of  Navarre,  born  in 
1528.  She  married  Antoine  de  Bour- 
bon in  1548;  gave  birth  in  1553  to  a 
son,  who  was  afterward  Henry  IV.  of 
France;  and  on  the  death  of  her 
father,  in  1555,  became  Queen  of  Na- 


Albright 

varre.  She  lost  her  husband  in  1562, 
and  eagerly  began  to  establish  the 
Reformation  in  her  kingdom.  Being 
invited  to  the  French  court  to  assist 
at  the  nuptials  of  her  son  with  Mar- 
garet of  Valois,  she  suddenly  expired, 
not  without  suspicion  of  having  been 
poisoned.  Died  in  1572. 

Albright,  Jacob,  an  American 
minister  of  the  Methodist  Church, 
born  in  1759.  His  work  lay  among 
the  Germans  of  Pennsylvania.  Be- 
coming impressed  with  the  decline  of 
religious  life  and  of  the  doctrines  and 
morals  of  the  surrounding  churches, 
he  began  a  work  of  reform  in  1790. 
He  traveled  about  the  country  at  his 
own  expense,  preaching  his  mission, 
until  he  founded  in  1800  the  EVAN- 
GELICAL ASSOCIATION.  He  died  in 
1808. 

Albnera,  a  village  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Badajoz,  on  the  Albuera 
river;  13  miles  S.  E.  of  Badajoz. 
Here  (May  16,  1811)  a  British  and 
Portuguese  army  of  32,500,  under 
General  Beresford,  defeated  in  a  san- 
guinary battle  a  French  army  of  23,- 
000  under  Marshal  Soult,  the  total 
loss  being  16,000,  about  equally  di- 
vided. 

Albumen,  or  Albumin.  In  chem- 
istry, the  name  of  a  class  of  albumin- 
oids that  are  soluble  in  water,  as 
serum  and  egg  albumen. 

Albuminuria,  a  disease  character- 
ized by  the  presence  of  albumen  in  the 
urine.  It  may  be  acute  or  chronic. 
Acute  albuminuria  is  a  form  of  in- 
flammation of  the  kidneys.  Chronic 
albuminuria,  the  commoner  and  more 
formidable  malady,  arises  from  grave 
constitutional  disorders.  It  is  often 
attended  by  cf  produces  .dropsy. 
Whether  acute  or  chronic,  but  espe- 
cially when  the  latter,  it  is  generally 
called  Bright's  disease,  after  Dr. 
Bright,  who  first  described  it  with  ac- 
curacy. 

Albuquerque,  Alfonso  d%  "  the 
Great,"  Viceroy  of  the  Indies,  was 
born  in  1453,  near  Lisbon.  Albuquer- 

3ue  landed  on  the  Malabar  coast  in 
503,  with  a  fleet  and  some  troops ; 
conquered  Goa,  which  he  made  the 
seat  of  the  Portuguese  Government, 
and  the  center  of  its  Asiatic  com- 
merce; and  afterward  Ceylon,  the 
Sunda  Isles,  the  Peninsula  of  Malacca, 


Alcohol 

and  (in  1515)  the  Island  of  Or  muz  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  He 
died  at  sea  near  Goa,  Dec.  16,  1515. 

Alcseus,  a  Greek  lyric  poet ;  native 
of  Mitylene ;  flourished  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury B.  c.  Of  his  poems  we  have  only 
fragments. 

Alcala  de  Henares,  a  town  in 
Spain,  Cervantes'  birthplace,  on  the 
Henares,  21  miles  E.  of  Madrid  by 
rail.  Here  was  printed  in  1517, 
in  six  folio  volumes,  at  an  expense  of 
80,000  ducats,  the  great  Compluten- 
sian  Bible. 

Alcazar,  the  name  of  many  castles 
and  palaces  in  Spain.  Ciudad-Ro- 
drigo,  Cordova,  Segovia,  Toledo  and 


ALCAZAR  IN  SEGOVIA. 

Seville  _  have  alcazars.  The  one  at 
Seville  is  an  imposing  relic  of  the  Arab 
dominion. 

Alcibiades,  a  famous  Grecian 
statesman  and  warrior,  son  of  Clinias 
and  Deinomache,  born  in  Athens  about 
450  B.  c.  After  a  brilliant  and  erratic 
career,  distinguished  equally  by  great 
achievements  and  lack  of  moral  prin- 
ciple he  was  assassinated  in  404. 

Alcohol,  a  colorless,  inflammable 
liquid,  of  agreeable  odor,  and  burning 
taste,  termed  also  spirit  of  wine,  and 
ethylic  or  vinic  alcohol. 


Alcohol 


Aldrich 


Alcohol,  Denatured,  alcohol  for 
use  in  the  industries,  in  which  medi-  : 
cinal  properties  have  been  destroyed; 
authorized  by  Congress  in  1905. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  an 
American  philosophical  writer  and 
educator,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
transcendental  school  of  philosophy 
in  New  England,  born  in  Wolcott, 
Conn.,  Nov.  29,  1799.  He  died  in 
Boston,  March  4,  1888. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  daughter  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  in  Germantown,  Pa.,  Nov. 
29,  1832.  She  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
March  6,  1888.  Few  writers  are 
more  popular  with  children  than  Miss 
Alcott 

Alcnin,  an  English  ecclesiastic, 
born  at  York  in  735.  He  died  in 
804.  He  made  with  his  own  hand  a 
copy  of  the  Scriptures,  which  he  pre- 
sented to  Charlemagne,  and  which  be- 
came of  great  assistance  to  later  ed- 
itors. 

Alden,  Henry  Mills,  an  Ameri- 
can editor  and  prose  writer,  born  at 
Mount  Tabor,  Vt.,  Nov.  11,  1836.  He 
was  graduated  at  Williams  College 
and  Andover  Theological  Seminary ; 
settled  in  New  York  in  1861,  became 
managing  editor  of  "  Harper's 
Weekly  "  in  1864,  and  editor  of  "Har- 
per's Monthly  Magazine "  in  1868. 
He  has  published  "  The  Ancient  Lady 
of  Sorrow,"  a  poem ;  "  God  in  His 
World  " ;  etc. 

Alden,  John,  a  magistrate  of  the 
Plymouth  colony,  born  in  1599.  His 
name  is  familiarized  by  the  poem  of 
Longfellow,  "  The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish."  He  was  originally  a ! 
cooper  of  Southampton,  was  employed  ' 
in  making  repairs  on  the  ship  "  May- 
flower," and  came  over  in  her  with 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  By  some  ac- 
counts he  was  the  first  to  step  ashore  ', 
at  Plymouth.  In  Longfellow's  poem 
he  is  in  love  with  and  eventually  mar- 
ries Priscilla,  with  whom  he  had  previ- 
ously pleaded  the  cause  of  Miles 
Standish.  He  was  for  over  50  years 
a  colonial  magistrate.  He  died  in 
1687. 

Alden,  "William  Livingston,  an 
American  humorous  writer  and  jour- 
nalist, born  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
Oct.  9,  1837.  He  was  for  a  time 


at 


United     States      Consul-General 
Rome.     He  died  Jan.  14,  1908. 

Alder,  the  common  name  for  a 
genus  of  plants  (alnus),  of  the  oak 
family.  In  the  Eastern  United  States 
it  is  a  very  common  shrub,  branching 
freely  from  the  roots,  and  forming 
dense  clumps  along  the  banks  of 
streams  and  in  other  wet  places.  On 
the  W.  coast  it  often  attains  a  height 
of  from  40  to  60  feet  in  favorable  loca- 
tions. It  is  found  in  temperate  and 
cold  regions. 

Alderman,  a  title  pertaining  to  an 
office  in  the  municipal  corporations  of 
the  United  States  and  England. 

Alderman,  Edwin  Anderson,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C.,  May  15,  1861.  In  1896  he 
was  chosen  President  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  North  Carolina;  in  1900,  of 
Tulane  University  (New  Orleans);  in 
1904,  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

Alderney,  a  British  island  in  the 
English  channel. 

Aldershot  Camp,  a  permanent 
camp  of  exercise  on  the  confines  of 
Hampshire,  Surrey,  and  Berkshire,  35 
miles  S.  W.  of  London. 

Aldine  Editions,  the  books  print- 
ed by  Aldus  Manutius  and  his  family, 
in  Venice  (149071597).  They  com- 
prise the  first  editions  of  Greek  and 
Roman  classics ;  others  contain  cor- 
rected texts  of  modern  classic  writers, 
carefully  collated  with  the  MSS. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  Wilmarth, 
United  States  senator  from  Rhode  Is- 
land, recognized  as  the  leading  Ameri- 
can authority  on  the  protective  tariff, 
and  generally  understood  to  be  the  real 
author  of  the  McKinley  Law  as 
adopted.  Born,  Foster,  R.  I.,  No- 
vember 6,  1841.  President  Providence 
Common  Council,  1871-73;  Speaker 
R.  I.  General  Assembly,  1876 ;  in  Con- 
gress 1879  to  1883,  when  he  resigned 
to  take  seat  in  Senate.  He  died 
April  16,  1915. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  an 
American  poet,  essayist,  and  writer  of 
fiction,  born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
Nov.  11,  1836.  He  spent  his  early 
youth  in  Louisiana,  but  at  the  age  of 
17  entered  a  mercantile  house  in  New 
York.  Removing  to  Boston  in  1866, 
he  became  editor  of  "Every  Satur- 
day," and,  in  1881,  editor  of  the  "At- 


Ale 

lantic  Monthly."  He  became  equally 
eminent  as  a  prose  writer  and  poet. 
He  died  March  19,  1907. 

Ale,  a  malt  liquor,  stronger  than 
ordinary  beer.  It  was  the  current 
name  in  England  for  malt  liquor  in 
general  before  the  introduction  of  "the 
wicked  weed  called  hops "  from  the 
Netherlands,  about  the  year  1524. 
The  two  names,  ale  and  beer,  are  both 
Teutonic,  and  seem  originally  to  have 
been  synonymous. 

Alemanni,  or  Alamanni,  a  con- 
federacy of  several  German  tribes 
which,  at  the  commencement  of  the  3d 
century  after  Christ,  lived  near  the 
Roman  territory,  and  came  then  and 
subsequently  into  conflict  with  the 
imperial  troops.  It  is  from  the  Ale- 
manni that  the  French  have  derived 
their  names  for  Germans  and  Ger- 
many in  general,  namely,  Allemands 
and  Allemagne,  though  strictly  speak- 
ing only  the  modern  Suabians  and 
Northern  Swiss  are  the  proper  de- 
scendants of  that  ancient  race. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Bond  d',  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  mathema- 
ticians and  literary  characters  of  the 
18th  century ;  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  16, 
1717.  He  died  Oct.  29,  1783. 

Alembic,  a  simple  apparatus  some- 
times used  by  chemists  for  distillation. 

Aleppo,  a  city  of  Turkey  in  Asia, 
in  Northern  Syria,  and  capital  of  the 
vilayet  of  Aleppo ;  on  the  Koeik  river, ' 
71  miles  E.  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  foundation  of  Aleppo  dates  back 
to  about  2,000  years  B.  C.  It  was 
nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1822,  when  it  lost  two-thirds  of  its 
250,000  inhabitants.  The  present  in- 
habitants are  Turks,  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Jews.  Pop.  about  127,000. 

Aleutian  Islands,  or  Catherine 
Archipelago,  a  group  of  about  150 
islands,  extending  W.  from  Alaska  pen- 
insula for  a  distance  of  1,650  miles ; 
belongs  to  Alaska  Territory.  The  is- 
lands are  mountainous,  with  several 
volcanic  peaks.  The  principal  islands 
are  Umnak  and  Unalaska.  The  in- 
habitants are  nearly  all  Aleuts,  a  peo- 
ple allied  to  the  Eskimos.  These  is- 
lands were  discovered  by  Bering  in 
1728.  Pop.  about  3,000. 

Alewife,  a  North  American  fish, 
belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the 
herring  and  the  shad. 


Alexander 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  Rodrigo  Len- 
zuoli  Borgia,  a  Spaniard,  of  Valencia, 
son  of  Isabelle  Borgia,  whose  family 
name  be  took,  born  Jan.  1,  1431.  At 
first  he  studied  law,  and  then  was  ap- 
pointed by  his  uncle,  Pope  Calixtus 
III.,  a  cardinal  before  he  was  25  years 
old.  In  1458  he  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Valencia.  After  the  death  of  Innocent 
VIII.  he  was  crowned  Aug.  26,  1492, 
with  great  pomp  and  solemnity.  To 
his  son  John,  Duke  of  Gandia,  he  pre- 
sented the  duchy  of  Benevento,  in 
1487,  which  was  separated  from  the 
estates  of  the  Church.  His  daughter, 
Lucretia  Borgia,  was  married  to  Gio- 
vanni Sforza,  Lord  of  Pesarp,  after- 
ward to  Alfonso  di  Biseglia,  then 
thirdly  to  Alfonso  d'Este,  Prince  of 
Ferrara.  His  son,  Caesar,  who  after- 
ward got  complete  control  of  him,  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Valencia,  and,  in 
1493,  was  appointed  cardinal.  After- 
ward, in  order  to  create  for  him  a 
secular  principality,  he  made  an  alli- 
ance with  Louis  XII.  of  France. 
Caesar  Borgia,  therefore,  left  the 
Church  and  became  Duke  of  Valen- 
tinois.  In  1501  he  became  Duke  of 
the  Romagna.  On  May  4,  1493,  Alex- 
ander issued  a  bull  dividing  the  New 
World  between  Spain  and  Portugal ; 
on  May  23,  1498,  the  execution  of  Sa- 
vonarola took  place  by  his  order ;  and 
in  1501  he  instituted  the  censorship 
of  books.  Alexander  died  Aug.  18, 
1503,  from  poison  said  to  have  been 
intended  for  Cardinal  Corneto. 

Alexander  I.,  Emperor  of  Russia, 
son  of  Paul  I.  and  Maria,  daughter  of 
Prince  Eugene,  of  Wurtemberg;  born 
Dec.  23,  1777.  On  the  assassination 
of  his  father,  March  24,  1801,  Alex- 
ander ascended  the  throne.  One  of 
the  first  acts  of  his  reign  was  to  con- 
clude peace  with  Great  Britain, 
against  which  his  predecessor  had  de- 
clared war.  In  1803  he  offered  his 
services  as  mediator  between  England 
and  France,  and  two  years  later  a 
convention  was  entered  into  between 
Russia,  England,  Austria,  and  Sweden 
for  the  purpose  of  resisting  the  en- 
croachments of  France  on  the  terri- 
tories of  independent  States.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz 
(Dec.  2,  1805),  when  the  combined 
armies  of  Russia  and  Austria  were  de- 
feated by  Napoleon.  Alexander  was 
compelled  to  retreat  to  his  dominions 


Alexander 

at  the  head  of  the  remains  of  his 
army.  In  the  succeeding  campaign 
the  Russians  were  again  beaten  at 
Eylau  (Feb.  8,  1807),  and  Friedland 
(June  14),  the  result  of  which  was 
an  interview,  a  few  days  after  the 
battle,  on  a  raft  anchored  in  the  Nie- 
men,  between  Alexander  and  Napo- 
leon, which  led  to  the  treaty  signed  at 
Tilsit,  July  7.  The  Russian  emperor 
now  for  a  time  identified  himself  with 
the  Napoleonic  schemes.  The  seizure 
of  the  Danish  fleet  by  the  British 
brought  about  a  declaration  of  war  by 
Russia  against  Great  Britain  and 
Sweden,  and  Alexander  invaded  Fin- 
land and  conquered  that  long-coveted 
duchy,  which  was  secured  to  him  by 
the  peace  of  Friedrichshamn  (1809). 
His  having  separated  himself  from 
Napoleon  led  to  the  French  invasion 
of  1812.  In  1813  he  published  the  fa- 
mous manifesto  which  served  as  the 
basis  of  the  coalition  of  the  other  Eu- 
ropean powers  against  France.  After 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  Alexander,  ac- 
companied by  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  the  King  of  Prussia,  made  his  sec- 
ond entrance  into  Paris.  He  died  in 
the  Crimea,  Dec.  1,  1825. 

Alexander  II.,  Emperor  of  Rus- 
sia ;  born  April  29,  1818 ;  succeeded 
his  father  Nicholas  in  1855,  before 
the  end  of  the  Crimean  War.  After 
peace  was  concluded  the  new  emperor 
set  about  effecting  reforms  in  the  em- 
pire, among  the  first  being  the  putting 
of  the  finances  in  order.  The  greatest 
of  all  the  reforms  carried  out  by  him 
was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs  by 
a  decree  of  March  2,  1861.  The  czar 
also  did  much  to  improve  education  in 
the  empire,  and  introduced  a  reorgan- 
ization of  the  judicial  system.  During 
his  reign  the  Russian  dominions  in 
Central  Asia  were  considerably  ex- 
tended, while  to  the  European  portion 
of  the  monarchy  was  added  a  piece  of 
territory,  S.  of  the  Caucasus,  formerly 
belonging  to  Turkey  in  Asia.  A  part 
of  Bessarabia,  belonging  since  the  Cri- 
mean War  to  Turkey  in  Europe,  but 
previously  to  Russia,  was  also  restored 
to  the  latter  power.  The  latter  addi- 
tions resulted  from  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  of  1877-1878,  in  which  the  Turks 
were  completely  defeated,  the  Russian 
troops  advancing  almost  to  the  gates 
of  Constantinople.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  czar's  life  several  attempts  at 


Alexander 

his  assassination  were  made  by  Ni- 
hilists, and  at  last  he  was  killed  by  an 
explosive  missile  Sung  at  him  in  a 
street  in  St  Petersburg,  March  13, 
1881.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Alexander  III 

Alexander  HI.,  of  Russia,  son  of 
Alexander  II.,  was  born  Maich  10, 
1845,  and  married  the  daughter  of  the 
King  of  Denmark  in  1866.  After  his 
father's  death,  through  fear  of  assas- 
sination, he  shut  himself  up  in  his 
palace  at  Gatschina.  His  coronation 
was  postponed  till  1883,  and  was  cele- 
brated with  extraordinary  magnifi- 
cence, and  with  national  festivities 
lasting  several  days.  Through  the  fall 
of  Mery,  the  subjugation  of  the  Turk- 
omans in  Central  Asia  was  completed. 
In  1885  hostilities  with  England  with 
regard  to  the  defining  of  the  frontier 
between  the  Russian  territories  and 
Afghanistan,  for  a  time  seemed  immi- 
nent. In  European  affairs  he  broke 
away  from  the  triple  alliance  between 
Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria,  and 
looked  rather  to  France.  He  was  ag- 
grieved by  the  new  Bulgarian  spirit. 
His  home  policy  was  reactionary, 
though  strong  efforts  were  made  to 
prevent  malversation  by  officials,  and 
stern  economics  were  practiced.  The 
liberties  of  the  Baltic  Provinces  and 
of  Finland  were  curtailed,  the  Jews 
were  oppressed,  and  old  Russian  or- 
thodoxy was  favored.  Several  Ni- 
hilist attempts  were  made  on  his  life, 
and  he  kept  himself  practically  a  pris- 
oner in  his  palace.  He  died  at  Li- 
vadia,  Nov.  1,  1894. 

Alexander  III.,  King  of  Scot- 
land, born  in  -1241,  in  1249  succeeded 
his  father,  Alexander  II.  Riding  on 
a  dark  night  between  Burntisland  and 
Kinghorn,  he  fell  with  his  horse  and 
was  killed  on  the  spot,  March  12,  1286. 
A  monument  (1887)  marks  the  scene 
of  his  death.  His  death  led  to  the  at- 
tempt of  Edward  I.  of  England  to 
destroy  the  liberties  of  Scotland,  which 
resulted  in  the  crushing  defeat  of  the 
English  under  Edward  II.  at  Ban- 
nockburn. 

Alexander  I.,  King  of  Servia, 
born  Aug.  14,  1876 ;  son  of  King  Milan 
I.  In  1889  Milan  abdicated  and  pro- 
claimed Alexander  king,  under  a  re- 
gency till  he  should  attain  his  ma- 
jority (18  years).  On  April  13,  1893, 
when  in  his  17th  year,  Alexander  sud- 


Alexander 


Alexander  the  Great 


denly  took  the  royal  authority  into  his 
own  bands,  and  summarily  dismissed 
the  regent.  On  Aug.  5,  1900,  he  mar- 
ried Mme.  Draga  Maschin.  He  was 
the  fifth  of  his  dynasty,  which  was 
founded  by  Milos  Todorovic  Obrenovic 
in  1829.  On  the  night  of  June  10, 
1903,  the  military  at  Belgrade  re- 
volted, soldiers  surrounded  the  palace, 
and  the  leaders  broke  into  the  royal 
apartments  and  murdered  King  Alex- 
ander and  Queen  Draga,  and  also  two 
brothers  of  the  Queen  and  members  of 
the  Cabinet.  This  extinguished  the 
Obrenovitch  dynasty,  except  as  repre- 
sented by  a  natural  son  of  former  King 
Milan,  whom  the  latter  had  acknowl- 
edged and  made  legitimate. 

Alexander,  Archibald,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  of  Scottish  de- 
scent, was  born  in  Virginia,  April  17, 
1772,  and  died  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
Oct.  22,  1851.  He  studied  theology, 
and  performed  itinerant  missionary 
work  in  various  parts  of  Virginia ;  be- 
came president  of  Hampton-Sidney 
College  in  1796,  and  pastor  of  a  Pres- 
byterian church  in  Philadelphia  in 
1807.  On  the  establishment  of  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary  in  1812,  he 
was  appointed  its  first  professor,  a 
position  which  he  held  till  his  death. 
His  eldest  son.  JAMES  WADDELL  ALEX- 
ANDER (1804-1850),  was  a  Presbyte- 
rian minister  in  Virginia,  New  Jer- 
sey, and  at  New  York ;  and  afterward 
professor  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  He  contributed  to  the 
"  Princeton  Review,"  wrote  more  than 
30  children's  books,  a  life  of  his  father, 
and  miscellaneous  works.  JOSEPH 
ADDISON  ALEXANDER,  third  son  (1809- 
1860),  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1826,  lectured  there  on  Biblical  Criti- 
cism and  Ecclesiastical  History,  and 
for  the  last  eight  years  of  his  life  filled 
the  chair  of  Biblical  and  Ecclesiastical 
History.  He  was  engaged  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  along  with  Dr.  Hodge,  on 
a  commentary  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  commentaries 
and  "Prophecies  of  Isaiah"  (1846- 
1847;  revised  edition,  1864),  and  the 
"  Psalms  Translated  and  Explained  " 
(3  volumes,  1850) ,  both  of  which  have 
had  a  large  circulation,  and  have  been 
reprinted  in  England. 

Alexander  Archipelago,  or  Al- 
exander Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
on  the  W.  coast  of  North  America, 


extending  from  54°  40>  N.  to  58°  25' 
N. ;  belong  to  Alaska  Territory. 

Alexander  Jarostowitz  Nevski, 
St.,  Grand  Duke  of  Vladimir  and 
Prince  of  Novgorod,  born  in  1219;  a 
Russian  national  hero  and  patron 
saint  of  St  Petersburg,  where  Peter 
the  Great  founded  in  his  honor  the 
magnificent  monastery  and  the  reli- 
gious order  that  bear  his  name.  He 
died  in  1263. 

Alexander,  John  White,  Ameri- 
can portrait  painter,  born  in  Pitts- 
burg,  Pa.,  Oct.  7, 1856 ;  studied  at  Mu- 
nich, Paris,  and  in  Italy ;  became  a 
societaire  of  the  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris  ; 
was  appointed  one  of  the  American 
jurors  on  paintings  for  the  Paris  Ex- 
position in  1900.  Died  June  1,  1915. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  a  noted 
English  philosopher  and  theologian, 
born  at  Hales,  Gloucestershire.  He 
died  in  Paris,  1245. 

Alexander  Severus,  (in  full, 
MARCUS  AURELIUS  ALEXANDER  SEV- 
ERUS) ,  a  Roman  emperor ;  born  in  Ace 
(the  modern  Acre),  Phoenicia,  in  A.  D. 
205.  Alexander  was  favorable  to 
Christianity,  following  the  predilec- 
tions of  his  mother,  Julia  Mammaea, 
and  he  is  said  to  have  placed  the 
statue  of  Jesus  Christ  in  his  private 
temple,  in  company  with  those  of  Or- 
pheus and  Apollonius  of  Tyana.  He 
was  murdered  A.  D.  235. 

Alexander  the  Great,  the  3d 
King  of  Macedon  bearing  the  name 
which  he  made  so  famous :  born  in 
Pella,  356  B.  c. 

Alexander  first  appeared  on  the 
stage  of  universal  history  in  339  B.  c. 
At  the  age  of  16  the  regency  of  Greece 
was  intrusted  to  him  by  Philip  when 
he  set  out  on  an  expedition  against 
Byzantium ;  and  in  that  capacity  it 
fell  to  his  lot  to  lead  his  first  army 
against  an  Illyrian  rising,  to  found  his 
first  Alexandria  in  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Strymon,  and  to  receive  a  depu- 
tation of  envoys  from  the  King  of  Per- 
sia. In  the  year  after  his  appoint- 
ment to  the  regency  Alexander  showed 
eminent  military  capacity  at  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea  (338),  and,  on  the  mur- 
der of  Philip,  ascended  the  throne  in 
336,  before  he  had  reached  his  20th 
year. 

In  tho  autumn  of  336  Alexander 
marched  into  Greece,  and  was  con- 


Alexandria 


Alexandrian  Library 


firmed  iu  the  chief  command  against 
Persia  by  the  Amphictyones  at  Ther- 
mopylae. In  335  he  advanced  to  the 
Haemus  range  (the  Balkans),  and 
showed  great  ability  in  his  campaign 
against  the  Thracians,  crossing  the 
Danube  —  apparently  out  of  mere 
bravado  —  in  the  face  of  the  enemy 
without  losing  a  single  man.  He  had 
no  real  friends  among  the  Greek 
States.  The  Thebans,  hearing  a  false 
report  of  his  death,  became  overt  ene- 
mies, proclaimed  their  independence, 
and  slew  some  Macedonian  officers. 
Alexander  appeared  in  Boeotia  with 
amazing  dispatch,  and  took  Thebes  by 
storm  on  the  third  day  of  the  siege. 

Leaving  Antipater  to  govern  in  Eu- 
rope, he  crossed  over  into  Asia  in  the 
spring  of  334  with  30,000  foot  and 
5,000  horse.  The  Persian  empire,  the 
conquest  of  which  he  undertook,  was 
at  least  50  times  as  large  as  his  own 
and  numbered  about  20  times  as  many 
inhabitants.  It  extended  from  the 
Hellespont  to  the  Punjab,  from  Lake 
Aral  to  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile.  But 
it  was  a  vast  congeries  of  subject  prov- 
inces having  no  internal  bond,  and  no 
principle  of  cohesion  but  the  will  of 
the  king.  Alexander  entirely  subdued 
Persia,  and  formed  the  idea  of  con- 
quering India.  He  passed  the  In- 
dus in  327,  and  made  an  alliance 
with  Taxiles,  under  whose  guidance 
he  reached  the  Hydaspes  (modern 
Jhelum).  Here,  after  a  severe  strug- 
gle, and  unsatisfactory  victory,  he 
built  a  fleet,  in  which  he  /sent  part 
of  his  army  down  the  river,  while  the 
rest  proceeded  along  the  banks. 

In  323  Alexander  arrived  at  Baby- 
lon, where  he  found  numberless  envoys 
from  nations  near  and  far,  come  to 
pay  their  homage  to  the  young  con- 
queror. He  was  engaged  in  very  ex- 
tensive plans  for  the  future,  including 
the  conquest  of  Arabia  and  the  reor- 
ganization of  the  army,  when  he  fell 
ill  of  a  fever.  He  died  in  323,  after 
a  reign  of  12  years  and  eight  months. 
The  day  before  a  rumor  had  gone 
abroad  that  the  great  general  was 
dead,  and  that  his  friends  were  con- 
cealing the  truth.  The  dying  king 
caused  his  army  to  defile  past  his  bed, 
and  feebly  waved  them  a  last  farewell. 

Alexandria,  a  city  of  Egypt, 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  in 
331  B.  c.  The  situation  of  the  city, 

E.  5. 


at  the  point  of  junction  between  the 
East  and  West,  rendered  it  the  center 
of  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and 
raised  it  to  the  highest  degree  of  pros- 
perity. In  the  Middle  Ages  it  suf- 
fered reverses,  and  gradually  declined, 
and  when,  in  1517,  the  Turks  took 
the  place,  the  remains  of  its  for- 
mer splendor  wholly  vanished,  walls 
and  buildings  being  reduced  to  ruins. 
It  is  now  again  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant commercial  places  on  the  Medi- 
terranean. Recent  improvements, 
to  cost  $10,000,000,  are  expected  to 
make  the  western  harbor  one  of  the 
best  on  the  Mediterranean. 

Of  the  few  remaining  objects  of  an- 
tiquity the  most  prominent  is  Pom- 
pey's  Pillar,  as  it  is  erroneously  called. 
Of  the  so-called  Cleopatra's  Needles 
—  two  obelisks  of  the  16th  century 
B.  c.,  which  long  stood  there  —  one 
was  taken  to  England  and  erected  on 
the  Thames  Embankment  in  1878; 
and  the  other  was  set  up  in  Central 
Park,  New  York.  Pop.  319,766. 

Alexandria,  independent  city  and 
port  of  entry  of  Virginia;  on  the  Po- 
tomac river  and  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio  and  other  railroads;  6  miles  S. 
of  Washington;  has  a  good  harbor, 
large  shipments  of  grains,  and  con- 
siderable manufacturing  interests;  is 
the  seat  of  the  Virginia  Theological 
Seminary  (P.  E.)  and  was  the 
headquarters  of  General  Braddock  in 
1775.  Pop.  (1910)  15,329. 

Alexandrian  Codex,  an  impor- 
tant manuscript  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures in  Greek,  now  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. It  is  written  on  parchment,  in 
finely  formed  uncial  letters,  and  is 
without  accents,  marks  of  aspiration, 
or  spaces  between  the  words.  Its 
probable  date  is  the  middle  of  the  5th 
century. 

Alexandrian  Library,  a  remark- 
able collection  of  books,  the  largest  of 
the  ancient  world,  was  founded  by  the 
first  Ptolemy.  Theodosius  the  Great 
permitted  all  the  heathen  temples  in 
the  Roman  empire  to  be  destroyed,  the 
magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis, 
containing  the  library,  was  not  spared. 
A  mob  of  fanatic  Christians,  led  on 
by  the  Archbishop  Theophilus,  stormed 
and  destroyed  the  temple,  together,  it 
is  most  likely,  with  the  greater  part 
of  its  literary  treasures,  in  391  A.  D. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  the  destrnc- 


Alexins   Comnenns 


Alger 


tion  of  the  Library  was  begun,  and 
not  at  the  taking  of  Alexandria  by  the 
Arabs,  under  the  Caliph  Omar,  in  641, 
when  its  destruction  was  merely  com- 
pleted. 

Alexius  Comnenns,  Byzantine 
Emperor,  was  born  in  1048,  and  died 
in  1118.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Isaac 
the  first  emperor  of  the  Comneni,  and 
attained  the  throne  in  1081,  at  a  time 
when  the  empire  was  menaced  from 
various  sides,  especially  by  the  Turks, 
the  Normans  and  the  Crusaders.  From 
these  dangers  he  extricated  himself 
by  policy  or  warlike  measures,  and 
maintained  his  position  during  a  reign 
of  thirty-seven  years. 

Alfalfa,  a  prolific  forage  plant 
belonging  to  the  Legume  family,  large- 
ly grown  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
parts  of  Spanish  America.  Crops  are 
gathered  three  or  four  times  a  season. 

Alfieri,  Vittorio,  Count,  an 
Italian  dramatist,  born  in  1749 ;  died 
1803.  His  style  founded  a  new  school 
in  Italian  drama. 

Alfonso  X.,  surnamed  "  the  As- 
tronomer," "  the  Philosopher,"  or 
"the  Wise"  (El  Sabio),  King  of 
Leon  and  Castile,  born  in  1226 ;  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ferdinand  III.,  in 
1252.  Alfonso  was  the  founder  of  a 
Castilian  national  literature.  He  died 
in  1284. 

Alfonso  XII.,  King  of  Spain,  the 
only  son  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  and  her 
cousin,  King  Francis  of  Assisi,  was 
born  Nov.  28,  1857.  He  left  Spain 
with  his  mother  when  she  was  driven 
from  the  throne  by  the  revolution  of 
1868.  His  mother  had  given  up  her 
claims  to  the  throne  in  1870  in  his 
favor,  and  in  1874  Alfonso  came  for- 
ward himself  as  claimant,  and  in  the 
end  of  the  year  was  proclaimed  by 
Gen.  Martinez  Campos  as  king.  Al- 
fonso was  successful  in  bringing  the 
Carlist  struggle  to  an  end  (1876),  and 
henceforth  he  reigned  with  little 
disturbance  until  his  death  in  1885. 
He  married  first  his  cousin  Maria  de 
las  Mercedes,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
de  Montpensier;  second,  Maria  Chris- 
tina, Archduchess  of  Austria. 

Alfonso  XIII.,  King  of  Spain,  son 
of  the  late  Alphonso  XII.  and  Maria 
Christina,  daughter  of  the  late  Karl 
Ferdinand,  Arch-Duke  of  Austria,  born 
pfter  his  father's  death,  May  17, 1886. 


as  a  male,  becoming  heir  to  the  throne. 
During  his  minority  his  mother  was 
made  Queen  Regent  and  directed  his 
education  with  great  care.  He  form- 
ally ascended  the  throne  May  17,  1902. 
On  May  31,  1906,  he  married  the 
British  Princess  Victoria  Ena  of  Bat- 
tenberg.  The  wedding  festivities  were 
marred  by  an  attempt  to  assassinate 
the  royal  pair,  several  persons  being 
killed  by  a  bomb.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  World  War  he  declared  a  policy 
of  strict  neutrality.  Later  a  number 
of  Spanish  vessels  were  torpedoed  and 
sunk  by  Teuton  submarines.  In  1917 
parts  of  Spain  were  threatened  with 
revolution.  See  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Alfred  the  Great,  King  of  Eng- 
land, and  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
rulers  on  record ;  born  in  Wantage,  in 
Berkshire,  849  A.  D.  He  defeated  the 
Danes,  who  were  allotted  that  portion 
of  the  E.  of  England  which  is  now  oc- 
cupied by  the  modern  counties  of  Nor- 
folk, Suffolk,  Cambridge,  and  Lincoln. 
Alfred  occupied  himself  with  great 
zeal  in  literary  pursuits  and  in  the 
advancement  of  learning.  This  illus- 
trious prince  died,  Oct  28,  901,  in  the 
30th  year  of  his  reign. 

Algae,  the  general  name  for  the 
sea-weeds  and  similar  plants,  mostly 
growing  in  salt  and  fresh  water. 

Algebra,  that  department  of  math- 
ematics which  enables  one,  by  the  aid 
of  certain  symbols,  to  generalize,  and, 
therefore,  to  abbreviate,  the  methods 
of  solving  questions  relating  to  num- 
bers. It  is  now  regarded  as  the  most 
extensive  department  of  mathematics. 

Alger,  Cyrus,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  West  Bridgewater, 
Mass.,  Nov.  11,  1781.  He  learned  the 
iron  foundry  business,  and  in  1809  es- 
tablished himself  in  South  Boston, 
where  he  soon  made  himself  widely 
known  by  the  excellence  of  the  ord- 
nance be  manufactured.  He  supplied 
the  United  States  Government  with  a 
large  quantity  of  cannon-balls  during 
the  war  of  1812;  produced  the  first 
gun  ever  rifled  in  America,  as  well  as 
the  first  perfect  bronze  cannon ;  and 
supervised  the  casting  of  a  mortar 
which  was  the  largest  gun  of  cast-iron 
that  had  then  been  made  in  the  United 
States.  Subsequently  he  made  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  time 


Alger 

fuses  for  bomb-shells  and  grenades ; 
patented  a  method  of  making  cast-iron 
Chilled  rolls ;  and  was  the  original  de- 
signer of  the  cylinder  stove.  He  died 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  Feb.  4,  1856. 

Alger,  Horatio,  an  American 
writer  of  juvenile  books,  born  at  Re- 
vere, Mass.,  Jan.  13,  1834.  He  died 
in  Natick,  Mass.,  July  18,  1899. 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander,  an 
American  merchant,  capitalist,  and 
politician,  born  in  Lafayette,  O.,  Feb. 
27,  1836.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
rising  from  a  captaincy  to  the  rank 
of  brevet  Major-General  of  Volunteers. 
He  acquired  a  large  fortune  in  West- 
ern enterprises,  particularly  the  lum- 
ber business.  He  was  Governor  of 
Michigan  from  1885  to  1887 ;  a  candi- 
date for  the  Republican  presidential 
nomination  in  1888;  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Re- 
public 1889-90  :  U.  S.  Secretary  of  War 
1897-99;  published  "The  Spanish- 
American  War,"  1901 ;  became  U.  S. 
Senator  for  Michigan  1902;  re-elected 
1903;  died  suddenly  Jan.  24,  1907. 

Alger,  William  Rounseville,  an 
American  Unitarian  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Freetown,  Mass.,  Dec. 
30,  1822.  His  chief  works  are  "  His- 
tory of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future 
Life"  (1863)  ;  "Genius  of  Solitude" 
(1865)  ;  and  "  Friendships  of  Wom- 
en" (1867).  He  occupied  pulpits  in 
New  York,  Denver,  Boston,  and  San 
Francisco.  He  died  Feb.  7,  1905. 

Algeria,  a  French  colony  in  the  N. 
of  Africa ;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Mediterranean,  on  the  E.  by  Tunis,  on 
the  W.  by  Morocco,  and  on  the  S.  by 
the  desert  of  Sahara.  The  country 
now  Algeria  was  for  many  years  the 
seat  of  a  piratical  despotism,  tribu- 
tary to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  but 
virtually  independent.  After  the 
Americans  had  gained  independence 
the  Algerians  were  encouraged  by  the 
British  to  prey  on  American  com- 
merce, so  that  the  United  States 
might  be  prevented  from  rivalling 
Great  Britain  in  the  Mediterranean. 
American  merchantmen  were  cap- 
tured by  the  Algerian  pirates,  and 
the  crews  were  ransomed  or  enslaved. 
In  November,  1795,  the  United  States 
made  a  humiliating  treaty  agreeing 
to  pay  to  the  Dey  of  Algiers  a  tribute 
equal  to  $22,000  yearly  for  "protec- 


Algonkian 

tion  "  to  American  commerce.  When 
the  War  of  1812  broke  out  the  Dey 
of  Algiers  ignored  the  treaty,  and  at- 
tacked and  plundered  American  ves- 
sels. Promptly  upon  the  conclusion 
of  peace  with  England  the  American 
government  proceeded  to  take  ven- 
geance on  the  Algerians,  and  a 
powerful  squadron  under  Captains 
Decatur  and  Bainbridge  was  sent  to 
the  Mediterranean.  The  Algerians 
had  a  strong  navy,  and  met  the  Amer- 
icans with  a  superior  force  in  ves- 
sels and  guns.  The  Mashouda,  the 
Algerian  flagship,  was  captured  after 
a  sanguinary  struggle.  The  Dey  in 
terror  acceded  to  all  American  de- 
mands, agreed  to  forego  tribute,  and 
gave  up  the  American  captives,  who 
kissed  the  American  flag  and  wept 
for  joy.  In  the  following  year,  1816. 
the  British  bombarded  Algiers,  and 
forced  the  Dey  to  agree  to  put  a  stop 
to  piracy  —  an  agreement  that  was 
not  kept.  In  1827  the  French  began 
the  work  of  conquering  Algiers,  and 
after  a  struggle  of  about  thirty  years 
they  completely  subdued  the  country, 
and  made  it  a  peaceful  and  flourishing 
colony  of  France.  Algeria  IB  govern- 
ed by  a  governor-general,  who  is  assist- 
ed by  a  council  appointed  by  the 
French  government.  The  settled  por- 
tion of  the  country,  in  the  three  de- 
partments of  Algiers,  Constantine,  and 
Oran,  is  treated  much  as  if  it  were  a 
part  of  France  and  each  department 
sends  two  deputies  and  one  senator  to 
the  French  chambers.  The  rest  of  the 
territory  is  under  military  rule.  Area 
of  Algeria  proper,  221,771  square 
miles;  pop.  (1911)  5,563,828,  includ- 
ing 752,043  Europeans.  Area  of  Al- 
gerian Sahara  141,563  square  miles ; 
pop.  494,306.  Principal  cities,  Al- 
giers (capital),  pop.  172,397;  Oran, 
123,086;  Constantine,  65,173;  B6ne, 
42,039;  Philippeville,  27,137;  and 
Mostaganem,  23,166. 

Algonkian,  or  Algonquin,  an 
Indian  linguistic  stock,  originally  the 
most  extensive  in  North  America. 
The  constant  wars  with  the  English, 
French,  and  Dutch  colonists  depleted 
their  numbers.  They  degenerated 
into  mere  mercenaries,  fighting  on 
either  side  for  revenge  or  gain.  After 
the  War  of  1812,  in  which  they  took 
the  side  of  the  British,  the  United 
States  Government  resolved  to  send 


Alliainbra 

them  as  far  W.  as  possible.  After 
1840,  few  of  them  remained  E.  of  the 
Mississippi.  In  Canada,  they  were 
not  removed  from  their  homes,  but 
were  limited  as  to  territory.  War  and 
disease  have  thinned  their  number, 
until  only  37,000  remain  in  the 
United  States,  and  63,000  in  Canada. 
The  chief  occupations  of  the  Algon- 
k'ians  were  hunting,  fishing  and  corn 
raising.  In  character  they  were  brave, 
strong,  and  intelligent,  but  lacking  in 
steadfastness.  They  were  not  so  united 
as  the  Iroquois,  owing  to  the  multipli- 
city of  their  languages. 

Alhambra,  the  famous  palace  of 
the  Moorish  kings  of  Granada,  situat- 
ed on  a  hill  N.  of  the  town  of  Gra- 
nada. In  spite  of  its  neglected  condi- 
tion, the  Alhambra  is  the  most  re- 
markable and  most  perfect  specimen 
of  Moorish  art  to  be  found  in  Europe. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  a  series 
of  enactments  during  the  administra- 
tion of  John  Adams,  the  purpose  of 
which  was  to  restrain  the  activity  of 
those  who  sympathized  with  France. 
The  extreme  partisan  spirit  of  these 
acts  caused  a  reaction,  which  was  ex- 
pressed in  the  Kentucky  and  Virginia 
resolutions. 

Alimentary  Canal,  the  alimen- 
tary tube ;  the  great  tube  or  duct  by 
which  food  is  conveyed  into  the  stom- 
ach, and  from  which  the  waste  and 
undigested  food  is  excreted. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  a  Scot- 
tish historian  and  writer,  born  at 
Kenley,  Shropshire,  Dec.  29  1792. 
His  mangum  opus — "The  history  of 
Europe  from  1789  to  1815"  was  first 
issued  hi  10  volumes  in  1833-1842.  He 
subsequently  brought  down  the  narra- 
tive to  1852,  the  date  of  the  birth  of 
the  second  French  empire.  Died  1867. 

Alizarine,  a  substance  contained 
In  the  madder  root,  and  largely  used 
In  dyeing  reds  of  various  shades.  Form- 
erly madder  root  was  largely  employ- 
ed as  a  dye-stuff,  but  the  use  of  the 
root  has  been  almost  superseded  by  the 
employment  of  alizarine,  prepared  arti- 
ficially from  one  of  the  constituents  of 
coaMar.  It  forms  yellowish-red  pris- 
matic crystals,  nearly  insoluble  in  cold,  ; 
but  dissolved  to  a  small  extent  by  boil- 
ing water,  and  readily  soluble  in  alco- 
hol and  ether.  It  possesses  exceeding- 
ly strong  tinctorial  powers. 


Allegheny 

Alkali,  a  strong  base,  capable  of 
neutralizing  acids,  so  that  the  salts 
formed  are  either  completely  neutral, 
or,  if  the  acid  is  weak,  give  alkaline 
reactions.  It  was  formerly  restricted 
to  the  hydrates  of  potassium,  sodium, 
lithium  and  ammonium,  but  now  in- 
cludes the  hydrates  of  alkaline  earths 
(baryta,  strontia  and  lime)  and  many 
organic  substances.  Alkalies  are  more 
or  less  soluble  in  water.  Caustic  pot- 
ash is  used  in  surgery  as  a  cautery. 

Alkaloid,  a  term  applied  to  a  class 
of  nitrogenized  compounds  having  cer- 
tain alkaline  properties,  found  in  liv- 
ing plants,  and  containing  their  active 
principles,  usually  in  combination  with 
organic  acids.  Their  alkaline  quali- 
ties depend  upon  the  nitrogen  they 
contain.  Their  names  generally  end 
in  ine,  as  morphine,  quinine,  acon- 
itine,  caffeine,  &c.  Most  alkaloids  oc- 
cur in  plants,  but  some  are  formed  by 
decomposition.  The  only  property  com- 
mon to  all  alkaloids  is  that  of  combin- 
ing with  acids  to  form  salts,  and  some 
exhibit  an  alkaline  reaction  with  col- 
ors. Alkaloids  form  what  is  termed 
the  organic  bases  of  plants.  Although 
formed  originally  within  the  plant,  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  prepare 
several  of  these  alkaloids  by  purely 
artificial  means. 

Allah,  compounded  of  the  article 
al  and  ilah — i.  e.,  "the  god,"  a  word 
cognate  with  the  Hebrew  Eloah),  the 
Arabic  name  of  the  supreme  god  among 
the  heathen  Arabs,  adopted  by  Mo- 
hammed for  the  one  true  God.  See 
MOHAMMED  and  MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Alleghanies,  a  word  used  as  syn- 
onymous with  the  APPALACHIAN 
MOUNTAINS  (q.  v.),  sometimes  ap- 
plied only  to  that  portion  of  the  sys- 
tem which  extends  from  Pennsylvania 
to  North  Carolina,  and  which  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Mississippi. 

Allegheny,  a  former  city  in  Alle- 
gheny co.,  Pa.;  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  riv- 
ers, which  here  form  the  Ohio;  and 
on  several  railroads;  opposite  the 
city  of  Pittsburg,  the  county-seat. 

Allegheny  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in 
1788:  created  a  borough  in  1828,  and 
consolidated  with  Pittsburg  in  1907. 
Pop.  (1890)  105,287;  (1900)  129,- 
896.  gee  PITTSBUBG. 


Allegheny  River 


All-Hallows'  Ere 


Allegheny  River,  a  river  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York  ;  a  headstream 
of  the  Ohio.  Its  length  is  about  400 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  about 
150  miles  above  Pittsburg. 

Allen,  Charles  Grant  Blairfin- 
die,  generally  known  as  Grant  Allen, 
an  English  author,  born  1848,  died 
1899.  His  best  known  and  most  pop- 
ular works  are  on  scientific  subjects, 
although  he  also  wrote  many  novels. 

Allen,  Charles  Herbert,  an 
American  diplomatist,  born  in  Lowell, 
Mass.,  April  15,  1848;  was  graduated 
at  Amherst  College  in  1869 ;  became 
associated  with  his  father  in  the  lum- 
ber business  in  Lowell ;  served  in  both 
branches  of  the  State  Legislature,  and 
in  Congress  in  1885-1889 ;  was  defeat- 
ed as  the  Republican  candidate  for 
governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1891 ; 
and  succeeded  Theodore  Roosevelt  as 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in 
May,  1898.  On  the  passage  by  Con- 
gress of  the  Porto  Rico  Tariff  and 
Civil  Government  bill,  in  April,  1900, 
the  President  appointed  him  the  first 
civil  governor  of  Porto  Rico,  an  office 
which  he  resigned  in  July,  1901. 

Allen,  Edward  P.,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  clergyman,  born  in 
Lowell,  Mass.,  March  17,  1853 ;  now 
fifth  Bishop  of  Mobile,  Ala. 

Allen,  Elizabeth  Akers,  an 
American  poet,  born  (ELIZABETH 
CHASE)  at  Strong,  Me.,  Oct.  9,  1832. 
She  was  married  in  1860  to  Paul 
Akers,  the  sculptor,  who  died  in  1861, 
and  in  1865  to  E.  M.  Allen,  of  New 
York. 

Allen,  Ethan,  an  American  Revo- 
lutionary hero,  born  at  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Jan.  10,  1737.  His  services  in 
the  War  of  Independence,  as  Colonel 
of  the  "  Green  Mountain  Boys,"  cap- 
turing Fort  Ticonderoga  "  in  the  name 
of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the  Conti- 
nental Congress,"  his  attack  on  Mon- 
treal, sufferings  as  a  prisoner  in  Eng- 
land, skillful  diplomacy  in  behalf  of 
Vermont,  etc.,  are  well  known.  He 
died  near  Burlington,  Vt.,  Feb.  12, 

Allen,  James  Lane,  an  Amer- 
ican novelist,  born  near  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1850.  His  fame  rests  mainly 
upon  his  powerful  and  popular  novels 
of  manners  and  people  in  the  "  blue 
jfrass  "  region  and  elsewhere. 


Allen,  Joel  Asaph,  an  American 
mammalogist,  born  in  Springfield, 
Mass.,  July  19,  1838.  He  went  with 
Agassiz  on  his  expedition  to  Brazil  in 
1865 ;  became  assistant  in  ornithology 
at  the  Cambridge  Museum  of  Compar- 
ative Zoology  in  1870,  and  was  ap- 
pointed curator  of  the  department  of 
vertebrate  zoology  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York,  in  1885. 

Allen,  Joseph  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican Unitarian  minister,  educator,  his- 
torian, and  essayist,  born  at  North- 
borp,  Mass.,  Aug.  21,  1821.  He  was 
senior  editor  of  the  "  History  of  Uni- 
tarianism."  He  died  in  1898. 

Allen,  Thomas,  an  American 
landscape  and  animal  painter,  born  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Oct.  19,  1849.  After 
an  education  in  St.  Louis,  he  grad- 
uated from  the  Royal  Academy  at 
Dusseldorf,  Germany.  He  studied  in 
France ;  exhibited  his  first  picture  at 
the  Academy  of  Design  in  New  York, 
and  at  the  salons  at  Paris ;  became 
vice-president  of  the  Boston  Art  Stu- 
dents' Association ;  member  of  the 
committee  of  the  School  of  Drawing 
and  Painting  of  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts. 

Allen,  William,  an  American 
preacher  and  miscellaneous  writer, 
born  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Jan.  2,  1784 ; 
died  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  July  16, 
1868. 

Allen,  William  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  born  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  in  1784.  He  entered  the  navy 
in  1800,  and  was  in  some  of  the  great- 
est naval  battles  in  Amei  lean  history. 
He  died  Aug.  15, 1813,  from  a  wound 
received  the  previous  day  in  a  naval 
fight,  and  was  buried  in  England. 

Allentown,  city  and  capital  of 
Lehigh  county,  Pa.;  on  the  Lehigh 
river  and  canal  and  several  rail- 
roads; 60  miles  N.  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia. It  has  large  manufacturing  in- 
terests, including  iron,  silk,  hardware, 
furniture,  shoes,  wire,  .hosiery,  and 
thread;  is  the  seat  of  Muhlenberg 
College  (Luth.)  and  Allentown  Col- 
lege for  Women  (Ref.);  and  has  a 
property  valuation  exceeding  $35,- 
000,000.  Pop.  (1910)  51,916. 

All-Hallows'  Eve,  the  31st  of  Oc- 
tober, the  evening  before  All-Hallows 
(commonly  known  as  Hallow  E'en). 


Alliance 

Alliance,  a  city  in  Stark  county, 
O.,  on  the  Mahoning  river  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Co.'s  railroad;  57  miles 
S.  B.  of  Cleveland;  has  large  rolling 
mills,  steel-casting  and  boiler  works, 
and  manufactories  of  gun-carriages, 
steam  hammers,  and  electric  cranes; 
seat  of  Mt.  Union  College  (M.  E.). 
Pop.  (1910)  15,083. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin,  an 
American  bibliographer,  born  at 
Philadelphia,  April  17,  1816.  He  was 
at  one  time  librarian  of  the  Lenox 
Library,  New  York.  He  died  at 
Lucerne,  Switzerland,  Sept.  2,  1889. 

Allison,      William      Boyd,      an 

American  legislator,  born  in  Perry,  O., 
March  2,  1829;  was  brought  up  on  a 
farm ;  and  subsequently  educated  at 
Allegheny  College,  Pa.,  and  Western 
Reserve  College,  O.  He  practiced  law 
in  his  native  State  till  1857,  when  he 
removed  to  Dubuque,  la.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  Civil  War  he  served  on 
the  governor's  staff,  and  was  actively 
engaged  in  raising  troops  for  the 
Union  army.  In  1863-1871  he  was  a 
representative  in  Congress ;  and  on 
March  4,  1873,  entered  the  United 
States  Senate  as  a  Republican,  to 
which  he  was  re-elected  in  1878,  1884, 
1890,  and  1896.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Republican  National  Convention 
in  Chicago,  in  1860 ;  and  several  times 
has  been  a  conspicuous  candidate  for 
the  presidential  nomination  of  his 
party.  He  died  Aug.  8,  1908. 

Allopathy,  a  system  of  medicine 
the  object  of  which  is  to  produce  in 
the  bodily  frame  another  condition  of 
things  than  that  in  or  from  which  the 
disease  has  originated.  Allopathy  is 
opposed  to  homeopathy,  which  aims 
at  curing  diseases  by  producing  in 
antagonism  to  them  symptoms  similar 
to  those  which  they  produce.  Up-to- 
date  doctors  practise  what  they  believe 
to  be  good  in  both  systems,  and  the 
distinction  is  now  largely  nominal. 

Alloy,  a  compound  or  mixture  of 
two  or  more  metals. 

All-Saints'  Bay,  in  the  State  of 
Bahia,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  forms 
a  superb  natural  harbor,  in  which  the 
navies  of  the  whole  world  might  ride 
at  anchor.  Its  length  from  N.  to  S. 
is  37  miles ;  its  breadth  from  E.  to  W., 
27.  The  town  of  Bahia  lies  just  with- 
in it. 


Almagro 

All-Saints'  Day,  a  festival  insti- 
tuted by  Pope  Boniface  IV.,  early  in 
the  7th  century,  on  the  occasion  of 
his  transforming  the  Roman  heathen 
Pantheon  into  a  Christian  temple  or 
church,  and  consecrating  it  to  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  and  all  the  martyrs. 

Allspice,  a  kind  of  pepper,  consist- 
ing of  the  dried  berries  of  pimenta 
officinalis,  a  tree  belonging  to  the  or- 
der myrtaceae  (myrtle  blooms).  It 
is  imported  almost  entirely  from  Ja- 
maica, and  is  hence  called  Jamaica 
pepper. 

Allston,  Washington,  an  emi- 
nent American  painter,  poet,  and  ro- 
mancer, born  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C., 
Nov.  5,  1779 ;  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1800;  studied  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy, London,  and .  in  Rome,  and  re- 
turned to  Boston  in  1809.  He  died  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  July  9,  1843. 

Alma,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  Rus- 
sia, flowing  westward  into  the  Bay  of 
Kalamita,  about  half  way  between  Eu- 
patoria  and  Sebastopol.  On  the  steep 
banks  of  the  stream,  through  the  chan- 
nel of  which  the  British  troops  waded 
amid  a  shower  of  bullets,  a  brilliant 
victory  was  won  on  Sept.  20,  1854, 
by  the  allied  armies  of  England  and 
France,  under  Lord  Raglan  and  Mar- 
shal St.  Arnaud,  over  the  Russian 
army  commanded  by  Prince  Menschi- 
koff.  It  was  the  first  battle  of  the 
Crimean  War. 

Almaden,  a  town  in  Spain,  50 
miles  S.  W.  of  Ciudad  Real,  situated 
in  the  chain  of  the  Sierra  Morena.  It 
is  famous  for  its  12  rich  quicksilver 
mines,  employing  about  4,000  miners, 
and  yielding  an  annual  output  of  2,- 
500,000  pounds. 

Almagro,  Diego  d',  a  Spanish 
conquistador,  was  born  in  1464  or 
1475,  and  was  a  foundling  who  de- 
rived his  name  from  the  town  near 
which  he  was  found.  After  serving 
in  the  army,  he  sailed  to  seek  his  for- 
tune in  the  New  World,  where  he 
amassed  considerable  wealth  by  plun- 
der, and  became  one  of  the  leading 
members  of  the  young  colony  of  Dar- 
ien.  In  1522  he  formed,  with  Pizarro, 
the  design  of  conquering  Peru  —  an 
undertaking  crowned  10  years  after- 
ward with  marvellous  success.  Receiv- 
ing permission  from  the  Spanish  court 
to  conquer  for  himself  a  special  prov- 


Almanac 

ince  S.  of  Pizarro's  territory,  he 
marched  on  Chile  in  1536,  penetrated 
as  far  as  the  Coquimbo,  and  returned 
in  1537,  just  when  the  Peruvians  had 
flown  to  arms  and  shut  up  the  Span- 
iards in  Cuzco  and  Lima.  As  these 
towns  lay  S.  of  Pizarro's  district,  they 
were  claimed  by  Almagro.  He  dis- 
persed the  Peruvian  army  before  Cuz- 
co, and  advanced  against  Lima,  hoping 
to  make  himself  sole  master  of  the 
country.  But  on  April  6,  1538,  he 
was  defeated  in  a  desperate  engage- 
ment with  the  Spaniards  under  Pizar- 
ro  near  Cuzco ;  and  on  the  26th  he  was 
strangled  in  prison,  and  his  corpse  be- 
headed in  the  market  place  of  Cuzco. 
His  half-caste  son,  Diego,  collecting 
some  hundreds  of  his  father's  follow- 
ers, stormed  Pizarro's  palace,  and 
slew  him  (1541)  ;  then  proclaimed 
himself  captain-general  of  Peru ;  but, 
defeated  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Chu- 
pas,  Sept  16,  1542,  fie  was  executed 
along  with  40  of  his  companions. 

Almanac,  an  annual  compilation, 
based  on  the  calendar,  embracing  in- 
formation pertinent  to  the  various 
days  of  the  year,  the  seasons,  etc., 
with  astronomical  calculations  and 
miscellaneous  intelligence  more  or  less 
detailed,  according  to  the  special  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  prepared. 

Alma-Tadema,  Sir  Laurenz,  dis- 
tinguished figure  painter,  born  in 
Friesland,  Jan.  8,  1836;  educated 
principally  at  the  Antwerp  Academy; 
elected  to  the  Royal  Academy,  London, 
in  1879;  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
1878;  and  member  of  the  leading 
academies  of  Europe;  studio  in  Lon- 
don. He  died  June  24,  1912. 

Almohades,  the  name  of  a  Mos- 
lem dynasty  that  ruled  in  Africa  and 
Spain  during  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies. 

Almond,  the  fruit  of  the  almond 
tree,  which  grows  usually  to  the  height 
of  12  or  14  feet.  Its  pink  flowers, 
composed  of  five  petals,  grow  in  pairs, 
and  appear  very  early  in  spring.  The 
almonds  which  are  consumed  in  the 
United  States  are  imported,  some- 
times in  the  shell,  and  often  without, 
from  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the 
Levant. 

Almonte,  Jnan  Nepomnceno,  a 
Mexican  general,  believed  to  be  the 
eoa  of  the  priest  Morelos,  born  in 


Alphabet 

1804.  As  a  boy  he  took  part  in  the  war 
for  independence.  He  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Buena  Vista  and  Cerro  Gor- 
do  in  1847.  In  1861,  when  Juarez  at- 
tained power,  he  deposed  Almonte, 
who,  led  by  party  hatred  and  ambi- 
tion, invited  the  French  expedition  to 
Mexico.  In  the  beginning  of  1862  he 
joined  the  French  troops  of  occupation 
at  Vera  Cruz;  but,  as  the  Mexicans 
saw  in  him  only  a  tool  of  the  French 
plans,  they  renounced  the  idea  of 
making  him  French  dictator,  support- 
ed by  French  bayonets.  The  French 
general,  himself,  deprived  him  of  pow- 
er, but  when,  on  the  10th  of  June, 
1863,  he  reached  the  City  of  Mexico 
with  the  French,  he  was  placed  by  the 
conquerors  at  the  head  of  the  Regency 
of  the  Mexican  Empire.  The  Emperor 
Maximilian  appointed  him  field-mar- 
shal, but,  after  Maximilian's  death,  he 
fled  to  Europe,  and  died  in  Paris, 
March  22,  1869. 

Almqnist,  Karl  Jonas  Ludvig, 
a  notable  Swedish  poet,  novelist  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  born  in  Stock- 
holm, Nov.  28,  1793.  He  died  in  Bre- 
men, Sept  26,  1866. 

Aloe,  any  species  of  the  genus  de- 
scribed under  botany  (below),  or  even 
of  one,  such  as  agave,  with  a  close  an- 
alogy to  it.  The  American  aloe  is 
the  agave  americana,  an  amaryllid. 
The  aloe  of  Scripture  is  probably  the 
agallochum. 

Alopecia,  a  variety  of  baldness  in 
which  the  hair  falls  off  from  the  beard 
and  eyebrows,  as  well  as  the  scalp. 

Alpaca,  the  name  given  to  a  spe- 
cies of  llama,  which  has  for  a  long 
time  back  been  domesticated  in  Peru. 

Alpha  and  Omega,  the  first  and 
last  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet, 
sometimes  used  to  signify  the  begui- 
ning  and  the  end,  or  the  first  and  the 
last  of  anything ;  also  as  a  symbol  of 
the  Divine  Being.  They  were  also 
formerly  the  symbol  of  Christianity, 
and  engraved  accordingly  on  the  tombs 
of  the  ancient  Christians. 

Alphabet,  so  called  from  alpha 
and  beta,  the  first  two  Greek  letters, 
is  the  name  given  to  a  set  of  graphic 
signs,  called  letters,  denoting  element- 
ary sounds,  by  the  combination  of 
which  words  can  be  visibly  repre- 
sented. Nearly  200  alphabets,  ancient 
and  modern,  are  known,  of  which 


Alpine  Plants 


Altar 


about   50   are  now  in  use.     Most  of 
them  are  developments  from  the  prim- 

cations  connect  it  with  nearly  all  the 
mountain    systems    of    Europe.     The 
culminating  peak  is  Mont  Blanc,  15,- 
781  feet  high,  though  the  true  center 
is  the  St.   Gothard,  or  the  mountain 
mass  where  it  belongs,  from  the  slopes 
of   which   flow,    either  directly   or   by 
affluents,  the  great  rivers  of   Central 
Europe,    the   Danube,    Rhine,   Rhone, 
and  Po. 
Alsace-Lorraine      (German,     El- 
sass-Lothringen  )  ,  since  its  cession  by 
France,  in  1871,  a  State  or  "  imperial 
territory"    (Reichsland)    of  the   Ger- 
man   empire.      Area,    5,604    square 
miles,  population,  1,874,014  of  whom 
eighty   per   cent   speak   German.      It 
is  governed  as  a  subject  province. 
On  May  9,  1902,  Emperor  William 
directed    that    a   bill    be    laid    before 
the  Federal  Council  abolishing  para- 
graph 10  in  the  imperial  constitution, 
which  imposed  practically  a  dictator- 
ship on  the  reichsland  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine.      This    imperial    action     was 
wholly   unexpected,    and   excited    the 
marked     gratitude     of     the     people 
affected.     The   bill  was  passed,    and 
resulted    in    the    establishment    of    a 
Landtag  of  two  chambers,  the  upper 
house  consisting  of  representatives  of 
the  churches,  universities,  and  profes- 
sional classes,  and  the  lower  one  of 
60  members  elected  by  secret  ballot. 
Alsace-Lorraine  was   lost   to    Ger- 
many  by   the   Peace   of  Ryswick   in 
1697,  and  France  held  control  till  the 
Peace  of  Frankfort,  after  the  Franco- 
Pruslsian   War  of  1870,   restored   the 
territory   to   Germany.      The   French 
never  abandoned  the  hope  and  expec- 
tation of  recovering  the  territory,  and 
one  of  their  first  movements  after  the 
opening  of  the  World  War  resulted  in 
operations  (the  battle  began  Aug.  19, 
1914)  by  which  a  portion  of  the  terri- 
tory was  occupied.     In  all  the  early 
rumors   of   mutual   peace   terms,    the 
French    insisted    that    this    territory 
should  be  wholly  restored,  while  the 
Germans  declared  that  under  no  cir- 
cumstances would  they  surrender  this 
Reichsland.     See  APPENDIX:     World 
War. 
Altar,  an  erection  made  for  the  of- 
fering of  sacrifices  for  memorial  pur- 
poses, or  for  some  other  object.     An 
altar  designed  for  sacrifice  is  mem- 
tioned  in  Scripture  as  early  as  the 

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XI 

ALPHABETS. 

itive  Phoenician   alphabet,  which  was 
itself     ultimately     derived     from     the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphic  picture-writing. 
Alpine    Plants,    the    name    given 
to   those   plants    whose   habitat   is   in 
the    neighborhood    of    the    snow,    on 
mountains  partly  covered  with  it   all 
the  year  round.     As  the  height  of  the 
snow-line  varies  according  to  the  lati- 
tude and  local  conditions,  so  also  does 
the  height  at  which  these  plants  grow. 
Alps,  the  highest  and  most  exten- 
sive system  of  mountains   in   Europe, 
included  between  lat.  44°  and  48°  N., 
and  long.  5°  and  18°  E.,  covering  the 
greater  part  of  Northern  Italy,  several 
departments    of    France,    nearly    the 
whole  of  Switzerland,  and  a  large  part 
of  Austria,  while  its  extensive  ramifi- 

Alterative 

time  of  Noah  (Genesis  viii :  20). 
Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  built  sev- 
eral altars  in  places  .where  for  a  brief 
or  more  lengthened  period  they  so- 
journed. Most  of  these  appear  to 
liave  been  for  sacrificial  purposes.and 
one  or  two  seem  to  have  been  for  me- 
morial ends;  but  the  most  unequivocal 
case  of  the  memorial  altar  was  subse- 
quently. (Josh,  xxii:  10-34;  Gen. 
xii:  7,  8;  xiii:  4,  18;  xxii:  9;  xxvi: 
25;  xxxiii:  20;  xxxv:  1,  7.) 

Alterative,  a  kind  of  medicine 
which,  when  given,  appears  for  a  time 
to  have  little  or  no  effect,  but  which 
ultimately  changes,  or  tends  to  change, 
a  morbid  state  into  one  of  health. 

Altgeld,  John  Peter,  author, 
lawyer,  and  judge,  born  in  Germany, 
in  December,  1847.  When  but  a  few 
months  old  he  was  taken  to  Mansfield, 
Ohio.  He  was  Judge  of  the  Supreme 
Court  at  Chicago,  in  1886-1891,  and 
Governor  of  Illinois  in  1893.  His 
pardon  of  the  Anarchists  caused  much 
controversy.  He  died  March  12, 1902. 

Altitude,  ni  mathematics  the  per- 
pendicular height  of  the  vertex  or 
apex  of  a  plane  figure  or  solid  above 
the  base.  In  astronomy  it  is  the  ver- 
tical height  of  any  point  or  body 
above  the  horizion. 

Alton,  city  in  Madison  county, 
111.;  on  the  Mississippi  river  and  sev- 
eral trunk  line  railroads;  3  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  25 
miles  N.  of  St.  Louis.  It  is  built  on 
a  high  bluff,  with  picturesque  sur- 
roundings; has  a  costly  bridge  span- 
ning the  Mississippi;  contains  the 
Cathedral  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul 
(R.  C.)  and  several  collegiate  and 
charitable  institutions;  and  flhips  lime, 
coal,  and  stone.  Pop.  (1910)  17,528. 

Altoona,  city  in  Blair  county, 
Pa.;  on  the  Pennsylvania  railroad, 
at  the  1  .  base  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains;  117  miles  E.  of  Pitts- 
burg.  It  is  a  mining,  manufactur- 
ing, lumbering,  and  farming  trade 
center  for  Central  Pennsylvania; 
and,  besides  extensive  machine  shops 
of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  has 
large  car  works,  rolling  and  planing 
mills,  and  other  industrial  plants, 
with  annual  product  valued  at  over 
$15,000,000.  Pop.  (1910)  52,127. 

Altranstadt,  an  important  village 
in  the  Prussian  Province  of  Saxony, 


Alva 

near  Lutzen.  Through  the  Treaty  of 
Altranstadt  of  Aug.  30,  1707,  Charles 
XII.  obtained  from  the  Emperor  Jo- 
hann  Joseph  I.  religious  liberty  and 
toleration  for  the  Protestants  of  Si- 
lesia. 

Altruism,  a  term  used  in  psychol- 
ogy and  ethics  to  denote  disposition 
and  conduct  directed  toward  the  well- 
being  of  others.  It  is  contrasted  with 
egoism,  or  self-seeking  disposition  and 
conduct. 

Alum,  the  name  given  to  double 
salts  of  sulphate  of  aluminum  with 
sulphates  of  potassium,  sodium,  am- 
monium, or  of  other  monatomic  met- 
als, as  silver,  thallium,  caesium,  ru- 
bidium. They  crystallize  in  octo- 
hedra.  Alum  has  a  sweet  astringent 
taste,  reddens  litmus  paper,  and  dis- 
solves in  its  own  weight  of  boiling 
water. 

Aluminum,  a  metal  discovered  by 
Wohler  in  1827,  as  a  gray  powder,  but 
in  1847  in  the  form  of  small,  glittering 
metallic  globules.  It  is  a  white  metal, 
somewhat  resembling  silver,  but  pos- 
sessing a  bluish  hue,  which  reminds 
one  of  zinc.  It  is  very  malleable  and 
ductile,  in  tenacity  it  approaches  iron, 
and  it  takes  a  high  polish. 

Alva,  or  Alba,  Ferdinand  Al- 
varez de  Toledo,  Duke  of,  prime 
minister  and  general  of  the  Spanish 
armies  under  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.,  was  born  in  1508,  of  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  families  of  Spain. 
He  entered  the  army  a  mere  youth, 
and  fought  in  the  wars  of  Charles  V. 
in  France,  Italy,  Africa,  Hungary, 
and  Germany.  He  is  more  specially 
remembered  for  his  bloody  and  tyran- 
nical government  of  the  Netherlands 
(1567-1573),  which  had  revolted,  and 
which  he  was  commissioned  by  Philip 
II.  to  reduce  to  entire  subjection  to 
Spain.  Among  bis  first  proceedings 
was  to  establish  the  "  Council  of 
Blood,"  a  tribunal  which  condemned, 
without  discrimination,  all  whose 
opinions  were  suspected,  and  whose 
riches  were  coveted.  The  present  and 
absent,  the  living  and  the  dead,  were 
subjected  to  trial  and  their  property 
confiscated.  Many  merchants  and  me- 
chanics emigrated  to  England ;  people 
by  hundreds  of  thousands  abandoned 
their  country.  The  most  oppressive 
taxes  were  imposed,  and  trade  was 


Alvary 


Amazon 


brought  completely  to  a  standstill.  As 
a  reward  for  his  services  to  the  faith, 
the  Pope  presented  him  with  a  conse- 
crated hat  and  sword,  a  distinction 
previously  conferred  only  on  princes. 
Resistance  was  only  quelled  for  a 
time,  and  soon  the  provinces  of  Hol- 
land and  Zealand  revolted  against  his 
tyranny.  A  fleet  which  was  fitted  out 
at  his  command,  was  annihilated,  and 
he  was  everywhere  met  with  insuper- 
able courage.  Hopeless  of  finally  sub- 
duing the  country,  he  asked  to  be  re- 
called, and,  accordingly,  in  December, 
1573,  Alva  left  the  country,  in  which, 
as  he  himself  boasted,  he  had  executed 
18,000  men.  He  died  Jan.  12,  1582. 

Alvary,  Max,  a  German  tenor, 
son  of  the  painter,  Andreas  Achen- 
bach,  whose  name,  however,  he  never 
used,  born  at  DUsseldorf,  May  1,  1858. 
He  was  first  a  merchant ;  then  an 
architect  in  Cologne ;  studied  singing 
with  Lamperti  in  Milan,  and  with 
Stockhausen  in  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main;  and  joined  the  court  opera  in 
Weimar.  In  1884  he  went  to  New 
York,  where  for  five  years  he  distin- 
guished himself  as  "  Tannhauser," 
"  Siegfried,"  "  Tristan,"  "  Loge," 
"Walter  Stolzing,"  and  other  Wag- 
nerian  characters.  In  1890,  he  re- 
turned to  Germany  and  sang  at  the 
City  Theater  in  Hamburg.  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  again  in 
1896.  He  died  near  Grosstabarz,  Nov. 
7,  1898. 

Amadene,  a  common  name  in  the 
house  of  Savoy.  Amadeus  I.,  of  Spain, 
born  in  1845,  brother  of  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  of  Italy,  was  elected  King 
of  Spain  in  1870,  abdicated  in  1873, 
and  died  in  1890. 

Amalfi,  a  city  and  seaport,  in  the 
Proviace  of  Salerno,  Italy ;  on  the 
Gulf  of  Salermo;  22  miles  S.  E.  of 
Naples.  It  contained  a  cathedral 
with  bronze  doors  cast  in  Constanti- 
nople in  1066,  and  a  Capuchin  mon- 
astery, which,  in  recent  years,  became 
a  popular  hotel.  On  Dec.  24,  1899,  a 
portion  of  fie  rocks  and  land  facing 
the  Gulf  suddenly  slid  into  the  water, 
carrying  down  the  ancient  monastery 
building  and  other  structures. 

Amalgam,  the  union  or  alloy  of 
any  metal  with  quicksilver  (mercury). 

Amana,  a  communistic  German  col- 
ony in  Iowa,  28  miles  W.  of  Iowa 


City,  founded  by  the  Amanites,  who 
branched  out  from  the  so-called  "  In- 
spiration Congregation,"  consisting  of 
seven  villages,  with  over  2,000  inhabi- 
tants, which,  through  agriculture,  wool 
and  cotton  spinning,  have  attained 
great  prosperity. 

Amanita,  a  genus  of  fungi,  nearly 
allied  to  the  mushrooms.     Several  of 


YOUNG  AMANITA.  ADULT  AMANITA. 

the  species  are  edible,  notably  the  de- 
licious orange  (A.  caesarea),  but  the 
majority  are  poisonous. 

Amarillo,  city  and  capital  of  Pot- 
ter county,  Tex.;  on  the  Fort  Worth 
&  Denver  City  railroad;  82  miles  N. 
W.  of  Memphis;  is  in  a  stock  raising 
and  farming  section;  and  is  a  ship- 
ping point  for  cattle  and  horses. 
Pop.  (1910)  9,957. 

Amaryllis,  a  genus  of  plants,  the 
typical  one  of  the  order  amaryllida- 
ceae. 

Amati,  a  family  of  Cremona,  in 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  famous 
for  their  violins,  which  are  at  the 
present  time  valued  very  highly  on  ac- 
count of  their  tone,  which  is  beautiful 
and  pure,  though  not  very  strong. 
They  are  sometimes  called  Cremona 
violins. 

Amaurosis,  a  disease  of  the  eye, 
arising  from  impaired  sensibility  of 
the  retina. 

Amazon,  a  river  of  South  America, 
the  largest  in  the  world,  formed  by  a 
great  number  of  sources  which  rise  in 
the  Andes ;  general  course  N.  of  E. ; 


America 


length,  including  windings,  between 
3,000  and  4,000  miles ;  area  of  drain- 
age basin,  2,300,000  square  miles. 

Amazon,  or  Amazone  (from  a  = 
without,  and  mazos^the  breast,  from 
the  story  that  the  Amazons  cut  off 
their  right  breast  to  prevent  its  inter- 
fering with  the  use  of  the  bow),  a  na- 
tion on  the  river  Thermpdon,  the  mod- 
ern Termeh  in  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor, 
said  to  consist  entirely  of  women  re- 
nowned for  their  love  of  manly  sports, 
and  as  warriors.  Men  were  excluded 
from  their  territory,  and  commerce 
was  held  only  with  strangers,  while  all 
male  children  born  among  them  were 
killed. 

Amber,   as  a  mineral,   called  also 
succinite,   from   Latin   succinum  =  am- 
ber.    Its  color  is  generally  yellow,  but , 
sometimes  reddish,  brownish,  or  whit- ; 
ish  and  clouded.     It  is  resinous  in  lus- 
ter, always  translucent,  and  sometimes 
transparent.     It  is  brittle,  and  yields 
easily  to  the  knife. 

Ambergris,  a  substance  derived 
from  the  intestines  of  the  sperm  whale, 
and  found  floating  or  on  the  shore. 

Ambos  Camarinea,  a  province 
of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  com- 
prising two  former  provinces,  and 
forming  a  long  peninsula  with  its 
main  frontage  on  the  Pacific  Ocean 
facing  N.  E.  and  E.;  area,  with  de- 
pendent islands,  3,161  sq.  m.;  pop. 
(1903)  239,405,  of  whom  5,933  were 
wild;  race,  chiefly  Vicoles. 

Ambrose,  St.,  a  celebrated  father 
Of  the  Church;  born  in  333  or  334 
A.  B.,  probably  at  Treves,  where  his 
father  was  prefect;  died  in  397.  He 
introduced  the  Ambrosian  chant,  and 
compiled  a  ritual  known  by  his  name. 

Ambrosia,  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  food  of  the  gods,  as  nectar  was 
their  drink. 

Ambrosian  Library,  a  public  li- 
orary  in  Milan,  founded  by  the  Cardi- 
nal Archbishop  Federigo  Borromeo,  a 
relation  of  St.  Charges  Borromeo,  and 
opened  in  1609 ;  now  containing  160,- 
000  printed  books  and  8,000  MSS.  It 
was  named  in  honor  of  St.  Ambrose, 
the  patron  saint  of  Milan. 

Ambrosins,  Johanna,  a  German 
poet  and  story  writer,  born  at  Leng- 
wethen,  East  Prussia,  Aug.  3,  1854. 
Daughter  of  an  artisan,  and  married 
in  1874  to  a  peasant's  son  by  the  name 


of  Voigt,  she  led  the  hard  life  of  a 
peasant  woman  till  middle  age. 

Ambulance,  a  hospital  establish- 
ment which  accompanies  an  army  in 
its  movements  in  the  field  for  the  pur- 
pose of  providing  assistance  and  surgi- 
cal treatment  to  the  soldiers  wounded 
in  battle.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
one  of  the  carts  or  wagons  used  to 
transfer  the  wounded  from  the  spot 
where  they  fell  to  the  hospital.  Also 
to  the  vehicles  used  in  cities  to  con- 
vey the  very  sick  or  injured  to 
hospitals. 

Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
World  War  patriotic  American  citi- 
zens fitted  up  and  sent  to  France  a 
large  number  of  ambulances,  organ- 
ized volunteer  units  to  operate  them, 
and  established,  as  a  part  of  the  field 
service,  base  and  temporary  hospitals 
in  close  proximity  to  the  firing  lines. 

Amen,  a  Hebrew  word  of  assever- 
ation, equivalent  to  "Yea,"  "Truly." 

Amendment,  in  law,  the  correc- 
tion of  any  mistake  discovered  in  a 
writ  or  process. 

In  legislative  proceedings,  a  clause, 
sentence,  or  paragraph  proposed  to  be 
substituted  for  another,  or  to  be  in- 
serted in  a  bill  before  Congress,  and 
which,  if  carried,  actually  becomes 
part  of  the  bill  itself.  As  a  rule 
amendments  do  not  overthrow  the 
principle  of  a  bill. 

In  public  meetings,  a  proposed  alter- 
ation of  the  terms  of  a  motion  laid 
before  a  meeting  for  acceptance. 

A  Mensa  et  Tnoro,  a  legal  term 
used  when  a  wife  is  divorced  from  her 
husband  (as  far  as  bed  and  board  are 
concerned),  liability,  however,  re- 
maining on  him  for  her  separate  main- 
tenance. 

Amentb.es,  the  unseen  world  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  the  Hades  of 
the  Greeks,  who  borrowed  their  ideas 
about  the  lower  world  from  Egypt. 

America,  or  the  New  World,  the 
largest  of  the  great  divisions  of  the 
globe  except  Asia,  is  washed  on  the 
W.  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  E.  by  the  At- 
lantic, on  the  N.  by  the  Arctic,  and  on 
the  S.  by  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  On 
the  N.  W.  it  approaches  at  Bering 
Straits  within  48  miles  of  Asia,  and 
on  the  N.  E.  Greenland  approaches 
within  370  miles  of  the  European  is- 
land Iceland;  but  in  the  S.  the  dis- 


America 

tance  between  the  American  mainland 
and  the  E.  continent  is  much  greater, 
the  shortest  distance  between  its  E. 
coast  and  the  W.  coast  of  Africa  being 
1,600  miles,  and  between  its  W.  coast 
and  the  E.  coasts x of  Asia  and  Aus- 
tralia from  six  to  eight  times  more. 
The  extreme  points  of  America  are  — 
N.,  the  point  of  Boothia  Felix,  in  the 
Strait  of  Bellot,  lat.  71°  56'  N.,  Ion. 
94°  34'  W. ;  S.,  Cape  Froward,  lat. 
53°  53'  45"  S.,  Ion.  71°  18'  30"  W., 
or,  if  the  archipelago  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  is  included,  Cape  Horn,  lat.  55° 
59'  S.,  Ion.  67°  16'  W. ;  W.,  Cape 
Prince  of  Wales,  lat.  65°  33'  N.,  Ion. 
167°  59'  W. ;  and  E.,  the  Point  de 
Guia,  lat  7°  26'  S.,  Ion.  34°  47'  W. 
The  entire  American  continent  has  a 
length  of  about  9,500  miles ;  a  maxi- 
mum breadth,  between  Cape  Prince  of 
Wales  and  Cape  Charles  in  North 
America,  of  3,500  miles ;  a  coast-line 
of  43,200  miles;  and  a  total  area,  in- 
cluding the  islands,  estimated  at  about 
15,896,000  square  miles. 

The  climate  of  America,  even  in  the 
equatorial  regions,  is  characterized  as 
comparatively  cool  and  humid.  This 
is  justly  ascribed  to  the  vast  extent 
of  territory  that  may  be  classed  as 
insular  —  to  the  copious  waters  of 
the  interior,  together  with  the  mag- 
nificent vegetation  produced  by  them 
—  to  the  configuration  of  the  surface 
and  the  nature  of  the  soil  —  to  the 
possession  of  a  polar  shore  —  and  to 
the  prevailing  winds.  The  rainy  zone 
is  disproportionately  extended  in 
America ;  and  as  the  continent 
stretches  over  all  the  zones,  the  vege- 
tation is  remarkably  diversified,  from 
the  lowly  moss  of  the  N.  to  the  lord- 
ly banana  of  the  tropics.  The  giant 
coast  chain  of  the  Andes  everywhere 
rises  above  the  snow-line.  From  the 
sterile  Peruvian  coast,  burned  up  by 
tropical  heats,  one  can  look  up  to 
summits  covered  with  perpetual  snow 
and  ice ;  and  one  may  climb  from  the 
gigantic  equatorial  vegetation  of  Qui- 
to to  heights  where  only  the  condor 
testifies  to  the  existence  of  organic 
life,  and  wings  his  flight  over  snow 
fields  and  glaciers.  In  Peru  the  cul- 
ture of  cereals  is  carried  on  at  the 
height  of  12,000,  and  near  Quito  at 
9,000  feet.  The  N.  and  S.  of  Amer- 
ica have  the  same  length  of  day ;  out 
in  the  seasons,  which  depend  not  mere- 


America 

ly  on  astronomical  but  on  a  variety 
of  local  causes,  the  analogy  does  not 
hold,  and  very  remarkable  discrepan- 
cies appear.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
E.  coast  of  Brazil  has  the  rainy  sea- 
son from  March  to  September,  while 
Peru,  lying  under  the  very  same  lati- 
tude, has  it  from  November  to  March. 
Within  the  tropics  the  transition  from 
the  rainy  to  the  dry  season  takes  place 
almost  instantaneously ;  but  in  re- 
ceding from  the  tropics  on  either  side 
the  change  of  seasons  becomes  more 
and  more  gradual,  till  at  last  in  the 
polar  zones,  nature,  bound  in  icy 
chains,  affords  for  living  existence 
only  a  short  awakening  out  of  a  long 
winter  sleep. 

If  America,  in  respect  of  the  devel- 
opment of  vegetable  life,  takes  prece- 
dence of  all  other  quarters  of  the 
globe,  it  cannot  advance  the  same 
claim  in  respect  of  the  animal  world, 
though  it  must  be  admitted  that  here 
too  it  has  its  own  peculiar  features. 
The  American  jaguar  and  cougar,  or 
puma,  have  not  the  majesty  of  the 
Asiatic  tiger  or  the  African  lion ;  the 
tapir  is  only  a  very  humble  represen- 
tative of  the  elephant  or  hippopota- 
mus, and  the  llama  falls  far  short  of 
the  camel.  Still,  America  has  many 
animals  whieh  belong  only  to  itself. 
It  has  its  own  species  of  bears  (the 
grizzly  being  most  formidable),  wolf, 
and  deer,  the  bison  and  musk  ox, 
with  special  kinds  of  squirrels,  etc. 
To  it  also  belong  the  Virginia  stag, 
the  wild  sheep  of  California,  the  opos- 
sum, and  raccoon.  Characteristic  of 
Central  and  South  America  are  sloths, 
ant-eaters,  and  armadillos,  the  con- 
dor among  the  heights  of  the  Andes, 
the  most  beautiful  parrots  as  well  as 
peculiar  monkeys  in  the  woods,  the 
humming  bird  with  its  rich  metallic 
plumage,  the  rattlesnake,  the  alliga- 
tor or  cayman  on  the  banks  of  the 
streams,  the  electrical  eel  in  the  trop- 
ical waters,  swarms  of  mosquitoes  on 
the  wide  plains,  and  sea  fowl  in  such 
numbers  on  the  W.  coast  as  to  have 
furnished  large  deposits  of  guano,  to 
which  some  of  the  richest  countries 
of  Europe  are  indebted  for  the  means 
of  extending  and  largely  increasing 
the  product  of  their  agriculture. 

The  independent  States  of  both 
North  and  South  America  are  now 
all  republican  in  their  form  of 


American.  Federation 


Americanism* 


government,  though  it  was  only  in 
1889  that  Brazil  became  a  republic 
instead  of  an  empire.  The  differ- 
ent independent  States  are  as 
follows :  In  NORTH  AMERICA  —  1. 
The  United  States ;  2.  Mexico ;  3.  Ni- 
caragua ;  4.  Honduras ;  5.  Guatema- 
la; 6.  Costa  Rica;  7.  (San)  Salva- 
dor. In  the  WEST  INDIES  —  8.  Cuba ; 
9.  Haiti ;  10.  San  Domingo.  In 
SOUTH  AMERICA  — 11.  Venezuela ; 
12.  Colombia ;  13.  Peru  ;  14.  Ecuador ; 
15.  Bolivia  ;  16.  Argentine  Republic  ; 
17.  Uruguay ;  18.  Paraguay ;  19. 
Chile;  20.  Brazil;  21.  Panama.  The 
European  colonies  in  America  are :  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  including  the 
provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  ^Nova 
Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Manitoba, 
British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  the  Northwest  Territories, 
etc. ;  Newfoundland  :  and  the  Bermu- 
das, all  belonging  to  Great  Britain ; 
Greenland,  belonging  to  Denmark ; 
and  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  to 
France.  The  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS 
comprise  the  republics  of  Haiti,  San 
Domingo,  and  Cuba ;  Porto  Rico,  for- 
merly Spanish,  is  now  a  territory  of 
the  United  States ;  the  British  pos- 
sessions of  Jamaica,  Trinidad,  Bar- 
bados, Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  Tobago, 
St.  Lucia,  Antigua,  Montserrat,  St. 
Christopher,  Anguilla,  Nevis,  Virgin 
Islands,  Dominica,  the  Bahamas, 
Turk's  Island,  etc. ;  the  French  pos- 
sessions of  Guadeloupe  and  depen- 
dencies (including  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's), Martinique,  the  N.  part  of 
the  island  of  St.  Martin's ;  the  Dutch 
possessions,  the  S.  side  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's Curasao  and  its  dependencies ; 
Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas  and  St. 
John's,  known  as  the  Danish  West 
Indies,  purchased  by  the  United  States 
for  $25,000,000  in  1917,  and  renamed 
the  Virgin  Islands  of  the  United 
States.  In  South  America  the  Brit- 
ish possess  (besides  the  Falkland 
Island)  a  part  of  Guiana,  the  re- 
mainder being  owned  respectively  by 
the  French  and  Dutch. 

The  merit  of  first  unlocking  the 
American  continent  to  modern 
Europe  belongs  to  the  Genoese 
Christopher  Columbus,  who,  after  a 
voyage  of  discovery  as  dangerous 
as  it  was  fortunate,  discovered,  in 
October,  1492,  Guanahani,  one  of 
the  Bahamas,  and  named  it  San 


Salvador.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that  Europeans  had  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  on  dif- 
ferent occasions,  discovered  the 
American  coasts.  Northmen  proceed- 
ing from  Iceland  discovered  the  N. 
polar  land  of  Greenland.  The  Ice- 
lander Bjorne  Herjulfson  in  986,  got 
a  glimpse  of  the  coasts  of  Massachu- 
setts and  Rhode  Island,  which  in  the 
year  1000  were  visited  by  Leif  the 
Lucky,  and  named  by  him  Vinland. 
In  1388  and  1390  Niccolo  and  Anto- 
nio Zeni  undertook  voyages  to  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  were 
wrecked  on  Frieslanda,  probably  the 
Faroe  Islands ;  thereafter  they  saw 
a  part  of  the  N.  E.  coast  of  Amer- 
ica, probably  Nova  Scotia,  which  they 
named  Drogno.  These  discoveries, 
however,  had  no  influence  on  the  en- 
terprise of  Columbus,  and  cannot  de- 
tract in  the  least  from  his  merit ; 
they  were  forgotten,  and  had  never 
been  made  known  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  S.  of  Europe.  Though  Colum- 
bus was  the  first  of  his  time  who 
set  foot  on  the  New  World,  it  has 
taken  its  name  not  from  him,  but 
from  Amerigo  Vespucci.  The  main- 
land was  first  seen  in  1497  by  Sebas- 
tian Cabot,  who  sailed  under  the 
patronage  of  Henry  VII.  of  England. 

American  Federation  of  La- 
bor, a  general  representative  organ- 
ization of  the  labor  unions  and  socie- 
ties of  the  United  States ;  founded  at 
Columbus,  O.,  in  December,  1886,  as 
the  successor  of  a  somewhat  similar 
association  which  dated  back  to  1866. 
Its  principal  objects  are  to  promote 
the  interests  and  influences  of  trades 
unions,  to  aid  in  creating  new  unions, 
and  to  advance  the  general  cause  of 
organized  labor.  It  does  not  under- 
take, however,  to  exercise  any  ab- 
solute authority  over  affiliated  socie- 
ties, as  is  done  by  the  Knights  of 
Labor.  It  has  been  especially  active 
in  agitating  for  "eight-hour  legis- 
lation. In  1917,  the  Federation  com- 
prised 109  national  and  international 
unions,  5  departments,  45  state 
branches,  718  city  central  unions,  689 
local  unions ;  membership,  2,045,793. 

American  Indians.  See  INDIANS, 
AMERICAN. 

Americanisms,  a  word  defined  as 
a  term,  phrase,  or  idiom  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  as  spoken  in  America 


Americanisms 

for  in  the  United  States)  which  either 
(a)  originated  in  America;  or,  (b) 
is  peculiar  to  America;  or,  (c)  is 
chiefly  employed  in  America.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  a  few  of  the  more 
noteworthy  Americanisms : 

Around  or  round. — About  or  near. 
To  hang  around  is  to  loiter  about. 

Backwoods. — The  partially  cleared 
forest  regions  in  the  western  states. 

Bayou. — In  Louisiana,  a  term  given 
to  a  small  stream.  The  same  as  "creek." 

Bee. —  An  assemblage  of  persons  to 
unite  their  labors  for  the  benefit  of 
an  individual  or  family  or  to  carry 
out  a  joint  scheme. 

Bogus. —  False ;  counterfeit. 

Boss. —  An  employer  or  superinten- 
dent of  laborers;  a  leader. 

Bulldoze,  to. — To  intimidate, 

Bunco. —  A  swindling  game. 

Buncombe  or  Bunkum. —  A  speech 
made  solely  to  please  a  constituency ; 
talking  for  talking's  sake,  and  in  an 
inflated  style. 

Calculate. —  To  suppose,  to  believe, 
to  think. 

Camp-meeting. — -A  meeting  held  in 
the  fields  or  woods  for  religious  pur- 
poses, and  where  the  assemblage  en- 
camp and  remain  for  several  days. 

Car. —  A  carriage  or  wagon  of  a 
railway  train.  The  Englishman  "trav- 
els by  rail,"  the  American  takes,  or 
goes  by,  the  cars. 

Carpet-bagger. —  A  needy  political 
adventurer  who  carries  a11  his  earthly 
goods  in  a  carpet-bag ;  originally  ap- 
plied to  politicians  from  the  Northern 
States  who  sought  offices  in  the  South 
after  the  Civil  War. 

Caucus. —  A  private  meeting  of  the 
leading  politicians  of  a  party  to  agree 
upon  the  plans  to  be  pursued  in  an 
approaching  election. 

Chunk. —  A  short,  thick  piece  of 
wood  or  any  other  material. 

Corn. —  Maize.  In  England,  wheat 
or  grain  in  general. 

Corn-husking  or  Corn-shucking. — 
An  occasion  on  which  a  farmer  invites 
his  neighbors  to  assist  him  in  strip- 
ping the  husks  from  his  corn. 

Creek. — A  small  tributary  of  a  large 
river.  Used  chiefly  in  the  West. 

Dead-heads. —  People  who  have  free 
admission  to  entertainments,  or  who 
have  the  use  of  public  conveyances,  or 
the  like,  free  of  charge. 

Down  East. —  In  or  into  the  New 


Americanisms 

England  States.     A  down-easter  is  a 
New  Englander. 

Drummer. —  A  commercial  traveler. 

Dry  goods. —  A  general  term  for 
such  articles  as  are  sold  by  linen- 
drapers,  haberdashers,  hosiers,  etc.,  in 
England. 

Fix,  to. —  To  put  in  order,  to  pre- 
pare, to  adjust.  To  fix  the  hair,  the 
table,  the  fire,  is  to  dress  the  hair,  lay 
the  table,  make  up  the  fire. 

Fixings. —  Arrangements,  dress,  em- 
bellishments,  luggage,   furniture,  gar- 
nishments of  any  kind. 
^  Fork. — Used  in  the  Southwest  in  a 
similar  sense  to  "  creek." 

Freeze  out. —  To  get  rid  of  objec- 
tionable persons. 

Gerrymander. —  To    arrange    politi- 
cal divisions  so  that  in  an  election  one 
party  may  obtain  an  advantage  over 
|  its   opponent,   even   though   the   latter 
may  possess  a  majority  of  votes. 

Grab. —  To  gain  a  privilege  without 
proper  payment. 

Greenback. —  A  former  kind  of  pa- 
per money. 

Guess,  to. —  To  believe,  to  suppose, 
to  think. 

Gulch. —  A  deep,  abrupt  ravine, 
caused  by  the  action  of  water. 

Happen  in,  to. —  To  happen  to  come 
in  or  call. 

llatchet,  to  bury  or  take  up  the. — 
To  end  or  begin  war. 

Help. —  The  labor  of  hired  persons 
collectively;  the  body  of  servants  be- 
longing to  a  farm  or  household  or  fac- 
tory. 

Hoe-cake. —  A  cake  of  corn  meal 
baked  on  or  before  the  fire. 

Hoodlum. —  A  rough. 

How  ! — Indian  abbreviation  of  "How 
do  you  do?" 

Jolly,  to. —  To  flatter,  to  tease,  to 
poke  fun  at 

Johnny  cake. —  A  cake  made  of  corn 
meal  mixed  with  milk  or  water. 

Log-rolling. —  The  assembly  of  sev- 
eral parties  of  wood-cutters  to  help 
one  of  them  in  rolling  their  logs  to 
the  river  after  they  are  felled  and 
trimmed ;  also  employed  in  politics  to 
signify  a  like  system  of  mutual  co- 
operation. 

Lynch  law. —  An  irregular  species 
of  justice  executed  by  the  people  or  a 
mob,  without  legal  authority  or  trial. 

Mail  letters,  to. —  To  post  letters. 
Make  tracks,  to. —  To  run  away. 


American  Municipal  League 


American  Party 


Mush. —  A  kind  of  hasty-pudding. 

Nickel. —  A  five-cent  coin. 

Rations. —  A  term  applied  to  every 
variety  of  small  wares. 

One-horse. —  A  one-horse  thing  is  a 
thing  of  no  value  or  importance;  a 
mean  or  trifling  thing. 

Oxbow. —  The  bend  in  a  river  or 
the  land  inclosed  within  such  a  bend. 

Peart  (in  the  South). —  Equal  to 
smart  or  well. 

Piazza. —  A  veranda. 

Picayune. —  A  trifle. 

Pickaninny. —  A  negro  child. 

Pile. —  A  quantity  of  money. 

Planks. —  In  politics,  the  several 
principles  which  appertain  to  a  party  ; 
"  platform  "  is  the  collection  of  such 
principles. 

Pull. —  A  special  individual  favor. 

Reckon,  to. —  To  suppose,  to  think. 

Right  smart. —  Very   well. 

Roast,  to. —  To  criticise  severely. 

Scab. —  A  non-union  workman. 

Scalawag. —  A  scamp,  a  scapegrace. 

Shake. —  To  leave  a  person. 

Skedaddle,  to. —  To  run  away,  a 
word  introduced  during  the  Civil  war. 

Smart. —  Used  in  the  sense  of  con- 
siderable, a  good  deal,  as  a  smart 
chance ;  also  equal  to  well,  as  "  right 
smart,"  very  well. 

Stakes,  to  pluck  or  pull  up. —  To 
remove. 

Stampede. —  The  sudden  flight  of  a 
crowd,  or  of  cattle  or  horses. 

Stiff. —  In  medical  schools,  a  corpse. 

Store. —  Same  as  shop  in  Great 
Britain;  as  a  book  store,  a  grocery 
store. 

Strike  oil,  to. —  To  come  upon  pe- 
troleum ;  hence,  to  make  a  lucky  hit, 
especially  financially. 

Stump'  speech. — A  speech  calcu- 
lated to  please  the  popular  ear,  such 
speeches  in  newly  settled  districts 
being  often  delivered  from  the  stumps 
of  trees. 

Ticker. —  A  watch ;  also  a  telegraph 
receiver. 

Ticket,  to  vote  the  straight. —  To 
vote  for  all  the  men  or  measures  on 
the  ticket. 

Truck. —  The  small  produce  of  gar- 
dens ;  truck  patch,  a  plot  in  which  the 
smaller  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
raised. 

Turn  down,  to. —  To  reject  or  ig- 
nore ;  used  of  office  seekers  especially. 

Vamose,  to. —  To  run  off. 


Vendue. —  An  auction ;  to  vendue, 
to  sell  at  auction. 

Whoop  it  up. —  To  create  an  ex- 
citement. 

WUt. —  To  become  soft  or  languid, 
to  lose  energy,  pith,  or  strength. 

American    Municipal    Iieagne, 

an  organization  with  branches  in  all 
important  American  and  Canadian 
cities,  founded  for  the  promotion  of 
municinal  administration. 

American  Party,  The,  the  name 
of  three  separate  organizations  which 
at  different  times  held  a  prominent 
place  in  the  political  affairs  of  the 
United  States.  The  first,  organized 
about  1852,  at  a  time  when  the  Whig 
Party  was  near  its  dissolution  was, 
in  fact,  a  secret  society,  and  was  bet- 
ter known  in  later  years  as  the  "Know 
Nothings,"  from  the  assumed  ignor- 
ance of  its  members  when  questioned 
in  regard  to  the  objects  and  name  of 
the  order.  Its  principal  doctrine  was 
opposition  to  all  foreigners  and  Ro- 
man Catholics,  and  its  motto  was 
"  Americans  must  rule  America."  The 
first  National  Convention  of  the  Par- 
ty was  held  in  February,  1856,  at 
which  resolutions  were  adopted,  de- 
manding a  lengthening  of  the  resi- 
dence necessary  to  naturalization,  and 
condemning  President  Pierce's  admin- 
istration for  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise.  A  number  of  the 
members  withdrew  because  of  the  re- 
fusal to  consider  a  resolution  regard- 
ing the  restriction  of  slavery.  Mi  Hard 
Fillmore,  of  New  York,  was  nominated 
for  President,  and  Andrew  Jackson 
Donelson  for  Vice-President,  which 
nominations  were  subsequently  in- 
dorsed by  a  Whig  Convention.  Fill- 
more  carried  but  one  State,  Maryland ; 
his  popular  vote  being  about  850,000. 
The  party  was  successful  in  carrying 
the  State  elections  in  Rhode  Island 
and  Maryland  in  1857,  but  never 
gained  any  popularity  in  the  Western 
States.  A  second  party,  bearing  the 
same  name,  but  directly  adverse  to  the 
first  in  that  it  was  founded  in  opposi- 
tion to  secret  societies,  was  organized 
for  political  purposes  by  the  National 
Christian  Association,  at  the  adjourn- 
ment of  a  convention  held  by  the  lat- 
ter body  at  Oberlin,  O.,  in  1872.  The 
organization  was  completed  and  the 
name  adopted  at  a  convention  in  Syra- 
cuse, N.  Y.,  in  1874.  At  Pittsburg, 


American  Protective  Asso. 


America's  Cup 


.Tune  9,  1875,  a  platform  was  adopted 
in  which  were  demanded  recognition 
of  the  Sabbath,  the  introduction  of 
the  Bible  into  public  schools,  prohibi- 
tion of  the  sale  of  liquors,  the  with- 
drawal of  the  charters  of  secret  socie- 
ties, and  legislative  prohibition  of 
their  oaths,  arbitration  of  internation- 
al disputes,  the  restriction  of  land 
monopolies,  resumption  of  specie  pay- 
ment, justice  to  the  Indians,  and  a 
direct  popular  vote  for  President  and 
Vice-President.  James  B.  Walker  of 
Illinois  was  nominated  for  President. 
In  1880,  the  party  again  made  nom- 
inations, and  in  1884,  S.  C.  Pomeroy 
was  nominated,  but  withdrew  in  favor 
of  John  P.  St.  John,  the  Prohibition 
candidate.  The  third  party  to  be  called 
by  the  name  of  American  Party  was 
organized  at  a  convention  held  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Sept.  10-17,  1887.  Its  prin- 
cipal aims,  as  set  forth  in  its  plat- 
form, were,  to  oppose  the  existing 
system  of  immigration  and  naturaliza- 
tion of  foreigners ;  to  demand  its  re- 
striction and  regulation  so  as  to  make 
a  14-years'  residence  a  prerequisite  of 
naturalization ;  to  exclude  from  the 
benefits  of  citizenship  all  anarchists, 
and  other  dangerous  characters ;  to  de- 
fend free  schools ;  to  condemn 
alien  proprietorship ;  to  declare  for 
the  permanent  separation  of  Church 
and  State,  and  in  favor  of  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  But 
little  has  been  heard  of  the  American 
Party  in  the  past  few  years. 

American  Protective  Associa- 
tion, popularly  known  as  the  "A.  P. 
A.,"  a  secret  order  organized  through- 
out the  United  States,  with  branches 
in  Canada,  which  has  attracted  much 
attention  by  its  aggressive  platform 
and  active  agitation.  Its  chief  doc- 
trine, as  announced  in  its  declaration 
of  principle,  is  that  "  subjection  to 
and  support  of  any  ecclesiastical  pow- 
er not  created  and  controlled  by  Amer- 
ican citizens,  and  which  claims  equal, 
if  not  greater,  sovereignty  than  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  is  irreconcilable  with  Amer- 
ican citizenship ;  "  and  it  accordingly 
opposes  "  the  holding  of  offices  in  Na- 
tional, State,  or  Municipal  Govern- 
ment by  any  subject  or  supporter  of 
such  ecclesiastical  power."  Another 
of  its  cardinal  purposes  is  to  prevent 
all  public  encouragement  and  support 


of  sectarian  schools.  It  does  not  con- 
stitute a  separate  political  party,  but 
seeks  to  control  existing  parties,  and 
to  elect  friendly  and  defeat  objection- 
able candidates,  by  the  concerted  ac- 
tion of  citizens  affiliated  with  all  par- 
ties. The  order  was  founded  March 
13,  1887,  and  claims  a  membership  of 
about  2,000,000. 

American  Psychological  Asso- 
ciation, an  organization  founded  in 
1892  for  the  advancement  of  psychol- 
ogy as  a  science. 

American  Social  Science  Asso- 
ciation, a  society  organized  in  1865. 

American  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers, an  association  instituted  in 
1852 ;  holds  two  meetings  each  month 
(excepting  in  July  and  August)  at 
headquarters,  220  W.  57th  st.,  New 
York  city ;  membership,  2,200. 

American  Society  of  Mechani- 
cal Engineers,  an  organization  char- 
tered in  1881 ;  annual  dues,  members 
and  associates,  $15 ;  juniors,$10 ;  en- 
trance fee,  members  and  associates, 
$25,  juniors,  $15 ;  membership  unlim- 
ited ;  holds  two  meetings  annually ; 
headquarters,  12  W.  31st  St,  New 
York  city. 

American  System,  a  term  used 
by  Henry  Clay  and  applied  to  his  plan 
of  protective  duties  and  internal  im- 
provements, as  proposed  in  the  de- 
bates in  Congress  which  resulted  in 
the  tariff  law  of  1824.  At  present  it 
is  used  to  denote  the  policy  of  protec- 
tion to  home  industries  by  means  of 
duties  on  imports. 

America's  Cnp,  a  yachting  trophy, 
originally  known  as  the  Queen's  Cup, 
offered  as  a  prize  to  the  yachts  of  all 
nations  by  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron 
of  Great  Britain,  in  1851.  The  first 
contest  for  it  was  held  Aug.  22  of  that 
year,  when  it  was  won  by  the  Ameri- 
can yacht  "  America,"  whose  owners 
deeded  it  in  trust  to  the  New  York 
Yacht  club.  The  subsequent  success 
of  American  yachts  in  keeping  the  cup 
caused  it  to  become  known  as  the 
"  America's  "  Cup. 

In  1903  Sir  Thomas  Lipton  pre- 
sented Shamrock  III.  as  challenger 
for  the  America's  Cup,  Reliance,  built 
by  the  Herreshoffs,  being  presented  as 
defender  of  the  Cup  by  an  American 
syndicate,  with  Mr.  Iselin  as  manager. 
Several  of  the  races  were  called  off 


America's  Cup 


America's  Cup 


RECORD     OF      CONTESTS     FOR     THE     AMERICA  S     CUP. 


Date. 

Names  of  Yachts. 

Course. 

Time. 
H.  M.   S. 

Aug.  22,  1851 
Aug.  8,  1870 
Oct.  16,  1871 
Oct.  18,  1871 
Oct.  19,  1871 
Oct.  21,  1871 
Oct.  23,  1871 
Aug.  11,  1876 
Aug.  12,  1876 
Nov.  9,  1881 
Nov.  10,  1881 
Sep.  14,  1885 
Sep.  16,  1885 
Sep.  9,  1886 
Sep.  11,  1886 
Sep.  27,  1887 
Sep.  30,  1887 
Oct.  7,  1893 
Oct.  9,  1893 
Oct.  13,  1893 
Sep.  7,  1895 
Sep.  10,  1895 
Sep.  12,  1898 
Oct.  20,  1899 
Oct.  3,  1901 
Oct.  4,  1901 
Sep.  3,  1903 

America  

From    Cowes,    around   the    Isle   of  ( 

10    37    00 

i  N.  Y.  Y.  C.  course,  about  39  miles  i 
iN.  Y.  Y.  C.  course... 

3     58    21 
4    37    38 
6     10    44 

6     46     45 
3    07    41 
3     18    15 
4    02     25 
4    17    35 
5    39    02 
6    09    23 
4    16    17 
5     11     55 
5    23     54 
5     34     53 
7    18    45 
7     46    00 
4    17    00 
4     45     39 
4     54    32 
5    33     47 

6    06    05 
6    22     24 
5     63     14 
5    04     53 
5    26     41 
5    38    43 
6    49    10 
7     18     09 
4    53     18 
5    12     41 
5     42     56 
5    54     45 
4    05    47 
4     11     35 
3    25     01 
3     55    38 
3    24     3C 
3     25     ISr 
4     59     54 
5     08     44 
3     55     56 
3     55     09 

4     48     48 

* 

3     38     09 
3     44     43 
3     12     35 
3     16    10 
4    32     57 
4    33     38 
4      00    28 
t 

Cambria  

>                                                                   I 

(  20    miles    to    windward    off    Sandy  / 
Hook  lightship,  and  return  ) 

j  N.    Y.    Y.    C.    course  —  Columbia  I 

Columbia  

\  29    miles    to    windward    off    Sandy  ) 
i       Hook  lightship  and  return  ) 
{IK.  Y.  Y.  C.  course  j 

Livonia  
Madeleine  

1  N    Y    Y    C    course                              5 

Countess  of  Dutferin. 
Madeleine  

5  20   miles   to   windward   off    Sandy  I 
.(      Hook  lightship,  and  return  ) 
[  N.  Y.  Y.  C.  course  j 

Countess  of  Dufferin. 

C  16  miles   to  leeward   from  buoy   5  \ 
i      off    Sandy    Hook    lightship,    and  ( 
(      return  \ 

Puritan  

[N.  Y    Y    C    course                              ( 

(  20     miles     to    leeward     off     Sandy  i 

Genesta  

Mayflower  

1  N.  Y.  Y.  C.  course  < 

Galatea  

(  20    miles.   to«    leeward    off    Sandy  ) 

>  N.  Y.  Y.  C.  course  j 

Thistle  1 
Volunteer  

c  20    miles    off    Scotland    lightship,  > 

Thistle  

Vigilant  

t  15    miles  to   windward   off    Sandy  ) 

Valkyrie  

(Irregular    course:    10    miles    to    a) 

Vigilant  

i!5    miles  to   windward   off    Sandy  > 

Defender  

15    miles   to   windward   off    Sandy  j 
Hook,  and  return  } 

Valkyrie  III  

Defender  
Valkyrie  III  

3  15    miles  to   windward   off    Sandy  ) 
Hook,  and  return  > 

Defender  
Valkyrie  III  

(  15    miles    to   windward   off    Sandy  > 
Hook,   and  return  ) 

(15    miles   to   windward   off    Sandy  ) 
f      Hook,   and   return  ) 

Columbia  
Shamrock   II  

fSO  miles  triangular  course  j 
1  15  miles  leeward  and  back         ---i 

Columbia  

Reliance    

j  15     miles    to    leeward     off    Sandy  ) 
/       Hook,    and   return  J 

Shamrock    III  

*  Did   not   finish. 

Shamrock  II.   finished  first,  but  lost  race  on  time  allowance  of  43  seconds. 

t  Reliance  won  by  1 1  minutes. 


Amerigo  Vespucci 


Amharlo 


on  account  of  the  time  limit,  Reliance 
being  ahead  in  all  of  them,  as  well  as 
in  the  three  races  which  decided  the 
contest.  In  the  final  race,  Thursday, 
Sept.  3,  Reliance  started  at  1:01:56 


THE  AMERICA'S  CUP. 

p.  m.,  Shamrock  at  1 :02  :00  p.  m.  Re- 
liance turned  the  outer  mark  at 
3  :40  :30,  to  Shamrock  III.'s  3  :51 :40. 
Reliance  won  the  race  in  four  hours 
and  twenty-eight  minutes. 

Amerigo  Vespucci.  See  VES- 
PUCCI. 

Ames,  Adalbert,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  1835 ;  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point,  18G1 ;  became 
Brigadier-General  and  brevet  Major- 
General  United  States  Volunteers,  in 
the  Civil  War;  Provisional  Governor 
of  Mississippi,  1868;  resigned  army 
commission,  1870;  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  Mississippi,  1870-1873, 
Governor  1874-1876;  and  Brigadier- 
General  United  States  Volunteers  in 
the  war  with  Spain,  1898. 

Ames,  Charles  Gordon,  an 
American  clergyman,  editor,  and  lec- 
turer, born  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Oct. 


3,  1828.  He  graduated  at  the  Geauga 
Seminary,  Ohio ;  was  ordained  in  1849 
as  a  Free  Baptist,  but  later  became  a 
Unitarian,  and  pastor  of  the  Church 
of  the  Disciples,  Boston.  He  was  eu- 
itor  of  the  Minnesota  "  Republican  " 
and  the  "  Christian  Register,"  of  Bos- 
ton. He  wrote  "  George  Eliot's  Two 
Marriages."  He  died  April  15,  1912. 

Ames,  Eleanor  Kirk,  an  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Warren,  R.  I., 
Oct.  7,  1831.  Among  her  many 
books  are  "  Information  for  Authors," 
"  Beecher  as  a  Humorist,"  "  The  In- 
fluence of  the  Zodiac  on  Human  Life," 
etc.  She  died  June  24,  19G& 

Ames,  Fisher,  an  American  ora- 
tor and  statesman,  born  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  April  9,  1758.  Admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1781,  he  became  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1789,  where  he  gained  a 
national  reputation  by  his  oratory. 
Two  of  his  finest  efforts  were  in  sup- 
port of  John  Jay's  treaty  with  Great 
Britain,  and  a  eulogy  on  Washington 
before  the  Massachusetts  Legislature. 
He  was  elected  president  of  Harvard 
College  in  1804,  but  declined.  A  bril- 
liant talker,  he  was  distinguished  in 
conversation  for  wit  and  imagination, 
while  his  character  was  spotless.  His 
works  consist  of  orations,  essays,  and 
letters  (2  vols.,  1854).  He  *.ied  in 
Dedham,  July  4,  1808. 

Ames,  Mary  Clemmer,  an  Amer- 
ican author,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  ia 
1839 ;  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  Springfield  "  Republican,"  and 
afterward  to  the  New  York  "  Inde- 
pendent." Married  to  and  divorced 
from  the  Rev.  Daniel  Ames,  she  be- 
came, in  1883,  the  wife  of  Edward 
Hudson  at  Washington.  Among  her 
works  are  a  volume  of  "  Poems " 
(1882)  ;  and  biographies  of  Alice  and 
Phoebe  Gary.  She  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  Aug.  18,  1884. 

Ametabola,  a  class  of  wingless  in- 
sects, which  do  not  undergo  netamor- 
phosis.  They  include  bird  lice,  etc. 

Amethyst,  a  precious  stone,  a  va- 
riety of  quartz,  named  by  Dana  ame- 
thystine quartz.  The  Oriental  amethyst 
is  a  rare  purple  variety  of  sapphire. 
The  best  specimens  are  brougLt  from 
India,  Armenia,  and  Arabia. 

Amharic,  or  Amarinna,  a  Se- 
mitic language  with  an  intermixture 
of  African  words;  since  the  14th  cen- 


Amherst  College 


Ammonite 


tury  the  court  and  official  language 
of  Abyssinia. 

Amherst  College,  an  educational 
Institution  in  Amherst,  Mass. ;  found- 
ed in  1821  and  incorporated  in  1825. 

Amiel,  Henri  Frederic,  a  dis- 
tinguished Swiss  essayist,  philosophi- 
cal critic,  and  poet,  born  at  Geneva, 
Sept.  27,  1821.  He  died  in  Geneva, 
March  11,  1881. 

Animen,  Daniel,  an  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Brown  county,  O., 
May  15,  1820;  entered  the  United 
States  navy,  July  7,  1836.  He  was 
executive  officer  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War.  From  1861  to  1865 
he  rendered  signal  service  in  the  at- 
tacks on  Port  Royal,  Fort  Macallister, 
Fort  Fisher,  and  both  the  ironclad  at- 
tacks on  Fort  Sumter.  On  June  4, 
1878,  he  was  retired  with  the  rank 
of  Rear-admiral.  He  was  the  designer 
of  the  Ammen  life  raft  and  harbor  de- 
fense ram.  Among  his  works  are  "The 
Old  Navy  and  the  New,"  and  "Navy 
in  the  Civil  War"  J1883).  He  died 
in  Washington,  D.  C\,  July  11,  1898. 

Ammergau,  Ober-  and  TTnter, 
two  adjoining  villages  in  Upper  Ba- 
varia, in  the  higher  part  of  the  valley 
of  the  Ammer,  42  miles  S.  W.  by  S.  of 
Munich.  Ober-Ammergau  is  noted  for 
the  performance  of  the  "  Passion 
Play,"  a  series  of  dramatic  represen- 
tations of  the  sufferings  of  Christ, 
which  is  produced  every  tenth  year 
by  about  500  performers,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  vow  made  at  the  time  of 
the  pestilence  of  1634.  During  the  in- 
tervening years,  the  actors  give  a 
series  of  representations  of  Old  Tes- 
tament legends.  The  performance  gen- 
erally lasts  seven  or  eight  hours,  often 
without  intermission,  and  is  partly  a 
religious  service  and  partly  a  popular 
festival.  In  1889,  a  theater  was  built 
just  outside  the  place,  with  a  stage 
and  auditorium  capable  of  seating 
6,000  persons.  On  the  height  near  by 
is  a  colossal  memorial  of  "  Christ  on 
the  Cross,  with  Mary  and  John," 
modeled  by  Halbig,  the  gift  of  King 
Ludwig  II. 

Ammiamis  Marcellinus,  a  Ro- 
man historian,  born  of  Greek  parents 
at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  about  330. 

Animon,  the  eponymic  ancestor  of 
ft  people,  known  in  Hebrew  and  Bibli- 


cal history  as  the  "children  of  Ani- 
mon "  or  Ammonites ;  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament  Ac- 
cording to  the  account  in  Genesis 
(xix:  38),  Ammon  was  the  son  of 
Lot. 

Ammon,  a  god  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  worshipped  especially  in 
Thebes  (No-Ammon),  and  early  rep- 
resented as  a  ram  with  downward 
branching  horns,  the  symbols  of  pow- 
er; as  a  man  with  a  ram's  head;  and 
as  a  complete  man  with  two  high 
feathers  on  his  head,  bearded,  sitting 
on  a  throne,  and  holding  in  his  right 
hand  the  scepter  of  the  gods,  in  his 
left  the  handled  cross,  the  symbol  of 
divine  life.  The  worship  of  Ammon. 
spread  at  an  early  period  to  Greece, 
and  afterward  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
identified  with  Zeus  and  Jupiter. 

Ammonia,  a  colorless,  pungent 
gas,  with  a  strong  alkaline  reaction. 
It  can  be  liquefied  at  the  pressure  of 
seven  atmospheres  at  15°.  Ammonia 
is  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of 
animal  or  vegetable  matter  containing 
nitrogen;  horns,  hoofs,  etc.,  produce 
large  quantities;  hence  its  name  of 
spirits  of  hartshorn.  Guano  consists 
chiefly  of  urate  of  ammonia.  But 
ammonia  is  now  obtained  from  the 
liquor  of  gasworks,  coal  containing 
about  2  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  as  an  antacid  and 
stimulant ;  it  also  increases  the  secre- 
tions. Fxternally,  it  is  employed  as  a 
rubefacient  and  vesicant.  Ammonia 
is  used  as  an  antidote  in  cases  of  poi- 
soning by  prussic  acid,  tobacco,  and 
other  sedative  drugs. 


AMMONITES. 
Ammonite,  a  large  genus  of  fossil 

chambered  shells. 


Ammonites 


Amsterdam 


Ammonites,  a  Semitic  race  of 
people,  living  on  the  edge  of  the  Syr- 
ian Desert ;  according  to  Gen.  xix  :  38, 
the  descendants  of  Lot,  and  closely 
akin  to  the  Moabites.  They  inhabited 
the  country  lying  to  the  N.  of  Moab, 
between  the  rivers  Arnon  and  Jabbok. 
Their  chief  city  was  Rabbath-Ammon. 
The  Israelites  were  often  at  war  with 
them.  From  the  name  of  their 
princes,  it  is  evident  that  their  lan- 
guage was  closely  akin  to  Hebrew. 
Their  chief  deity  was  Moloch. 

Amnesty,  an  act  of  oblivion  passed 
after  an  exciting  political  period.  Its 
object  is  to  encourage  those  who  have 
compromised  themselves  by  rebellion 
or  otherwise  to  resume  their  ordinary 
occupations,  and  this  it  does  by  giving 
them  a  guarantee  that  they  shall  never 
be  called  upon  to  answer  for  their 
past  offenses. 

Amor,  the  god  of  love  among  the 
Romans,  equivalent  to  the  Greek  Eros. 

Amorites,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Ca- 
naanites,  who  inhabited  the  country 
N.  E.  of  the  Jordan,  as  far  as  Mount 
Hermon. 

Amos,  one  of  the  so-called  minor 
prophets  of  the  Hebrews,  was  a  herds- 
man of  Tekoa,  in  the  neighborhod  of 
Bethlehem,  and  also  a  dresser  of  syca- 
more trees.  During  the  reigns  of 
Uzziah  in  Judah,  and  Jeroboam  II.  in 
Israel  (about  800  B.  c.)»  be  came  for- 
ward to  denounce  the  idolatry  then 
prevalent. 

Amoy,  a  seaport  town  and  one  of 
the  treaty  ports  of  China;  on  a  small 
island  of  the  same  name  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Fukien ;  325  miles  E.  by  N.  E. 
of  Canton,  and  directly  opposite  the 
island  of  Formosa.  During  the  in- 
ternational military  operations  in 
China,  in  1900,  the  city  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Japanese. 

Ampere,  the  practical  unit  of  elec- 
tric current  strength.  It  is  the  mea- 
sure of  the  current  produced  by  an 
electro-motive  force  of  one  volt  through 
a  resistance  of  one  ohm.  In  electric 
quantity  it  is  the  rate  of  one  coulomb 
per  second. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie,  a  French 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was 
born  at  Lyons  in  1775.  He  died  at 
Marseilles,  June  10,  1836. 

Amphibia,  in  zoology,  animals 
Which  can  live  indiscriminately  on 


land  or  water,  or  which  at  one  part 
of  their  existence  live  in  water  and 
at  another  on  land. 

Amphictyonic  Council,  a  cele- 
brated council  of  the  States  of  ancient 
Greece.  The  members  of  this  confed- 
eration bound  themselves  by  an  oath 
not  to  destroy  any  city  of  the  Am- 
phictyons,  nor  cut  off  their  streams 
in  war  or  peace,  and  to  employ  all 
their  power  in  punishing  those  who 
did  so,  or  those  who  pillaged  the  prop- 
erty of  the  god,  or  injured  his  temple 
at  Delphi. 

Ampliion,  in  mythology,  the  son 
of  Jupiter  and  Antiope;  the  eldest  of 
the  Grecian  musicians.  To  express 
the  power  of  his  music,  and,  perhaps, 
of  his  eloquence,  the  poets  said,  that, 
at  the  sound  of  his  lyre,  the  stones 
voluntarily  formed  themselves  into 
walls ;  that  wild  beasts,  and  even 
trees,  rocks,  and  streams,  followed 
the  musician. 

Amphipolis,  an  important  city  of 
Thrace  or  Macedonia;  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Strymon  river;  33  miles  from 
the  .ZEgean.  The  site  is  now  occupied 
by  the  Turkish  town  of  Yenikeui. 

Amphitheater, "  a  double  theater. 
The  ancient  theaters  were  nearly  semi- 
circular in  shape ;  or,  more  accurately, 
they  were  half  ovals,  so  that  an  am- 
phitheater, theoretically  consisting  of 
two  theaters,  placed  with  their 
concavities  meeting  each  other,  was, 
loosely  speaking,  a  nearly  circular,  or, 
more  precise1  y,  an  oval  building.  The 
Romans  built  amphitheaters  wherever 
they  went.  Remains  of  them  are  still 
to  be  found  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope ;  but  the  most  splendid  ruins  ex- 
isting are  those  of  the  Coliseum  at 
Rome,  which  was  said  to  have  held 
87,000  people. 

Amsterdam,  a  city  in  Montgom- 
ery county,  N.  Y.;  on  the  Mohawk 
river  and  several  trunk  line  rail- 
roads; 33  miles  N.  W.  of  Albany;  is 
especially  noted  for  its  manufactures 
of  knit  goods,  carpets,  steel  springs, 
and  paper.  Pop.  (1910)  31,267. 

Amsterdam  ("dam"  or  "dike  of 
the  Amstel"),  the  capital  of  the 
Netherlands.  Almost  the  whole  city, 
which  extends  in  the  shape  of  a  cres- 
cent, is  founded  on  piles  driven  40  or 
50  feet  through  soft  peat  and  sand  to 
a  firm  substratum  of  clay. 


Amulet 

The  population,  which  from  217,024 
in  1794,  sank  to  180,179  in  1815,  rose 
steadily  to  580,960,  as  reported  on 
Dec.  31,  1911,  of  whom  the  ma- 
jority belong  to  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church.  Of  the  remainder, 
about  80,000  are  Catholics,  30,000 
German  Jews,  and  3,200  Portuguese 
Jews.  The  chief  industrial  establish- 
ments are  sugar  refineries,  engineer- 
ing works,  mills  for  polishing  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  dock- 
yards, manufactories  of  sails,  ropes, 
tobacco,  silks,  gold  and  silver  plate 
and  jewelry,  colors,  and  chemicals, 
breweries,  distilleries,  with  export 
houses  for  corn  and  colonial  produce ; 
cotton-spinning,  book-printing,  and 
type-founding  are  also  carried  on.  The 
present  Bank  of  the  Netherlands  dates 
from  1824,  Amsterdam's  famous  bank 
of  1609  having  been  dissolved  in  1796. 

Amulet,  anything  hung  around  the 
neck,  placed  like  a  bracelet  on  the 
wrist,  or  otherwise  attached  to  the 
person,  as  an  imagined  preservative 
against  sickness,  witchcraft,  or  other 
evils.  Amulets  were  common  in  the 
ancient  world,  and  they  are  so  yet  in 
nations  where  ignorance  prevails. 

Amundsen,  Roald,  a  Norwegian 
explorer ;  born  in  Christiania  in  1872. 
He  came  from  a  family  long  identified 
with  sea  life ;  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Christiania ;  and  on  the 
urging  of  his  family  began  studying 
medicine,  but  soon  abandoned  it  to 
engage  in  polar  research.  In  1898-9 
he  was  with  the  Belgica  Antarctic 
expedition ;  in  1903-5  he  was  the  first 
navigator  to  take  a  ship  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Pacific  by  way  of  the 
Northwest  Passage ;  and  on  Dec.  14, 
1911,  he  succeeded  in  reaching  the 
South  Pole. 

Amur,  a  river  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion (about  53°  N.  lat.,  and  121°  E. 
long.)  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argun, 
which  both  come  from  the  S.  W. — 
the  former  rising  in  the  foothills  of 
the  Yablonoi  Mountains.  From  the 
junction,  the  river  flows  first  S.  E. 
and  then  N.  E.,  and,  after  a  total 
course  of  3,060  miles,  falls  into  the 
Sea  of  Okhotsk,  opposite  the  island  of 
Sakhalin.  ^  Its  main  tributaries  are 
the  Sungari  and  the  Ussuri,  both  from 
the  S.  Above  the  Ussuri,  the  Amur 
is  the  boundary  between  Siberia  and 


Anabaptist* 

Manchuria;  below  it,  the  river  runs 
through  Russian  territory. 

Amylic  Alcohol,  one  of  eight  al- 
cohols having  the  same  chemical  formu- 
la, but  with  different  properties.  Two 
of  these  are  large  constituents  of 
fusel  oil.  The  union  of  some  of  these 
alcohols  with  the  compound  ethers, 
produce  odors  resembling  pineapple, 
strawberries,  etc.  Therefore  fusel  oil 
is  often  used  in  making  artificial  fruit 
flavors.  The  poisonous  properties  of 
fusel  oil,  make  such  products  highly 
dangerous  and  justify  the  prohibitive 
legislation  which  has  been  enacted  in 
some  of  the  States. 

Anabaptist*,  a  name  given  in  re- 
proach A.  D.  253  by  Stephen,  Bishop  of 
Rome,  to  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor, 
Cappadocia,  Galatea  and  Cilicia,  who 
held  that  no  baptism  was  valid  but  that 
administered  to  adults  by  immersion. 
They  are  mentioned  by  Tertullian  and 
Agrippinus.  The  sect  appeared  in 
1520.  The  most  eminent  of  its  early 
leaders  were  Thomas  Munzer  Mark 
Stubner,  and  Nicholas  Storck.  They 
had  been  disciples  of  Luther;  but,  be- 
coming dissatisfied  with  the  moderate 
character  of  his  reformation,  they  cast 
off  his  authority,  and  attempted  more 
sweeping  changes  than  he  was  pre- 
pared to  sanction.  During  his  ab- 
sence, they,  in  1521,  began  to  preach 
their  doctrines  at  Wittenberg.  Laying 
claim  to  supernatural  powers,  they 
saw  visions,  uttered  prophecies,  and 
made  an  immense  number  of  prose- 
lytes. The  ferment  which  the  exciting 
religious  events  taking  place  in  Cen- 
tral Europe  had  produced  in  men's 
minds,  had  made  them  impatient  of 
social  or  political  as  well  as  of  spir- 
itual despotism ;  and,  in  1525,  the 
peasants  of  Suabia,  Thuringia,  and 
Franconia,  who  had  been  much  op- 
pressed by  their  feudal  superiors,  rose 
in  arms,  and  commenced  a  sanguinary 
struggle,  partly,  no  doubt,  for  religious 
reformation,  but  chiefly  for  political 
emancipation.  The  Anabaptists  cast 
in  their  lot  with  the  insurgent  peas- 
antry, and  became  their  leaders  in 
battle.  After  a  time  the  allied  princes 
of  the  empire,  led  by  Philip,  Land- 
grave of  Hesse,  put  down  the  rebellion, 
and  Munzer  was  defeated,  captured, 
put  to  the  torture,  and  ultimately  be- 
headed. In  1532,  some  extreme  Ana* 


Anabasis 


Anam 


baptists  from  Holland,  led  by  a  baker 
called  John  Matthias,  and  a  tailor, 
John  Boccoldt,  called  also,  from  the 
place  whence  he  came,  John  of  Ley- 
den,  seized  on  the  city  of  Munster,  in 
Westphalia,  with  the  view  of  setting 
up  in  it  a  spiritual  kingdom,  in  which, 
at  least  nominally,  Christ  might  reign. 
The  name  of  Munster  was  changed  to 
that  of  Mount  Zion,  and  Matthias  be- 
came its  actual  king.  Having  soon 
after  lost  his  life  in  a  mad,  warlike 
exploit,  the  sovereignty  devolved  on 
Boccoldt,  who,  among  other  fanatical 
freaks,  once  promenaded  the  streets  of 
his  capital  in  a  state  of  absolute  nud- 
ity. On  June  24,  1535,  the  Bishop  of 
Munstex  retook  the  city  by  force  of 
arms,  and  Boccoldt  was  put  to  death 
in  the  most  cruel  manner  that  could 
be  devised.  The  excesses  of  the  Ana- 
baptists were  eagerly  laid  hold  of  to 
discredit  the  Reformation. 

Anabasis,  the  name  given  by  Xen- 
pphon  to  his  celebrated  work  describ- 
ing the  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  young- 
er against  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  King  of  Persia. 

Anaconda,  a  large  serpent  of  the 
boa  family,  common  in  inter-tropical 
America.  The  head  is  comparatively 
small,  conical,  very  flat  below,  and 
truncated  in  front.  The  color  is  gray- 
ish-brown or  olive  above,  with  two 
rows ,  of  large  black  spots  running 
down  the  back  and  tail ;  the  sides  are 
adorned  with  black  rings  on  a  yellow 
ground ;  the  under  surface  is  ochre- 
yellow  with  black  spots.  The  anaconda 
is  the  largest  of  living  snakes,  some- 
times reaching  a  length  of  over  30 
feet.  Brazil  and  Guiana  form  its 
chief  habitat.  It  always  lives  in  or  in 
the  neighborhood  of  water;  lies  in 
wait  for  its  prey  in  the  water,  or 
stretched  on  the  sand ;  seldom  attacks 
man ;  and  during  the  dry  season  buries 
itself  and  becomes  torpid. 

Anacreon,  a  renowned  lyric  poet 
of  Greece,  born  at  Teos  in  Ionia,  562 
( ?)  B.  o.  He  died  477  B.  0. 

Anaemia,  bloodlessness ;  a  morbid 
state  of  the  system  produced  by  loss 
of  blood,  by  deprivation  of  light  and 
air.  The  patient  is  characterized 
by  great  paleness,  and  blood-vessels, 
easily  traceable  at  other  times,  be- 
come unseen  after  great  hemorrhage, 
or  in  cases  of  anaemia. 


Anaesthesia  (Greek,  "lack  of 
sensation"),  a  term  used  to  express 
a  loss  of  sensibility  to  external  im- 
pressions, which  may  involve  a  part 
or  the  whole  surface  of  the  body.  It 
may  occur  naturally  as  the  result  of 
disease,  or  may  be  produced  artificial- 
ly by  the  administration  of  anaesthet- 
ics, such  as  ether,  etc. 

The  fact  that  sulphuric  ether  could 
produce  insensibility  was  shown  by 
the  American  physicians,  Godwin 
(1822),  Mitchell  (1832),  Jackson 
(1833),  Wood  and  Bache  (1834)  ; 
but  it  was  first  used  to  prevent  the 
pain  of  an  operation  in  1846,  by  Dr. 
Morton,  a  dentist  of  Boston. 

The  employment  of  general  anaes- 
thetics in  surgery  has  greatly  increased 
the  scope  of  the  surgeon's  usefulness, 
and  has  been  a  great  boon  to  suffering 
humanity.  It  is,  however,  fraught 
with  a  certain  amount  of  danger. 
However  much  care  may  be  taken  in 
its  administration,  an  occasional  fatal 
accident  occurs  from  the  action  of  the 
anaesthetics  employed.  In  these  cases, 
there  is  generally  disease  of  the  heart, 
or  a  hyper-sensitive  nervous  system, 
predisposing  to  sudden  sinking,  or  to 
shock. 

Local  anaesthesia,  artificially  pro- 
duced, is  of  great  value  in  minor  op- 
erations, and,  in  painful  affections  of 
limited  areas  of  the  body.  It  may  be 
induced  by  the  application  of  cold,  or 
of  medical  agents. 

Anagram,  the  letters  of  any  word 
read  backward,  or  transposed  to  make 
a  new  word  or  sentence,  which  has 
some  reference  to  the  original. 

Anatmac,  a  term  signifying,  in  the 
old  Mexican  language,  "  near  the 
water,"  the  original  name  of  the  an- 
cient kingdom  of  Mexico. 

Analogy,  similitude  of  relations 
between  one  thing  and  other.  The 
thing  to  which  the  other  is  compared 
is  preceded  by  to  or  with.  When  both 
are  mentioned  together  they  are  con- 
nected by  the  word  between. 

Analysis,  in  ordinary  language,  the 
act  of  analyzing ;  the  state  of  being 
analyzed;  the  result  of  such  investi- 
gation. The  separation  of  anything 
physical,  mental,  or  a  mere  conception 
into  its  constituent  elements. 

Anam,  or  Annam,  a  name  given 
by  the  Chinese  in  the  3d  century  A.  ». 


Anarajapnra 

to  an  empire  occupying  the  E.  side  of 
the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  along  the 
China  Sea.  It  comprised  Tonkin  in 
the  N. ;  Cochin-China  in  the  S. ;  and 
the  territory  of  the  Laos  tribes  S.  W. 
of  Tonkin ;  with  an  aggregate  area  of 
196,500  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  15,000,000.  Since  the  French 
occupation  in  1884  Anam  while  theo- 
retically still  a  native  monarchy,  ad- 
ministratively forms  the  central  divi- 
sion of  French  Indo-China  with  an 
area  of  61,500  square  miles.  The  King 
rules  with  a  council  of  six  members 
under  the  supervision  of  a  French 
resident  at  Hu6.  Pop.  5,554,822. 

Anarajapura,  or  Anuradha- 
poora,  a  ruined  city,  the  ancient  cap- 
ital of  Ceylon,  built  about  510  B.  c., 
and  said  to  have  covered  an  area  of 
200  square  miles.  The  spacious  main 
streets  seemed  to  have  been  lined  with 
elegant  structures.  There  are  still 
several  dagobas  in  tolerable  preserva- 
tion, but  the  great  object  of  interest 
is  the  remains  of  the  sacred  Bo-tree 
planted  over  2,000  years  ago,  and  the 
oldest  historical  tree  in  the  world. 

Anarchists,  a  revolutionary  sect 
or  body  setting  forth  as  the  social 
ideal  the  extreme  form  of  individual 
freedom,  and  holding  that  all  govern- 
ment is  injurious  and  immoral,  that 
the  destruction  of  every  social  form 
now  existing  must  be  the  first  step  to 
the  creation  of  a  new  world.  Their 
recognition  as  an  independent  sect 
may  be  dated  from  the  secession  of 
Bakunin  and  his  followers  from  the 
Social  Democrats  at  the  congress  of 
the  Hague  in  1872,  since  which  they 
have  maintained  an  active  propaganda. 
The  congress  at  London  in  1881  de- 
cided that  all  means  were  justifiable 
as  against  the  organized  forces  of 
modern  society.  There  have  been 
comparatively  few  recognized  anarch- 
istic outrages  in  the  United  States. 
A  number  of  violent  manifestations 
popularly  charged  to  anarchists  were 
really  the  out-croppings  of  labor 
troubles ;  but  acknowledged  anarch- 
ists stirred  up  considerable  apprehen- 
sions after  the  United  States  was 
drawn  into  the  World  War,  till  the 
Federal  authorities  got  after  them. 

Anastasius,  the  name  of  four 
Popes,  the  first  and  most  eminent  of 
whom  held  that  office  for  only  three 
years  (398-401).  He  enforced  celi- 


Anatomy 

bacy  on  the  clergy,  and  was  an  oppo- 
nent of  the  Manichseans  and  Origen. 

Anathema,  a  word  originally  sig- 
nifying some  offering  or  gift  to  the 
gods,  generally  suspended  in  the  tem- 
ple. It  also  signifies  a  thing  that 
has  been  devoted  to  destruction  (the 
equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Cherem)  ; 
and  was  ultimately  used  in  its  strong- 
est sense,  implying  perdition,  as  in 
Rom.  ix.,  3:  Gal,  i.,  8-9.  In  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  from  the  9th 
century,  a  distinction  has  been  made 
between  excommunication  and  anathe- 
matizing; the  latter  being  employed 
only  against  obstinate  offenders. 

Anatomy,  in  the  literal  sense, 
means  simply  a  cutting  up,  but  is  now 
generally  applied  both  to  the  art  of 
dissecting  or  artificially  separating  the 
different  parts  of  an  organized  body 
(vegetable  or  animal)  with  a  view  to 
discover  their  situation,  structure,  and 
economy ;  and  to  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  internal  structure  of  or- 
ganized bodies.  The  branch  which 
treats  of  the  structure  of  plants  is 
called  vegetable  anatomy  or  phytotomy, 
and  that  which  treats  of  the  structure 
of  animals  animal  anatomy  or  zootomy, 
a  special  branch  of  the  latter  being 
human  anatomy  or  anthropotomy. 
Comparative  anatomy  is  the  science 
which  compares  the  anatomy  of  differ- 
ent classes  with  quadrupeds,  or  that  of 
quadrupeds  with  fishes ;  while  special 
anatomy  treats  of  the  construction, 
form,  and  structure  of  parts  in  a  sin- 
gle animal.  The  history  of  anatomy  is 
virtually  the  history  of  medicine,  the 
practice  of  which  is  based  upon  the 
revelations  of  anatomical  study. 

Among  the  ancient  writers  or  auth- 
orities on  human  anatomy  may  be 
mentioned  Hippocrates  the  younger 
(460-377  B.C.),  Aristotle  (384-322 
B.C.),  Herophilus  and  Erasistratus  of 
Alexandria,  (about  300  B.C., ) .  Celsus 
(53  B.C. — 37  A.D.),  and  Galen  of  Per- 
gamus  (140-200),  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  the  ancient  authorities  on  the 
science.  From  his  time  till  the  revival  . 
of  learning  in  Europe  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury anatomy  was  checked  in  its  pro- 
gress. In  1315  Mondino,  professor  at 
Bologna,  first  publicly  performed  dis- 
section, and  published  a  System  of 
Anatomy,  which  was  a  text-book  in 
the  schools  of  Italy  for  about  200 
years.  In  the  16th  century  Fallopio  of 


Anaxagoras 

Padua,  Eustachi  of  Venice,  Vesalius 
of  Brussels,  Varoli  of  Bologna,  and 
many  others,  enriched  anatomy  with 
new  discoveries.  In  the  17th  century 
Harvey  discovered  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  Asellius  discovered  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  nutritious  part  of  the 
food  is  conveyed  into  the  circulation, 
while  the  lymphatic  system  was  de- 
tected and  described  by  the  Dane  T. 
Bartoline.  Among  the  renowned  anat- 
omists of  later  times  we  can  only  men- 
tion Malpighi,  Boerhaave,  William  and 
(John  Hunter,  the  younger  Meckel, 
Bichat,  Rosenmuller,  Quain,  Sir  A. 
Cooper,  Sir  C.  Bell,  Carus,  Job,  Mul- 
ler,  Hseckel,  Owen,  and  Huxley,  and 
the  Americans,  Jeffries  Wyman, 
Dwight,  Leidy,  Marsh,  and  Cope. 

Anaxagoras,  a  famous  Greek  phi- 
losopher of  the  Ionic  school,  born 
about  500  (?)  B.  c.  He  explained 
eclipses  anc!  advanced  physical  science. 

Anaximander,  a  Greek  mathema- 
tician and  philosopher,  successor  of 
Thales  as  head  of  the  physical  school 
of  philosophy,  was  born  at  Miletus,  in 
611  B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  discov- 
ered the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
he  certainly  taught  it.  He  appears  to 
have  applied  the  gnomon,  or  style  set 
on  a  horizontal  plane,  to  determine  the 
solstices  and  equinoxes.  The  inven- 
tion of  maps  is  ascribed  to  him. 

Anaximenes,  a  philosopher  of 
Miletus,  flourished  about  556  B.  c. 
Pliny  attributes  to  him  the  invention 
of  the  sun-dial. 

Anchoret,  Anachoret,  or  An- 
chorite, any  person  who,  from  reli- 
gious motives,  has  renounced  the 
world,  and  retired  into  seclusion. 

Anchovy,  a  fish  which  belongs  to 
the  herring  family.  In  general,  its 
length  is  from  4  to  5  inches ;  but 
specimens  are  found  Ty%  inches  long. 

Anchovy  Pear,  a  tree,  with  large 
leaves,  which  grows  in  the  West  In- 
dies. The  fruit  which  is  eaten,  tastes 
like  that  of  the  mango. 

Ancus  Marcius,  the  fourth  King 
of  Rome  was  the  grandson  of  King 
Numa  Pompilius.  He  died  in  616 
B.  c.,  after  reigning  24  years. 

Andalusia,  a  large  and  fertile  re- 
gion occupying  the  S.  of  Spain.  Its 
shores  are  washed  both  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Atlantic;  and,  though 
it  is  not  now  a  political  division  of 


Anderson 

Spain,  it  is  more  frequently  spoken  of 
than  the  eight  modern  provinces  into 
which  it  has  been  divided.  Its 
breeds  of  horses  and  mules  have  long 
been  celebrated.  The  mountains  yield 
silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  coal ; 
and  some  ores  are  extensively  worked. 
The  Andalusians  speak  a  dialect  of 
Spanish,  manifestly  tinctured  with 
traces  of  Arabic.  Andalusia  is  divided 
into  the  Provinces  of  Almeria,  Jaen, 
Malaga,  Cadiz,  Huelva,  Seville,  Cor- 
dova, and  Granada.  The  chief  towns 
are  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Cadiz.  Area. 
33,663  square  miles.  Pop.  3,450,209 

Andamans,  a  group  of  thickly 
wooded  islands  toward  the  E.  side  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  about  680  miles  S. 
of  the  Hooghly  mouth  of  the  Ganges, 
with  a  British  convict  settlement. 
In  1872  Lord  Mayo,  Viceroy  of  India, 
was  assassinated  on  Viper  Island,  by 
a  Mussulman  convict.  Pop.  18,190. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  a 
Danish  novelist,  poet,  and  writer  of 
fairy  tales:  born  in  Odense,  April  2, 
1805.  Hans  learned  to  read  and 
write  in  a  charity  school.  After 
many  struggles  he  became  a  success- 
ful author,  and  his  fairy  tales  gained 
worldwide  fame.  He  died  in  Roli- 
ghed,  Aug.  4,  1875.  Andersen's  tales 
show  humor  and  tenderness. 

Anderson,  city  and  capital  of 
Madison  county,  Ind.;  on  a  branch 
of  the  White  river,  a  notable  hydrau- 
lic canal,  and  several  railroads;  35 
miles  N.  E.  of  Indianapolis;  is  abun- 
dantly supplied  with  natural  gas,  and 
manufactures  iron,  steel,  glass,  wire, 
paper,  brass,  lumber  and  machinery. 
Pop.  (1910)  22,476. 

Anderson,  Alexander,  an  Amer- 
ican wood  engraver,  born  in  New  York 
city,  April  21,  1775 ;  began  engraving 
on  copper  and  type  metal  when  12 
years  old,  without  instruction  and 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  art  gained 
solely  by  watching  jewelers.  He  pro- 
duced the  first  wood  engravings  ever 
made  in  the  United  States,  and  for 
many  years  was  the  only  engraver  on 
wood  in  New  York.  He  made  the 
plates  for  the  fractional  paper  curren- 
cy issued  by  the  Federal  government, 
and  for  the  cuts  in  the  first  editions  of 
Webster's  Spelling  Book.  He  died  1870. 

Anderson,    Elizabeth    Garrett, 

an  English  physician,  born  in  London 


Anderson 

in  1837.  From  1876  to  1898  she  was 
Dean  of  the  London  Medical  School 
for  Women. 

Anderson,  Martin  Brewer,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Bruns- 
wick, Me.,  Feb.  12,  1815 ;  was  chosen 
President  of  the  newly  organized  Uni- 
versity of  Rochester  (N.  Y.),  in  1853, 
holding  the  post  till  1888.  He  died 
Feb.  26,  1890. 

Anderson,  Mary  (Mrs.  Navar- 
re), an  American  actress,  born  in 
Sacramento,  Cal.,  July  28,  1859. 
She  played  for  the  first  time  in  Louis- 
ville, in  1875,  in  the  character  of  Ju- 
liet. Her  success  was  marked  and 
immediate,  and  during  the  following 
years  she  played  with  increasing  popu- 
larity in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States  in  various  rOles.  In 
1883  she  appeared  at  the  Lyceum 
Theater,  in  London,  and  speedily  be- 
came well  known  in  England.  Since 
her  marriage  in  1890  to  Antonio  Na- 
varro  de  Viana,  of  New  York,  she  has 
retired  from  the  stage,  but  it  was 
stated  in  September,  1903,  that  she 
would  probably  consent  to  give  the- 
atrical readings  in  the  United  States. 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjorn,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Albion, 
Wis.,  Jan.  12,  1846,  of  Norwegian  pa- 
rents. He  was  educated  at  Norwegian 
Lutheran  College,  Decorah,  la. ;  be- 
coming Professor  of  Scandinavian 
Languages  in  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin in  1875-1884,  and  United 
States  Minister  to  Denmark  in  1885. 

Anderson,  Robert,  an  American 
military  officer ;  born  near  Louisville, 
Ky.,  June  14,  1805;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1825,  and  entered  the  artillery ; 
was  private  secretary  to  the  United 
States  minister  to  Colombia  in  1825- 
1826 ;  instructor  at  the  Military  Acad- 
emy for  a  while ;  on  ordnance  duty 
in  1828-1835;  served  in  the  Black 
Hawk  War  in  1832  as  colonel  of  vol- 
unteers, taking  part  in  the  battle  of 
Bad  Axe ;  and  in  the  Florida  War  in 
1837-1838  on  General  Scott's  staff, 
and  was  made  assistant  adjutant-gen- 
eral on  the  staff  in  May  of  the  latter 
year.  He  was  with  General  Scott  in 
.his  campaign  in  Mexico,  taking  part 
I  in  the  engagements  at  Vera  Cruz,  Cer- 
ro  Gordo,  Amozoque,  and  at  Molino  del 
Rey,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 


Andersonville 

He  was  commissioned  major  and  was 
placed  in  command  of  Charleston  har- 
bor, to  succeed  Colonel  Gardiner,  with 
headquarters  at  Fort  Moultrie,  in 

1860.  After  arriving  at  Fourt  Moul- 
trie he  informed  the  government  of  the 
weakness  of  the  forts  in   the  harbor, 
and  urged  the  necessity  of  immediately 
strengthening   them.     As    the   govern- 
ment did  not  respond,  and  he  was  left 
to    his    own    resources,    he    began    to 
strengthen  Castle  Pinckney  and  Fort 
Moultrie.     Fearing  that  Fort  Moultrie 
would  be  attacked  at  any  moment  he 
applied  to  the  government  for  instruc- 
tions.    Receiving  none   he  decided   to 
remove  with  his  garrison  to  Fort  Sum- 
ter.     This   he   did   on   the  evening  of 
Dec.  26.     The  Confederates  were  much 
surprised  the  next  day  on  discovering 
the  change,  and  asked  him  to  explain 
his  conduct  in  acting  without  orders, 
to  which  he  replied  that  he  did  it  to 
save  the  government  works.     He  was 
attacked  and  surrendered  the  fort  after 
a    heavy    bombardment,    April    12-13, 

1861.  In  1861  he  was  promoted  Brig- 
adier-General,  U.    S.   A.,   and  placed 
in    command    of    the    Department    of 
Kentucky  and  of  the  Cumberland,  but 
failing    health    caused    him    to    retire 
from  active  service  in  1863,  when  he 
was     brevetted      Major-General.     He 
died  in  Nice,  France,  Oct  26,  1871. 

Anderson,  Rufus,  an  American 
missionary,  born  in  North  Yarmouth, 
Me.,  Aug.  17,  1796;  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1818,  and  Andoyer 
Theological  Seminary  in  1822;  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  the  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions in  1824-1858;  a  founder  of 
Mount  Holyoke  Seminary.  He  died 
in  Boston,  May  30,  1880. 

Andersonville,  a  village  in  Geor- 
gia, noted  as  having  been  the  seat  of 
a  Confederate  States  military  prison. 
Between  Feb.  15, 1864,  and  April,  1865, 
49,485  prisoners  were  received,  of 
whom  12,926  died  in  that  time  of  va- 
rious diseases.  What  was  formerly  a 
hamlet  is  now  a  town  adorned  with 
gravel  walks  and  trees,  and  containing 
several  churches.  The  cemetery  is  laid 
out  in  a  neat  fashion  with  tablets  that 
mark  the  burial  places  of  the  dead. 
The  long  trenches  where  the  soldiers 
were  buried  have  since  been  laid  ct-t 
as  a  National  cemetery,  for  the  bodies 
of  Northern  dead. 


Andersson 

Andersson,  Carl  Jan,  an  African 
traveler ;  born  in  the  province  of 
Wermland,  Sweden,  in  1827.  He  died 
in  the  land  of  the  Ovampos,  in  West- 
ern Africa,  in  July,  1867. 

Andes,  The,  or,  as  they  are  called 
by  the  Spanish  in  South  America,  Cor- 
dilleras, a  range  of  mountains,  of 
such  vast  extent  and  altitude  as  to 
render  them  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able physical  features  of  the  globe. 
It  follows  the  whole  of  the  W.  coast 
of  South  America,  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea.  Sometimes  it  is  spoken 
of  as  a  continuation  of  the  Rocky 
mountains  in  North  America,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  other  reason  for 
doing  this  than  the  continuity  of  the 
two  divisions  of  America,  and  the  fact 
that  both  ranges  lie  in  the  W.  of  their 
respective  continents.  There  is  a  suf- 
ficiently marked  break  between  the 
ridges  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and 
the  range  of  the  Andes  of  South  Amer- 
ica, and  a  still  more  distinct  hiatus  be- 
tween the  Sierras  of  Central  America 
and  Mexico  and  the  Rocky  mountains. 

Andorra,  a  valley  in  the  Eastern 
Pyrenees,  between  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Ari£ge  and  the  Spanish  pro- 
vince of  Lerida,  part  of  Catalonia.  It 
is  inclosed  by  mountains,  through 
which  its  river,  the  Balira,  breaks  to 
join  the  Segre  at  Urgel ;  and  its  inac- 
cessibility naturally  fits  it  for  being 
the  seat  of  the  interesting  little  re- 
public which  here  holds  a  kind  of  semi- 
independent  position  between  France 
and  Spain.  Area  (divided  into  six 
communes),  175  square  miles.  Popu- 
lation about  15,000. 

Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary, a  noted  Congregational  institu- 
tion at  Andover,  Slass. ;  founded  in 
1807. 

Andral,  Gabriel,  a  French  phy- 
sician and  pathologist,  born  in  Paris, 
Nov.  6,  1797.  He  died  Feb.  13,  1876. 

Andrassy,  Julius  Count,  Hun- 
garian statesman,  born  March  8,  1823. 
He  was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878;  negotiat- 
ed the  German-Austrian  alliance  with 
Bismarck  in  1879;  and  the  same  year 
retired  from  public  life.  He  died  Feb. 
18,  1890. 

Andre,  John,  a  British  military 
officer,  born  in  London  in  1751 ;  enter- 


___ Andre 

ed  the  army  in  1771 ;  went  to  Canada 
in  1774 ;  and  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
Americans  in  1775.  After  his  ex- 
change, he  was  rapidly  promoted,  and 
in  1780  was  appointed  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral, with  the  rank  of  Major.  His 
prospects  were  of  the  most  flattering 
kind  when  the  treason  of  Arnold  led 
to  his  death.  The  temporary  absence 
of  Washington  having  been  chosen  by 
the  traitor  as  the  most  proper  season 
for  carrying  into  effect  his  design  of 
delivering  to  Sir  Henry  Clinton  the 
fortification  at  West  Point,  then  un- 
der his  command,  and  refusing  to  con- 
fide to  any  but  Major  Andre  the  maps 
and  information  required  by  the  Brit- 
ish general,  an  interview  became  neces- 
sary, and  Sept.  19,  1780,  Andre  left 
New  York  in  the  sloop-of-war  "  Vul- 
ture," and  on  the  next  day  arrived  at 
Fort  Montgomery,  in  company  with 
Beverly  Robinson,  an  American  re- 
siding at  the  lines,  through  whom  the 
communications  had  been  carried  on. 
Furnished  with  passports  from  Ar- 
nold, Robinson  and  Andr6  the  next 
day  landed  and  were  received  by  the 
traitor  at  the  water's  edge.  Having 
arranged  all  the  details  of  the  proposed 
treason,  Arnold  delivered  to  Andre" 
drafts  of  the  works  at  West  Point 
and  memoranda  of  the  forces  under  his 
command,  and  the  latter  returned  to 
the  beach  in  hopes  of  being  immediate- 
ly conveyed  to  the  "  Vulture."  But 
the  ferrymen,  who  were  Americans,  re- 
fused to  carry  him,  and  as  Arnold 
would  not  interpose  his  authority,  he 
was  compelled  to  return  by  land.  Un- 
fortunately for  him  he  persisted, 
against  the  advice  of  Arnold,  in  re- 
taining the  papers,  which  he  concealed 
in  his  boot.  Accompanied  by  Smith, 
an  emissary  of  Arnold,  and  provided 
with  a  passport  under  his  assumed 
name  of  Anderson,  he  set  out  and 
reached  in  safety  a  spot  from  which 
they  could  see  the  ground  occupied  by 
the  English  videttes.  At  Tarrytowii 
he  was  first  stopped,  and  then  arrested, 
by  three  Americans.  Andr<§  offered 
them  his  money,  horse,  and  a  large  re- 
ward, but  without  avail.  They  ex- 
amined his  person,  and,  in  his  boots, 
found  the  fatal  papers.  He  was  then 
conveyed  to  Colonel  Jameson,  com- 
mander of  the  American  outposts. 
On  the  arrival  of  Washington,  Andre 
was  conveyed  to  Tappan  and  tried  by 


Andre 

a  board  of  general  officers,  among 
whom  were  General  Greene,  the  presi- 
dent, Lafayette,  and  Knox.  Every  ef- 
fort was  made  by  Sir  Henry  Clinton 
to  save  him,  and  there  was  a  strong 
disposition  on  the  American  side  to  do 
po.  His  execution,  originally  appoint- 
ed for  Sept.  30,  did  not  take  place  till 
Oct.  2.  If  possession  could  have  been 
obtained  of  the  traitor,  the  life  of 
Andr6  would  have  been  spared.  His 
remains,  which  were  buried  on  the 
spot,  were  afterward  removed  to  Lon- 
don, and  now  repose  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Andre,  Louis  Joseph.  Nicolas, 
a  French  military  officer,  born  in 
Nuits,  Burgundy,  March  29,  1838.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Polytechnic 
School,  and  in  1865  became  captain, 
serving  in  that  capacity  throughout  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-1871. 
He  became  Major  in  1877,  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  in  1885,  and  Colonel  in  1888. 
He  was  made  General  of  Brigade  in 
1893,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Poly- 
technic School.  He  married,  in  1875, 
Mile.  Chapuis,  a  talented  singer  of  the 
Opera  Comique.  On  May  29,  1900,  he 
was  appointed  Minister  of  War  by 
President  Loubet,  succeeding  General 
the  Marquis  de  Gallifet  ,  who  held  the 
office  during  the  exciting  period  of  the 
Dreyfus  revision.  Died  March  18, 1913. 

Andrea,  Jakob,  a  German  Pro- 
testant theologian,  born  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  March  25,  1528;  died  in  Tubin- 
gen, Jan.  7,  1590. 

Andrea,  Johann  Valentin,  a 
very  original  thinker  and  writer,  born 
in  1586,  near  Tubingen.  He  studied 
at  Tubingen,  became  a  Protestant  pas- 
tor, and  died  in  1654  at  Stuttgart, 
where  he  was  chaplain  to  the  court. 
Eminently  practical  in  mind,  he  was 
grieved  to  see  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity made  the  subject  of  mere  empty 
disputations,  and  devoted  his  whole 
life  to  correct  this  prevailing  tendency 
of  his  age. 

Andree,  Solomon  Auguste,  a 
Swedish  aeronaut,  born  Oct.  18,  1854 ; 
educated  for  a  civil  engineer.  In  1882, 
he  took  part  in  a  Swedish  meteoro- 
logical expedition  to  Spitsbergen.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer 
to  the  patent  office,  and  from  1886  to 
1889  he  occupied  a  professor's  chair 
at  Stockholm.  In  1892  be  received 


Andrew* 

from  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences a  subvention  for  the  purpose  of 
undertaking  scientific  aerial  naviga- 
tion. From  that  time  Dr.  Andree  de- 
voted himself  to  aerial  navigation,  and 
made  his  first  ascent  at  Stockholm  in 
the  summer  of  1893.  In  1895  he  pre- 
sented to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a 
well-matured  project  for  exploring  the 
regions  of  the  North  Pole  with  the  aid 
of  a  balloon.  The  estimated  cost 
amounted  to  about  $40,000.  A  na- 
tional subscription  was  opened,  which 
was  completed  in  a  few  days,  the  King 
of  Sweden  contributing  the  sum  of 
$8,280.  With  two  companions,  Dr.  S. 
T.  Strindberg  and  Herr  Fraenckell,  he 
started  from  Dane's  island,  Spitzber- 
gen,  July  11,  1897.  His  balloon  was 
07^4  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  capacity 
of  170,000  cubic  feet.  Its  speed  was 
estimated  at  from  12  to  15  miles  an 
hour,  at  which  rate  the  Pole  should 
have  been  reached  in  six  days,  pro- 
vided a  favorable  and  constant  wind 
had  been  blowing.  Two  days  after  his 
departure,  a  message  was  received  from 
Dr.  Andr6e  by  carrier  pigeon,  which 
stated  that  at  noon,  July  13,  they  were 
in  latitude  82.2°,  and  longitude  15.5° 
E.,  and  making  good  progress  to  the 
E.,  10°  southerly.  This  was  the  last 
word  received  from  the  explorer. 

Andrew,  the  first  disciple,  one  of 
the  apostles  of  Jesus.  His  career 
after  the  Master's  death  is  unknown. 
Tradition  tells  us  that,  after  preach- 
ing the  gospel  in  Scythia,  Northern 
Greece,  and  Epirus,  he  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom on  the  cross  at  Patrse,  in 
Achaia,  62  or  70  A.  D. 

Andrew  I.,  King  of  Hungary,  in 
1046-1049;  compelled  his  subjects  to 
embrace  Christianity ;  he  was  killed  in 
battle  in  1058. 

Andrew,  John  Albion,  war  gov- 
enor  of  Massachusetts.  Was  born  at 
Windham  in  1818,  died  1867.  His  "Let- 
ters and  Life"  was  published  in  1904. 

Andrews,  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, an  American  diplomat  and 
writer,  born  at  Hillsboro,  N.  H.,  Oct. 
27,  1829;  was  brevetted  Major-Gen- 
eral in  the  Civil  War;  United  States 
Minister  to  Sweden  from  1869  to  1877, 
and  Consul-General  to  Brazil  from 
1882  to  1885. 

Andrews,  Elisha  Benjamin,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Hinsdale, 


Andrews 

N.  H.,  Jan.  10,  1844;  he  was  grad- 
uated at  Brown  University,  1870,  and 
Newton  Theological  Seminary,  1874 ; 
President  of  Brown  University  in 
1889-1898 ;  became  Superintendent  of 
Public  Schools  in  Chicago  in  1898, 
and  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Nebraska  in  1900;  resigned  in  1908. 

Andrews,  Ethan  Allen,  an 
American  educator  and  lexicographer, 
born  at  New  Britain,  Conn.,  April  7, 
1787.  He  died  in  1858. 

Andrews,  Jane,  an  American  ju- 
venile story  writer,  born  in  Massachu- 
setts in  1833.  She  died  in  1887. 

Andrews,  John  N.,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Delaware,  in 
1838;  was  graduated  at  West  Point 
in  1860 ;  served  with  distinction 
through  the  Civil  War ;  commissioned 
Colonel  of  the  12th  United  States  in- 
fantry in  1895 ;  and  appointed  a  Brig- 
adier-General of  Volunteers  for  the 
war  against  Spain  in  1898. 

Andrews,  Lorrin,  an  American 
missionary,  born  in  East  Windsor, 
•Conn.  ,  April  29,  1795 ;  was  educated 
at  Jefferson  College  and  Princeton 
Theological  Seminary,  and  went  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in 
1827.  He  founded,  in  1831,  the  La- 
hainaluna  Seminary,  which  later  be- 
came the  Hawaii  University,  where  he 
served  10  years  as  a  professor.  He 
translated  a  part  of  the  Bible  into  the 
Hawaiian  language.  In  1845  he  be- 
came a  judge  under  the  Hawaiian 
Government  and  Secretary  of  the 
Privy  Council.  He  produced  several 
works  on  the  literature  and  antiquities 
of  Hawaii,  and  a  Hawaiian  diction- 
ary. He  died  in  1868. 

Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl,  an 
American  writer,  born  at  Templeton, 
Mass.,  March  22,  1812;  was  a  promi- 
nent abolitionist,  practiced  law  in  the 
South,  and  settled  in  New  York  in 
1847.  He  died  at  New  York,  May  21, 
1886. 

Andromache,  a  daughter  of 
JEtion,  King  of  Thebes  in  Cilicia,  and 
wife  of  Hector.  After  the  conquest  of 
Troy  she  became  the  prize  of  Pyrrhu?, 
son  of  Achilles,  who  carried  her  to 
Epirus  and  had  three  sons  by  her, 
but  afterward  left  her  to  Helenus, 
brother  of  Hector,  to  whom  she  bore 
a  son.  Euripides  has  made  her  the 
chief  character  of  a  tragedy. 


Angel 

Andromeda,  in  classical  mythology 
a  daughter  of  Sepheus,  King  of  Ethi- 
opia and  Cassiope.  It  was  fabled  that 
she  was  chained  to  a  rock  by  order  of 
Jupiter  Ammon,  and  then  exposed  to 
the  attacks  of  a  monster.  Perseus  re- 
leased, and  afterward  married  her.  On 
her  death  she  was  changed  into  the 
constellation  which  bears  her  name. 

In  astronomy,  a  constellation,  fanci- 
fully supposed  to  resemble  a  woman 
chained. 

Andros  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  the  Bahamas. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  an  Eng- 
lish provincial  governor,  born  in  1637 ; 
was  governor  of  New  York  in  1674- 
1682,  and  of  New  England,  with  New 
York  included,  in  1686-1689.  His 
harsh  execution  of  the  orders  of  the 
Duke  of  York  caused  him  to  be  gener- 
ally execrated,  and,  after  his  attempt 
to  deprive  Connecticut  of  its  royal 
charter,  he  was  seized  by  the  people 
of  Boston  and  sent  to  England  under 
charges.  He  was  also  Governor  of 
Virginia  in  1692-1698,  and  of  the  Is- 
land of  Jersey  in  1704-1706.  He  died 
in  1714. 

Anemometer,  an  instrument  de- 
signed to  measure  the  velocity  of  the 
wind,  on  which  its  strength  depends. 

Anemone,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  crowfoots. 

^  In  zoology,  it  is  a  popular  name 
given  to  various  radiated  animals 
which  present  a  superficial  resemb- 
lance to  the  anemone. 

Anemoscope,  an  instrument  for 
rendering  visible  the  direction  of  the 
wind.  In  that  commonly  used  there 
is  a  vane  exposed  to  the  wind  acting 
upon  an  index  moving  round  a  dial- 
plate  on  which  the  32  points  of  the 
compass  are  engraved. 

Aneroid,  not  containing  any  li- 
quid ;  used  chiefly  in  the  expression, 
"  aneroid  barometer." 

Anenrism,  a  morbid  dilation  of  the 
aorta,  or  one  of  the  other  great  arter- 
ies of  the  body. 

Angel,  a  messenger,  one  employed 
to  carry  a  message,  a  locum  tenens,  a 
man  of  business. 

In  a  special  sense  an  angel  is  one  of 
an  order  of  spiritual  beings  superior  to 
man  in  power  and  intelligence,  vast  in 
number,  holy  in  character,  and  thor- 
oughly devoted  to  the  worship  and  ser- 


Angel  Fish 

vice  of  God,  who  employs  them  as  his 
heavenly  messengers.  Their  existence 
is  made  known  to  us  by  Scripture,  and 
is  recognized  also  in  the  Parsee  sacred 
books. 

Angel  Fish,  a  fish  of  the  shark 
family,  the  reverse  of  angelic  in 
its  look,  but  which  derived  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  its  extended  pec- 
toral fins  present  the  appearance  ot 
wings.  It  is  called  also  monk-fish, 
fiddle-fish,  shark-ray,  and  kingston. 

Angelica,  a  genus  of  plants  mostly 
herbaceous  and  perennial,  natives  of 
the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of 
the  northern  hemisphere.  Wild  angel- 
ica (A.  sylvestris)  is  a  common  plant 
in  moist  meadows,  by  the  sides  of 
brooks,  and  in  woods.  The  garden  an- 
gelica is  a  biennial  plant,  becoming 
perennial  when  not  allowed  to  ripen 
its  seeds. 

Angelico,  Fra,  the  commonest 
designation  of  the  great  friar-painter 
—  in  full,  "  II  beato  Fra  Giovanni  An- 
gelico da  Fiesole,"  "  the  blessed 
Brother  John  the  angelic  of  Fiesole." 
Born  in  1387  at  Vicchio,  in  the  Tus- 
can province  of  Mugello,  in  1407,  he 
entered  the  Dominican  monastery  at 
Fiesole,  in  1436  he  was  transferred  to 
Florence,  and  in  1445  was  summoned 
by  the  Pope  to  Rome,  where  thence- 
forward he  chiefly  resided  till  his 
death  in  1455. 

Angell,  George  Thoradike,  an 
American  reformer,  born  in  1820,  He 
was  graduated  at  Dartmouth,  1846, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar,  1851.  He 
was  active  in  promoting  measures  for 
the  prevention  of  crime,  cruelties,  and 
the  adulteration  of  food,  and  founded 
the  American  Humane  Educational 
Society.  He  died  in  1909. 

Angell,  James  Bnrrill,  an  Amer- 
ican educator  and  diplomatist,  born  in 
Scituate,  R.  I.,  Jan.  7,  1827;  was 
graduated  from  Brown  University  in 
1850.  He  became  president  of  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1866  and  of 
the  University  of  Michigan  in  1871; 
was  minister  to  China  in  1880-81  and 
to  Turkey  in  1897-98 ;  again  president 
of  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1900- 
10.  He  died  April  1, 1916. 

Angell,  Joseph  Kinnicnt,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  in  1794;  best  known  for  his 
works  on  "Treatise  on  the  Right  of 


Angle 

Property  in  Tide- Waters,"  and  "  The 
Limitation  of  Actions  at  Law  and  in 
Equity  and  Admiralty."  He  died  in 
1857. 

Angelo  (Michelangelo).  See  MI- 
CHELANGELO BUONABOTTI. 

Angelns,  The,  a  painting  by  J.  P. 
Millet.  It  represents  two  French 
peasants  who  have  stopped  their  work 
in  the  field  to  listen  to  the  Angelus 
bell,  and  to  pray.  The  American  Art 
Association  bought  the  picture  in  1899 
for  about  580,000  francs,  exhibited  it 
about  the  country  and  sold  it  in  1890 
for  $150.000. 

Angelns,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  a  short  form  of  prayer  in 
honor  of  the  incarnation,  consisting 
mainly  of  versicles  and  responses. 

Angina  Pectoris,  the  name  first 
given  by  Dr.  Heberden  in  1768,  and 
since  then  universally  adopted  as  the 
designation  of  a  very  painful  disease, 
called  by  him  also  a  disorder  of  the 
breast;  by  some  others,  spasm  of  the 
chest,  or  heart  stroke,  and  popularly 
breast  pang.  It  is  characterized  by 
intense  pain  in  the  prsecordial  region, 
attended  by  a  feeling  of  suffocation 
and  a  fearful  sense  of  impending 
death.  These  symptoms  may  continue 
for  a  few  minutes,  half  an  hour,  or 
even  an  hour  or  more.  During  the 
paroxysm  the  pulse  is  low,  with  the 
body  cold,  and  often  covered  with 
clammy  perspiration.  Death  does  not 
often  result  from  the  first  seizure,  but 
the  malady  tends  to  return  at  more  or 
less  remote  intervals,  generally  prov- 
ing fatal  at  last.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  it :  an  organic  and  func- 
tional form ;  and  again  a  pure  or  idio- 
pathic  and  a  complex  or  sympathetic 
one  have  been  recognized.  Angina  is 
produced  by  disease  of  the  heart.  It 
especially  attacks  elderly  persons  of 
plethoric  habits,  men  oftener  than 
women,  generally  coming  on  when 
they  are  walking,  and  yet  more,  it 
they  are  running  up  stairs  or  exerting 
great  effort  on  ascending  a  hill.  Stim- 
ulants should  be  administered  during 
the  continuance  of  a  paroxysm ;  but  it 
requires  a  radical  improvement  of  the 
general  health  to  produce  a  permanent 
effect  on  the  disorder. 

Angle,  the  point  where  two  lines 
meet,  or  the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a 
point.  Technically,  the  inclination  ot 
two  lines  to  one  another. 


Angler  Fish 

Angler  Fish,  a  fish  called  also  sea 
devil,  frog,  or  frog  fish.  It  has  an 
enormous  head,  on  which  are  placed 
two  elongated  appendages  or  filaments, 
the  first  of  them  broad  and  flattened 
at  the  end.  These,  being  movable,  are 
maneuvered  as  if  they  were  bait;  and 
when  small  fishes  approach  to  examine 
them,  the  angler,  hidden  amid  mud  and 
sand,  which  it  has  stirred  up  by  means 
of  its  pectoral  and  ventral  fins,  seizes 
them  at  once;  hence  its  name. 

Angles,  a  German  tribe  who  ap- 
pear to  have  originally  dwelt  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Elbe  between  the  mouth  of 
the  Saale  and  Qhre,  and  to  have  re- 
moved N.  from  their  old  abodes  to  the 
modern  Schleswig,  where  they  dwelt 
between  the  Jutes  and  Saxons.  In 
the  5th  century  they  joined  their  pow- 
erful N.  neighbors,  the  Saxons,  and 
tools  part  in  the  conquest  of  Britain, 
which  from  them  derived  its  future 
name  of  England. 

Anglesey,  or  Anglesea,  an  island 
and  county  of  England,  in  North 
Wales,  in  the  Irish  Sea,  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  Menai 
Strait.  It  is  about  20  miles  long  and 
17  miles  broad.  The  Menai  Strait  is 
crossed  by  a  magnificent  suspension 
bridge,  580  feet  between  the  piers  and 
100  feet  above  high-water  mark,  allow- 
ing the  largest  vessels  which  navigate 
the  strait  to  sail  under  it ;  and  also 
by  the  great  Britannia  tubular  bridge, 
for  the  conveyance  of  railway  trains, 
Holyhead  being  the  point  of  departure 
for  the  Irish  mails. 


HOOKS   BAITED   WITH   WOBMS. 

Anglican  Church,  The,  means 
collectively  that  group  of  autonomous 
churches  which  are  in  communion 
with,  or  have  sprung  from,  the  mother 


^ Angling 

Church  of  England.  They  are  the 
following:  The  Church  of  Ireland, 
the  Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland,  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  the  Church 
of  Canada,  the  Church  of  Australia, 
the  Indian  Church,  and  the  Church  of 
South  Africa,  which  are  all  autono- 
mous bodies  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
their  own  metropolitans,  and  not 
amenable  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
of  the  Church  of  England,  though  they 
all  look  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury as  patriarch.  In  addition  tc 
these  autonomous  churches  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Anglican  communion, 
there  are  12  missionary  bishops,  repre- 
senting the  English  church  in  various 
remote  regions  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America ;  and  three  or  four  represent- 
ing the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  America.  The  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church  of  America  and  the  Free 
Church  of  England  are  not  recognized 
as  authentic  branches  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  The  American  Church,  le- 
gally the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
according  to  the  U.  S.  census  of  1910, 
had  6,845  organizations,  77  dioceses 
and  missionary  districts,  5,368  clergy, 
886,942  communicants,  and  church 
property  valued  at  $125,040,498. 


ARTIFICIAL    FLIES. 

Angling,  the  art  of  catching  fish 
with  a  hook,  or  angle  (Anglo-Saxon, 
ongel),  baited  with  worms,  small  fish. 


Anglo-American  Com. 


Aniline 


flies,  etc.  We  find  occasional  allusions 
to  this  pursuit  among  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classical  writers  ;  it  is  mentioned 
several  times  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  it  was  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  oldest  work  on  the 
subject  in  English  is  the  "  Treatyse  of 
Fysbinge  with  an  Angle."  printed  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde  in  1496,  along  with 
treaties  on  hunting  and  hawking,  the 
whole  being  ascribed  to  Dame  Juliana 
Berners,  or  Barnes,  prioress  of  a  nun- 
nery near  St.  Alban.  Walton's  inim- 
itable discourse  on  angling  was  first 
printed  in  1653. 

Anglo-American  Commission, 
a  joint  international  commission  ap- 
pointed in  1898,  by  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  to  negotiate  a  plan 
for  the  settlement  of  all  controversial 
matters  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  This  commission  settled  the 
Alaskan  boundary. 

Anglo-French  Treaty,  a  diplo- 
matic agreement  between  England  and 
France,  signed  April  8,  1904.  By  this 
treaty,  France  gave  up  her  claims  to 
certain  sovereign  rights  on  the  New- 
foundland shore ;  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  the  two  nations  in  Egypt, 
Morocco,  and  Africa  generally,  are  set 
forth,  and  the  position  of  France  in 
Siam,  Madagascar,  etc.,  defined. 

Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  a 
protective  agreement  for  the  mutual 
defense  of  interests  in  eastern  Asia 
and  India,  effected  by  treaties  in  1902 
and  1905,  between  Great  Britain  and 
Japan. 

Anglo-Saxons,  the  name  used, 
with  doubtful  propriety,  by  modern 
historians  to  include  the  Angles,  Sax- 
ons, and  Jutes,  who  settled  in  Britain 
in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries  after 
Christ,  and  thus  became  the  ancestors 
of  the  English  people.  These  tribes 
came  from  Germany,  where  they  in- 
habited the  parts  about  the  mouths  of 
the  Elbe  and  Weser,  and  the  first  body 
of  them  who  gained  a  footing  in  Eng- 
land are  said  to  have  landed  in  449, 
and  to  have  been  led  by  Hengist  and 
Horsa.  The  Jutes  settled  chiefly  in 
Kent,  the  Saxons  in  the  S.  and  middle 
of  the  country,  and  the  Angles  in  the 
N.  Among  the  various  Anglo-Saxon 
States  that  afterwards  arose  those 
founded  by  the  Angles  first  gained  the 
preponderance,  and  the  whole  country 
came  in  time  to  be  called  after  them 


Engla-land,  that  is,  the  land  of  the 
Angles. 

Angora  Cat,  Goat,  etc.,  a  variety 
of  these  common  animals,  generally 
supposed  to  have  originated  in  Angora. 
They  are  characterized  by  the  length 
and  silkiness  of  the  hair,  which  makes 
the  goat  a  valuable  animal  to  raise. 
In  America,  each  generation  of  the 
goat  has  a  poorer  fleece,  the  excellent 
quality  being  retained  only  by  frequent 
crossings  with  the  original  stock. 

Angostura  Bark,  the  aromatic 
bitter  medicinal  bark  obtained  chiefly 
from  Galipea  officinal  is,  a  tree  of  10 
to  20  feet  high,  growing  in  the  north- 
ern regions  of  South  America ;  natural 
order  rutacse.  The  bark  is  valuable 
as  a  tonic  and  febrifuge,  and  is  also 
used  for  a  kind  of  bitters. 

Angonleme,  Louis  Antoine  de 
Bourbon,  Due  d',  the  eldest  son  of 
Charles  X.  of  France,  and  Dauphin 
during  his  father's  reign,  born  at  Ver- 
sailles Aug.  6,  1775.  On  the  rev- 
olution in  July,  1830,  he  signed, 
with  his  father,  an  abdication  in 
favor  of  his  nephew,  the  Due  de 
Bordeaux ;  and  when  the  Chambers 
declared  the  family  of  Charles  X.  to 
have  forfeited  the  throne,  he  accom' 
panied  him  into  exile,  to  Holyrood,  to 
Prague,  and  to  Gorz.  He  died,  1844. 

Anhalt,  a  duchy  of  North  Ger- 
many, lying  partly  in  the  plains  of 
the  Middle  Elbe,  and  partly  in  the 
valleys  and  uplands  of  the  Lower 
Harz,  and  almost  entirely  surrounded 
by  Prussia;  area,  906  square  miles. 
The  united  principality  is  now  incor- 
porated in  the  German  Empire,  and 
has  one  vote  in  the  Bundesrath  and 
two  in  the  Reichstag.  Pop.  (1910) 
331,128.  The  chief  towns  are  Dessau, 
Bernburg,  Kothen,  and  Zerbst. 

Ani,  the  name  given  to  a  division 
of  the  Cuculidae,  or  cuckoos;  the  typ- 
ical anis  are  found  in  South  America, 
the  West  Indies  and  Florida.  They 
are  about  the  size  of  our  blackbird. 

Anichini,  Ludwig,  a  Venetian 
engraver  of  great  celebrity.  On  see- 
ing his  pieces,  Michael  Angelo  is  said 
to  have  exclaimed  that  the  art  of 
engraving  had  reached  perfection. 

Aniline,  an  organic  substance  used 
as  the  basis  of  brilliant  and  durable 
dyes.  It  is  found  in  small  quantities 
in  coal-tar,  but  the  aniline  of  com- 


Annato 


merce  is  obtained  from  benzene  or  ben- 
zole, a  constituent  of  coal-tar,  consist- 
ing of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  It  is 
a  colorless  oily  liquid  somewhat  heav- 
ier than  water,  with  a  peculiar  vinous 
smell,  and  a  burning  taste.  Its  name 
is  derived  from  anil,  the  Portuguese 
Und  Spanish  name  for  indigo,  from  the 
dry  distillation  of  which  substance  it 
was  first  obtained  by  the  chemist  Un- 
?erdorben  in  1826.  The  manufacture 
of  aniline  or  coal-tar  dyes  as  a  branch 
of  industry  was  introduced  in  1856  by 
Mr.  Perkin  of  London. 

Animal,  an  organized  and  sen- 
tient living  being.  Life  in  the  earlier 
periods  of  natural  history  was  attri- 
buted almost  exclusively  to  animals. 
With  the  progress  of  science,  how- 
ever, it  was  extended  to  plants.  In 
the  case  of  the  higher  animals  and 
plants  there  is  no  difficulty  in  assign- 
ing the  individual  to  one  of  the  iwo 
great  kingdoms  of  organic  nature,  but 
in  their  lowest  manifestations,  the  veg- 
etable and  animal  kingdoms  are 
brought  into  such  immediate  contact 
that  it  becomes  almost  impossible  to 
assign  them  precise  limits,  and  to  say 
With  certainty  where  the  one  begins 
and  the  other  ends.  From  form  no  ab- 
solute distinction  can  be  fixed  between 
animals  and  plants.  Many  animals, 
such  as  the  sea-shrub,  sea-mats,  etc., 
so  resemble  plants  in  external  appear- 
ance that  they  were,  and  even  yet 
popularly  are,  looked  upon  as  such. 

Animal  Chemistry,  the  depart- 
ment of  organic  chemistry  which  in- 
vestigates the  composition  of  the  fluids 
and  the  solids  of  animals,  and  the 
chemical  action  that  takes  place  in 
animal  bodies. 

Animal  Magnetism.  (See  HYP- 
NOTISM). 

Anise,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  cul- 
tivated in  Malta  and  Spain  for  the 
sake  of  its  aromatic  and  carminative 
seeds  which  form  a  profitable  article 
of  export  and  commerce.  Its  scent 
tends  to  neutralize  other  smells. 

Anjon  or  Beagne,  Battle  of, 
between  the  English  and  French ;  the 
latter  commanded  by  the  Dauphin  of 
France  March  22,  1421.  The  Eng- 
lish were  defeated ;  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence was  slain  by  Sir  Allan  Swinton, 
a  Scotch  knight,  and  1,500  men  per- 
ished on  the  field;  the  Earls  of  Som- 


erset,  Dorset  and  Huntingdon  were 
taken  prisoners.  This  was  the  first 
battle  that  turned  the  tide  of  success 
against  the  English. 

Anna  Comnena,  daughter  of  Alex- 
ius Comnenus  I.,  Byzantine  emperor. 
She  was  born  1083,  and  died  1148. 
After  her  father's  death  she  endeav- 
ored to  secure  the  succession  to  her 
husband,  Nicephorus  Briennius,  but 
was  baffled  by  his  want  of  energy  and 
ambition.  She  wrote  (in  Greek)  a  life 
of  her  father  Alexius,  which,  in  the 
midst  of  much  fulsome  panegyric,  con- 
tains some  valuable  and  interesting  in- 
formation. She  forms  a  character  in 
Scott's  "  Count  Robert  of  Paris." 

Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of 
Russia  ;  born  in  1693  ;  the  daughter  of 
Ivan,  the  elder  half-brother  of  Peter 
the  Great.  Anna  died  in  1740. 

Annals,  a  history  of  events  in 
chronological  order,  each  event  being 
recorded  under  the  year  in  which  it 
occurred.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  first  records  of  the  Romans,  which 
were  called  annales  pontificum  as 
drawn  up  by  the  pontifex  maximus 
(chief  pontiff).  The  name  was  applied 
in  later  times  to  historical  wor^o  in 
which  the  matter  was  treated  with 
special  reference  to  chronological  ar- 
rangement as  to  the  Annals  of  Tacitus. 

Annapolis,  the  capical  of  Mary- 
land, on  the  Severn,  near  its  mouth, 
about  tffo  miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay. 
It  contains  a  college  (St.  John's),  a 
state-house,  and  the  United  States 
naval  academy.  It  has  a  fine  harbor, 
and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  oyster 
industry.  Pop.  (1910)  8,690. 

Annapolis  Convention,  a  con- 
vention that  met  in  Annapolis,  Md., 
Sept.  11,  1786,  to  consider  changes 
in  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  but 
effected  nothing. 

Ann  Arbor,  city  and  capital  of 
Washtenaw  county,  Mich.;  on  the 
Huron  river;  38  miles  W.  of  De- 
troit; manufactures  farm  implements, 
woolen  goods,  furniture,  carriages, 
and  organs;  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  University.  Pop.  (1910)  14,817. 

Annato,  or  Arnotto,  an  orange- 
red  coloring  matter,  obtained  from  a 
shrub  cultivated  in  Guiana,  St.  Do- 
mingo, and  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  dye  for  silk  and 
cotton  goods,  and  is  much  used  in 


COPYRIGHT,   1913,  BY  F.  E.  WRIGH1 


FUR-BEAR 


ANIMALS 


Anne  of  Austria 


Anniversaries 


medicine  for  tinting  plasters  and  oint- 
ments, and  for  giving  a  rich  color  to 
cheese  and  butter. 

Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain,  was  born  at  Ma- 
drid in  1602,  and  in  1G15  was  married 
to  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  Richelieu, 
fearing  the  influence  of  her  foreign 
connections  did  everything  he  could 
to  humble  her.  In  1G43  her  husband 
died,  and  she  was  left  regent,  but 
placed  under  the  control  of  a  council. 
But  the  parliament  overthrew  this  ar- 
rangement, and  intrusted  her  with  full 
sovereign  rights  during  the  minority 
of  her  son,  Louis  XIV.  She,  how- 
over,  brought  upon,  herself  the  hatred 
of  the  nobles  by  her  boundless  confi- 
dence in  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  was 
forced  to  flee  from  Paris  during  the 
wars  of  the  Fronde.  She  ultimately 
quelled  all  opposition,  and  was  able, 
in  1661,  to  transmit  to  her  son,  unim- 
paired, the  royal  authority.  She  spent 
the  remainder  of  her  life  in  retire- 
ment, and  died  Jan.  20,  1666. 

Anne,  Qneen  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  was  born  at  Twick- 
enham, near  London,  Feb.  6,  1664 ; 
the  second  daughter  of  James  II.,  then 
Duke  of  York,  and  Anne,  his  wife, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon. 
She  was  educated  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  English  Church.  In 
1683  she  was  married  to  Prince 
George,  brother  to  King  Christian  V. 
of  Denmark.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  in  1688,  Anne  wished 
to  remain  with  her  father ;  but  she 
was  prevailed  upon  by  Lord  Churchill 
(afterward  Duke  of  Marlborough)  and 
his  wife  to  join  the  triumphant  party. 
After  the  death  of  William  III.,  in 
1702,  she  ascended  the  English  throne. 
Her  character  was  essentially  weak, 
and  she  was  governed  first  bv  Marl- 
borough  and  his  wife,  and  afterward 
by  Mrs.  Masham.  Most  of  the  prin- 
cipal events  of  her  reign  are  connected 
with  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion. The  only  important  acquisition 
that  England  made  by  it  was  Gibral- 
tar, which  was  captured  in  1704.  An- 
other very  important  event  of  this 
reign  was  the  union  of  England  and 
Scotland,  under  the  name  of  Great 
Britain,  which  was  accomplished  in 
1707.  She  died,  July  20,  1714.  The 
reign  of  Anne  was  distinguished  not 
only  by  the  brilliant  successes  of  the 
E.  7. 


British  arms,  but  also  on  account  of 
the  number  of  admirable  and  excellent 
writers  who  nourished  at  this  time, 
among  them  Pope,  Swift,  and  Addison. 

Annealing,  a  process  to  which 
many  articles  of  metal  and  glass  are 
subjected  after  making,  in  order  to 
render  them  more  tenacious,  and  which 
consists  in  heating  them  and  allowing 
them  to  cool  slowly 

Annelida,  a  class  of  animals  be- 
longing to  the  sub-kingdom  articulata, 
the  annulosa  of  some  naturalists. 
They  are  sometimes  called  red  blooded 
worms,  being  the  only  invertebrated 
animals  possessing  this  character. 

Annexation,  a  national  acquisi- 
tion of  territory.  The  term  is  properly 
used  when  adjoining  territory  is  an- 
nexed, but  in  a  loose  way  it  is  applied 
to  the  extension  of  a  nation's  sov- 
ereignty over  any  land. 

Annihilationism,  the  theory  of 
the  utter  extinction  of  man's  being, 
both  bodily  and  spiritual,  either  at 
death  or  at  some  later  period.  Arch- 
bishop Whately  says  that  in  the  pas- 
sages in  Scripture  in  which  'death,' 
'destruction,'  'eternal  death,'  are  men- 
tioned, the  words  may  be  taken  as  sig- 
nifying literal  death,  real  destruction, 
the  utter  end  of  things.  Of  late  those 
who  hold  to  this  theory  have  adopted 
the  term  '  conditional  immortality.' 

Anniston,  city  and  county  seat  of 
Calhoun  Co..  Ala.  The  city  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  region  of  coal,  iron,  and  tim- 
ber, and  the  seat  of  a  large  cotton 
trade.  Pop.  (1910)  12,794. 

Anniversaries,  the  yearly  recur- 
rence of  the  date  upon  which  any  past 
event,  of  historical  or  personal  in- 
terest, has  taken  place.  A  number  of 
anniversaries  of  interest  to  Americans 
are  included  in  the  following : 

Jan.  1,  1863,  Emancipation  Procla- 
mation, by  Lincoln. 

Jan.  8,  1815,  Battle  of  New  Or- 
leans. 

Jan.  17,  1706.  Franklin  born. 

Jan.  17,  1781,  Battle  of  the  Cow- 
pens,  S.  C. 

Jan  19,  1807,  Robert  E.  Lee  born. 

Jan.  27,  1859,  German  Emperor 
born. 

Feb.  12,  1809,  Abraham  Lincoln 
born. 

Feb.  15,  1P98,  battleship  "Maine" 
blown  UD. 


Anniversaries 


Annunciation 


Feb.  22,  1732,  George  Washington 
1x>rn. 

Feb.  22-23,  1847,  Battle  of  Buena 
Vista. 

March  5,  1770,  Boston  massacre. 

March  15,  1767,  Andrew  Jackson 
born. 

April  9,  1865,  Lee  surrendered  at 
Appomattox. 

April  12,  1861,  Fort  Sumter  fired 
upon. 

April  12,  1777,  Henry  Clay  born. 

April  13,  1743,  Thomas  Jefferson 
born. 

April  14,  1865,  Lincoln  assassinated. 

April  19,  1881,  Primrose  Day  in 
England,  Lord  Beaconsfield  died. 

April  19,  1775,  Battle  of  Lexington 
and  Concord. 

April  30,  1789,  Washington  was 
inaugurated  first  President. 

May  1,  1898,  Dewey  destroyed  the 
Spanish  fleet  at  Manila. 

May  13,  1607,  first  English  settle- 
ment in  America,  at  Jamestown. 

May  13,  1783,  the  Society  of  the 
Cincinnati  was  organized  by  officers 
of  the  Revolutionary  army. 

May  20,  1775,  Mecklenburg,  N.  C., 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

June  14,  1777,  American  flag  adopt- 
ed by  Congress. 

June  15,  1215,  King  John  granted 
Magna  Charta  at  Runnymede. 

June  17,  1775,  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill. 

June  18,  1815,  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

June  28,  1776,  Battle  of  Fort  Moul- 
trie,  Charleston,  S.  C. 

July  1,  Dominion  Day  in  Canada. 

July  1-2,  1898,  general  assault  on 
Santiago  de  Cuba. 

July  1-3,  1863,  Battle  of  Gettys- 
burg. 

July  3,  1898,  Cervera's  fleet  de- 
stroyed off  Santiago. 

July  14,  1789,  the  Bastile  was  de- 
stroyed. 

July  16,  1898,  Santiago  surrendered. 

July  21,  1861,  Battle  of  Bull  Run. 

Aug.  13,  1898,  Manila  surrendered 
to  the  Americans. 

Aug.  16,  1777,  Battle  of  Benning- 
ton,  Vt. 

Sept.  8,  1781,  Battle  of  Eutaw 
Springs,  S.  C. 

Sept.  10,  1813,  Battle  of  Lake  Erie, 
Perry's  victory. 

Sept.  11,  1814,  Battle  of  Lake 
Champlain,  McDonough's  victory. 


Sept.  12,  1814,  Battle  of  North 
Point,  near  Baltimore. 

Sept.  13,  1847,  Battle  of  Chapulte- 
pec. 

Sept.  14,  1847,  City  of  Mexico 
taken  bv  United  States  troops. 

Sept.  17,  1862.  Battle  of  Antietam. 

Sept.  19-20,  1863,  Battle  of  Chick- 
am  auga. 

Sept.  20,  1870,  Italians  occupied 
Rome. 

Oct.  7,  1780,  Battle  of  King's  Moun- 
tain, N.  C. 

Oct.  8-11,  1871,  great  fire  of  Chi- 
cabo. 

Oct.  12,  1492,  Columbus  discovered 
America. 

Oct.  17,  1777,  Burgoyne  surrendered 
at  Saratoga. 

Oct.  19,  1781,  Cornwallis  surren- 
dered at  Yorktown. 

Nov.  5,  1604,  Guy  Fawkes  Day  in 
England,  the  gunpowder  plot  discov- 
ered. 

Nov.  9,  1872,  great  fire  of  Boston. 

Nov.  25,  1783,  British  evacuated 
New  York. 

Dec.  14,  1799,  Washington  died. 

Dec.  16,  1773,  Boston  "Tea  Party." 

Dec.  22,  1620,  Mayflower  pilgrims 
landed  at  Plymouth  Rock. 

Dec.  25-26,  1776,  Battle  of  Tren- 
ton, N.  J. 

Anno  Domini,  A.  D.,  the  year  of 
Our  Lord,  in  Latin.  The  Christian 
era  began  Jan.  1,  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  year  of  the  194th  Olympiad, 
the  753rd  year  of  the  building  of 
Rome,  and  in  4714  of  the  Julian  pe- 
riod. This  era  was  invented  by  a 
monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus,  about  532. 
It  was  introduced  into  Italy  in  the 
6th  century,  and  ordered  to  be  used 
by  bishops  by  the  Council  of  Chelsea, 
in  816,  but  was  not  generally  employed 
for  several  centuries.  Charles  III.  of 
Germany  was  the  first  who  added  "  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord"  to  his  reign,  in  879. 

Annuity,  a  fixed  sum  of  money 
paid  yearly.  In  the  United  States  the 
granting  of  annuities  is  conducted  by 
private  companies  or  corporations. 
The  purchase  of  annuities,  as  a  sys^ 
tem,  has  never  gained  much  foothold 
— the  endowment  plan  of  life  insur- 
ance, by  which,  after  the  lapse  of  a 
term  of  years,  the  insured  receives  a 
sum  in  bulk,  being  preferred. 

Annunciation,  the  declaration 
of  the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin 


Anode 


Anste/ 


Mary  informing  her  that  she  was  to 
become  the  mother  of  our  Lord.  An- 
nunciation or  Lady  Day  is  a  feast  in 
honor  of  the  Annunciation,  celebrated 
on  the  25th  of  March. 

Anode,  the  name  given  by  Fara- 
day to  what  is  called  by  Daniell  the 
zincode,  and  by  various  other  writers 
the  positive  pole  of  an  electric  bat- 
tery ;  or,  more  precisely,  the  "  way " 
or  path  by  which  the  electric  current 
passes  out  and  enters  the  electrolyte 
on  its  way  to  the  other  pole. 

Anodyne,  a  medicine  which  alle- 
viates pain,  though,  if  given  in  too 
large  doses,  it  induces  stupor. 

Anointing,  rubbing  the  body  or 
some  part  of  it  with  oil,  often  per- 
fumed. From  time  immemorial  the 
nations  of  the  East  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  anointing  themselves  for  the 
sake  of  health  and  beauty.  In  the 
Mosaic  law  a  sacred  character  was 
attached  to  the  anointing  of  the 
garments  of  the  priests  and  things 
belonging  to  the  ceremonial  of  wor- 
ship. The  custom  of  anointing  still 
exists  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  ordination  of  priests  and  the 
confirmation  of  believers  and  the  sac- 
rament of  extreme  unction.  The  cere- 
mony is  also  frequently  a  part  of  the 
coronation  of  kings. 

Anomalure,  a  genus  of  rodent  an- 
imals inhabitating  the  W.  coast  of  Af- 
rica, resembling  the  flying-squirrels, 
but  having  the  under  surface  of  the 
tail  "  furnished  for  some  distance  from 
the  roots  with  a  series  of  large  horny 
scales,  which,  when  pressed  against 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  may  subserve  the 
same  purpose  as  those  instruments 
with  which  a  man  climbs  up  a  tele- 
graph pole  to  set  the  wires." 

Anonymous,  literally  "  without 
name,"  applied  to  anything  which  is 
the  work  of  a  person  whose  name  is 
unknown  or  who  keeps  his  name  se- 
cret. Pseudonym  is  a  term  used  for 
an  assumed  name. 

Anoplotherium,  an  extinct  ge- 
nus of  the  ungulata  or  hoofed  quad- 
rupeds, forming  the  type  of  a  distinct 
family,  which  were  in  many  respects 
intermediate  between  the  swine  and 
fhe  true  ruminants.  These  animals 
were  pig-like  in  form,  but  possessed 
long  tails,  and  had  a  cleft  hoof,  with 
two  rudimentary  toes.  Some  of  them 


were  as  small  as  a  guinea-pig,  others 
as  large  as  an  ass. 

Anosmia,  a  disease  consisting  in 
a  diminution  or  destruction  of  the 
power  of  smelling,  sometimes  constitu- 
tional, but  most  frequently  caused  by 
strong  and  repeated  stimulants,  as 
snuff,  applied  to  the  olfactory  nerves. 

Anquetil-Duperron.  Abraham 
Hyacinthe,  a  French  orientalist, 
born  in  1731.  He  died  in  1805. 

Anselm  of  Canterbury,  a  Chris- 
tian philosopher  and  theologian ;  re- 
garded by  some  as  the  founder  of 
scholasticism ;  born  in  Aosta,  Pied- 
mont, between  April  21,  1033,  and 
April  21,  1034.  In  1092  he  went  to 
i  England.  In  the  following  year  he 
'  was  nominated  by  William  Rufus 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  was 
consecrated  on  Dec.  4,  1093.  He  died 
in  Canterbury,  April  21,  1109;  was 
canonized  in  1494. 

Ansgar,  or  Anshar,  called  the 
|  Apostle  of  the  North,  was  born  in  801 
in  Picardy,  and  he  took  the  monastic 
vows  in  boyhood.  In  the  midst  of 
many  difficulties  he  labored  as  a  mis- 
sionary in  Denmark  and  Sweden ;  dy- 
ing in  804  or  865,  with  the  reputation 
of  having  undertaken,  if  not  the  first, 
the  most  successful,  attempts  for  the 
propagation  of  Christianity  in  the 
North. 

Anson,  George,  Lord,  a  cele- 
brated English  navigator,  born  in 
1697;  entered  the  navy  at  an  early 
age  and  became  a  commander  in  1722, 
and  captain  in  1724.  He  was  for  a 
long  time  on  the  South  Carolina  sta- 
tion, fiis  victory  over  the  French 
admiral,  Jonquiere,  near  Cape  Finis- 
terre  in  1747,  raised  him  to  the  peer- 
age. He  died  in  1762. 

Ansonia,  a  city  in  New  Haven 
county,  Conn.;  on  the  Naugatuck 
river  and  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford  railroad;  10  miles  W.  of 
New  Haven;  is  widely  noted  for  its 
extensive  manufactures  of  clocks,  and 
brass,  copper,  and  woolen  goods. 
;Pop.  (1910)  15,152. 

Ansted,  David  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish geologist,  born  1814;  died  1880. 

Anstey,  F.,  pseudonym  of  THOMAS 
ANSTEY  GUTHRIE,  an  English  humor- 
ist, born  in  Kensington  in  1856;  grad- 
uated from  Cambridge  in  1875,  was 


Ant 

called  to  the  bar  in  1880,  and  joined 
"Punch"  staff  in  1887. 

Ant,  the  name  that  is  commonly 
applied  to  various  genera  of  hymenop- 
terous  or  membranous-winged  insects. 
Most  of  the  species  live  in  large  com- 
panies or  societies,  composed  of  three 
sorts  of  individuals  —  males,  females, 
and  neuters.  The  males  and  females 
have  long  wings,  which  are  not  so 
much  veined  as  in  other  insects  of  the 
same  section,  and  are  only  temporary ; 
the  neuters,  which  are  simply  females 
with  imperfectly  developed  organs,  are 
smaller  than  the  males  and  females, 
and  are  destitute  of  wings.  The  neu- 
ters perform  all  the  labors  of  the  ant- 
hill ;  they  excavate  the  galleries,  pro- 
cure food,  and  wait  upon  the  larva? 
till  they  are  fit  to  leave  their  cells,  ap- 
pearing always  industrious  and  solici- 
tous. 

Male  and  female  ants  survive,  at 
most,  till  autumn,  or  to  the  commence- 
ment of  cool  weather,  though  a  very 
large  proportion  of  them  cease  to  exist 
long  previous  to  that  time.  The  neu- 
ters pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  tor- 
por, and  of  course  require  no  food. 
The  zoological  characters  of  the  ant 
family,  which  includes  the  familiar 
ants,  are  found  in  the  females  being 
of  larger  size  than  the  males;  in  the 
sexes  being  winged,  while  the  neuters 
are  wingless ;  and  in  the  antennae  pos- 
sessing a  long  basal  joint. 

Antacid,  an  alkali,  or  any  remedy 
for  acidity  in  the  stomach.  Dyspepsia 
and  diarrhrea  are  the  diseases  in  which 
antacids  are  chiefly  employed.  The 
principal  antacids  in  use  are  mag- 
nesia, lime,  and  their  carbonates,'  and 
the  carbonates  of  potash  and  soda. 

Antananarivo,  the  capital  of 
Madagascar,  situated  in  the  central 
Province  of  Imerina ;  of  late  years  al- 
most entirely  rebuilt,  its  old  timber 
houses  having  been  replaced  by  build- 
ings of  sun  dried  brick  on  European 
models.  It  contains  two  royal  pal- 
aces, immense  timber  structures,  one 
of  which  is  surrounded  with  a  massive 
stone  veranda  with  lofty  corner  tow- 
ers. It  has  manufactures  of  metal 
work,  cutlery,  silk,  "etc.  Pop.  about 
100,000.  See  MADAGASCAR. 

Antarctic,  relating  to  the  southern 
pole  or  to  the  region  near  it.  The 
Antarctic  Circle  is  a  circle  parallel  to 


Antelope 

the  equator  and  distant  from  the  south 
pole  23°  28',  marking  the  area  within 
which  the  sun  does  not  set  when  on 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  Antarc- 
tic Circle  has  been  arbitrarily  fixed  on 
as  the  limits  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean, 
it  being  the  average  limit  of  the  pack- 
ice  ;  but  the  name  is  often  extended  to 
embrace  a  much  wider  area.  The  south- 
polar  region  is  much  colder  than  the 
northern,  temperatures  of  100°  having 
been  frequently  noted  by  the  Discov- 
ery Expedition  ( 1902-1904) .  The  mam- 
mals in  the  south  polar  region  are  seals 
and  cetaceans.  Lieutenant  Shackle- 
ton,  in  command  of  a  British  expedi- 
tion, reached  a  point  111  m.  from  the 
South  Pole  in  1908,  and  discovered 
the  south  magnetic  meridian.  Scme- 
what  later,  Captain  Robert  F.  Scctt 
reached  a  point  still  further,  and  re- 
turned to  England  to  prepare  a  second 
expedition.  Meanwhile,  early  in  1909, 
the  Norwegian,  Roald  Amundsen,  sailed 
in  the  Fram  and  was  lost  sight  of  until 
late  in  1911.  At  that  time  he  was  in 
the  Antarctic  Seas,  not  far  from  the 
point  previously  reachec1  by  Capt.  Scott 
and  Sir  Ernest  Shackleton.  Not  long 
after,  he  reached  the  South  Pole  (Dec. 
14, 1911)  and  hoisted  his  country's  flag. 
It  was  not  until  March  that  he  could 
communicate  the  news  of  his  discov- 
ery, which  he  did  from  Tasmania.  See 
SOUTH  POLAR  EXPLORATIONS. 

Ant-eater,  a  genus  of  mammalia, 
belonging  to  the  order  Edentata.  This 
peculiar  group  of  animals  is  exclusive- 
ly found  in  the  S.  part  of  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  where  they  aid  in  di- 
minishing the  numbers  of  immense 
hordes  of  ants,  which  desolate  the 
country  in  the  vicinity  of  their  dwell- 
ings. 

Antediluvian,  before  the  flood  or 
deluge  of  Noah's  time ;  relating  to 
what  happened  before  the  deluge.  In 
geology  the  term  has  been  applied  to 
organisms,  traces  of  which  are  found 
in  a  fossil  state  in  formations  preced- 
ing the  diluvial,  particularly  to  extinct 
animals  such  as  the  paleotherium,  the 
mastodon,  etc. 

Antelope,  the  name  given  to  the 
members  of  a  large  family  of  rumi- 
nant ungulata  or  hoofed  mammalia, 
closely  resemblitij  the  deer  in  general 
appearance,  but  essentially  different  in 
nature  from  the  latter  animals.  Wall 


Antennae 

known  species  are  the  chamois  (Eu- 
ropean), the  gazelle,  the  a  (Idas,  the 
eland,  the  koodoo,  the  gnu,  the  spring- 
bok, the  sasin  or  Indian  antelope,  and 
the  prongbuck  of  America. 

Antennae,  the  name  given  to  the 
movable  jointed  organs  of  touch  and 
hearing  attached  to  the  heads  of  in- 
sects, myriapods,  etc.,  and  commonly 
called  horns  or  feelers.  They  present 
a  very  great  variety  of  forms. 

Antenor,  a  Grecian  sculptor,  who 
lived  at  Athens  about  500  B.  c. 

Anthelion,  a  luminous  ring,  or 
rings,  seen  by  an  observer,  especially 
in  Alpine  and  polar  regions,  around 
the  shadow  of  his  head  projected  on 
a  cloud  or  fog  bank,  or  on  grass  cov- 
ered with  dew,  50  or  60  yards  distant, 
and  opposite  the  sun  when  rising  or 
setting.  It  is  due  to  the  refraction  of 
light. 

Anthem,  orginally  a  hymn  sung  in 
alternate  parts ;  in  modern  use,  a  sa- 
cred tune  or  piece  of  music  set  to 
words  taken  from  the  Psalms  or  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures. 

Anthemius,  a  Greek  mathemati- 
cian and  architect  of  Lydia ;  designed 
the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constan- 
tinople, and  is  credited  with  the  in- 
vention of  the  dome ;  died  A.  D.  544. 

Anther,  an  organized  body  con- 
stituting part  of  a  stamen,  and  gen- 
erally attached  to  the  apex  of  the  fila- 
ment. 

Anthology,  the  name  given  to  sev- 
eral collections  of  short  poems  which 
have  come  down  from  antiquity. 

Anthon,  Charles,  an  American 
classical  scholar,  born  in  New  York 
city,  Nov.  19,  1797.  He  was  for  many 
years  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages 
at  Columbia  College.  A  beautiful  edi- 
tion of  Horace  first  made  him  famous 
among  scholars.  His  best  known  work 
was  an  edition  of  Lempriere's  "  Clas- 
sical Dictionary"  (1841).  He  was 
also  the  editor  of  over  50  classical 
text-books.  He  died  July  29,  1867. 

Anthony,  Henry  Brown,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  1815 ; 
was  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1833 ;  became  editor  and  publisher 
of  the  "  Journal,"  in  Providence,  R.  I. ; 
elected  Governor  of  Rhode  Island  in 
1849  and  1850;  United  States  Sen- 
ator from  1859  till  his  death ;  and 


Anthony 

was  elected  President  pro  tern,  of  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1803,  1871, 
and  1884.  He  died  in  1884. 

Anthony,  St.,  the  founder  of 
monastic  institutions,  born  near  Hera- 
clea,  in  Upper  Egypt,  A.  D.  251 ;  died 
356.  His  day,  the  17th  of  Jan.,  is  a 
popular  celebration  in  the  Church. 

Anthony's  Fire,  so  called  from 
him,  a  disease  of  the  Middle  Ages  that 
dried  up  and  blackened  every  limb  it 
attacked,  as  if  it  were  burnt. 

Anthony,  St.,  Falls  of,  a  noted 
fall  in  the  Mississippi  river,  now 
within  the  city  limits  of  Minneapolis, 
Minn.  The  perpendicular  fall  is  17 
feet,  with  a  rapid  below  of  58  feet. 
An  island  divides  the  river  into  two 
parts.  The  entire  descent  of  the 
stream  for  three-quarters  of  a  mile  is 
65  feet.  The  falls  and  surrounding 
scenery,  especially  during  the  spring 
floods,  are  exceedingly  picturesque. 

Anthony,  Snsan  Brownell,  an 
American  reformer,  born  in  South 
Adams,  Mass.,  Feb.  15,  1820;  was  of 
Quaker  parentage ;  educated  at  a 
Friends'  school  in  Philadelphia,  and 
taught  school  in  New  York  in  1835- 
1850.  In  1847  she  first  spoke  in  pub- 
lic, taking  part  in  the  temperance 
movement  and  organizing  societies.  In 
1852  she  assisted  in  organizing  the 
Woman's  New  York  State  Temperance 
Society ;  in  1854-1855  she  held  con- 
ventions, in  each  county  in  New  York, 
in  behalf  of  female  suffrage.  In  1857 
she  became  a  leader  in  the  anti-slavery 
movement,  and  in  1858  advocated  the 
coeducation  of  the  sexes.  She  was  in- 
fluential in  securing  the  passage  by  the 
New  York  Legislature,  in  1860,  of  the 
act  giving  married  women  the  posses- 
sion of  their  earnings,  and  guardian- 
ship of  their  children.  In  1868,  with 
Mrs.  E.  C.  Stanton  and  Parker  Pills- 
bury,  she  began  the  publication  of  the 
"  Revolutionist,"  a  paper  devoted  to 
the  emancipation  of  woman.  In  1872 
she  cast  ballots  at  the  State  and  Con- 
gressional election  in  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
to  test  the  application  of  the  14th  and 
15th  Amendments  of  the  United  States 
Constitution.  She  was  indicted  for 
illegal  voting,  and  fined,  but  the  fine 
was  never  exacted.  Her  last  public 
appearance  of  note  was  as  a  delegate 
to  the  International  Council  of  Wom- 
en, in  London,  England,  in  1899.  In 


Anthracene 


Antilles 


1900  her  birthday  was  celebrated  by 
an  affecting  popular  demonstration  in 
Washington,  D.  CM  and  she  retired 
from  the  presidency  of  the  National 
American  Woman  Suffrage  Associa- 
tion. She  died  March  13,  1906. 

Anthracene,  a  substance  obtained 
in  the  distillation  of  coal-tar. 

Anthracite,  glance,  or  blind  coal, 
a  non-bituminous  coal  of  a  shining 
luster,  approaching  to  metallic,  and 
which  burns  without  smoke,  with  a 
weak  or  no  flame,  and  with  intense 
heat.  It  is  found  in  large  quantities 
in  the  United  States,  chiefly  in  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Anthrax,  a  fatal  disease  to  which 
cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  other  animals 
are  subject,  always  associated  with  the 
presence  of  an  extremely  minute  mi- 
cro-organism (Bacillus  anthracis)  in 
the  blood.  It  is  also  called  splenic 
fever,  and  is  communicable  to  man, 
appearing  as  carbuncle,  malignant  pus- 
tule, or  wool-sorter's  disease.  In  re- 
cent years  the  disease  has  become 
quite  prevalent  in  the  United  States, 
especially  among  furriers  and  people 
wearing  fur  coats  and  collars. 

Anthropoid,  resembling  man :  a 
term  applied  especially  to  the  apes, 
which  approach  the  human  species. 

Anthropology,  the  science  of 
man  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term. 

Anthropometry,  the  measure- 
ment of  the  human  body  to  discover 
its  exact  dimensions  and  the  propor- 
tions of  its  parts,  for  comparison  with 
its  dimensions  at  different  periods,  or 
in  different  races  or  classes. 

Anti-Christ,  anyone  who  denies 
the  Father  and  the  Son ;  or  who  will 
not  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  come 
in  the  flesh,  or  who,  leaving  the  Church, 
pretends  to  be  the  Christ  (or  Mes- 
siah), and  thus  becomes  a  rival  and 
enemy  of  Jesus,  the  true  Christ. 

Anticosti,  an  island  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  which  it  divides  into 
two  channels,  with  lighthouses  at  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  coast.  It  is  about 
140  miles  long,  and  30  miles  broad  in 
the  center.  Pop.  (1900)  250. 

Antidote,  c,  medicine  to  counteract 
the  effects  of  poison.  For  ARSENIC, 
use  tablespoonful  of  "  dialized  iron," 
four  doses  in  two  hours,  followed  by 
castor  oil ;  PHOSPHOEUS,  MATCHES, 
44  ROUGH  os  RATS,"  large  amounts  of 


gum  arable,  emetics  and  epsom  salts ; 
CARBOLIC  ACID,  use  epsom  salts,  sweet 
oil,  white  of  eggs ;  CHOLORAL,  ipecac 
in  water,  25-35  grains,  hypodermic  in- 
jection of  20th  part  of  grain  of  strych- 
nine, friction,  warmth  and  artificial 
respiration  ;  OPIUM,  MORPHINE,  empty 
the  stomach,  inhale  ammonia,  and  give 
half  grain  permanganate  of  potash 
once  an  hour.  Keep  the  patient  from 
sleep,  and  give  frequent  doses  of  30 
grains  tincture  of  belladona,  to  keep 
up  circulation. 

Antietam,  a  small  river  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Maryland  which  empties 
into  the  Potomac  six  miles  N.  of  Har- 
per's Ferry.  On  Sept.  17,  1862,  a  bat- 
tle was  fought  on  its  banks  near 
Sharpsburg,  between  a  Federal  army 
of  87,164  men,  under  General  McClel- 
lan,  and  a  Confederate  army  variously 
reported  at  from  40,000  to  97,000 
men,  under  General  Lee.  The  Fed- 
eral casualties  aggregated  12,  469,  and 
the  Confederate,  from  12,000  to  25,- 
000.  General  Lee  recrossed  the  Po- 
tomac on  the  following  day,  and  the 
general  consensus  is  that  the  battle 
was  a  Federal  victory. 

Antifebrin,  a  neutral  chemical 
product  derived  from  acetate  of  ani- 
line at  an  elevated  temperature  by  a 
dialytic  action  in  which  water  is  set 
free. 

Anti-Federalists,  members  of  a 
political  party,  in  the  United  States, 
which  opposed  the  adoption  and  ratifi- 
cation of  the  constitution,  and  failing 
in  this,  strongly  favored  the  strict  con- 
struction of  that  instrument.  Thomas 
Jefferson  was  its  leader,  but  he  par- 
tially abandoned  the  principles  of  the 
party  when  he  sanctioned  the  Louisi- 
ana Purchase. 

Antigua,  one  of  the  British  West 
Indies,  the  most  important  of  the  Lee- 
ward group ;  28  miles  long,  20  broad ; 
area,  108  square  miles ;  discovered  by 
Columbus,  1493.  Pop.,  including  Bar- 
buda and  Redonda  (1911)  38,899. 

Antilles,  another  name  for  the 
West  Indian  Islands.  Subdivided  into 
Greater  Antilles  and  Lesser  Antilles. 

Antigone,  in  Greek  mythology  the 
daughter  of  CEdipus  and  Jocasta.  cele- 
brated for  her  devotion  to  her  father 
and  to  her  brother  Polynices,  for 
burying  whom  against  the  decree  of 
King  Creon  she  suffered  death. 


Antimaclms 

Antimachus,  a  Greek  epic  and 
elegiac  poet ;  flourished  about  400  B.  c. 

Anti-Masonic  Party,  a  political 
organization  in  opposition  to  Free- 
masonry. In  1828  this  party  polled 
33,000  in  New  York  State;  in  1829, 
about  70,000 ;  and  in  1830,  about  128,- 
000. 

Anti-Mission  Baptists,  a  sect 
in  the  United  States  who  also  called 
themselves  "Old  School  Baptists," 
founded  about  1835.  They  do  not  be- 
lieve in  Sunday  schools,  colleges  or 
theological  seminaries,  holding  that 
the  salvation  of  men  does  not  depend 
upon  human  instrumentalities,  but 
upon  divine  grace  only. 

Antimony,  in  chemistry,  a  triad 
metallic  element,  but  in  some  less  sta- 
ple compounds  it  appears  to  be  pentad. 

Antinomianism  (Greek,  anti, 
"against,"  and  nomos,  "law"),  the 
doctrine  or  opinion  that  Christians  are 
freed  from  obligation  to  keep  the  law 
of  God.  It  is  generally  regarded,  by 
advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  as  a  monstrous  abuse 
and  perversion  of  that  doctrine,  upon 
•which  it  usually  professes  to  bo  based. 

Antinons,  a  young  Bithynian 
•whom  the  extravagant  love  of  Adrian 
has  immortalized.  He  drowned  him- 
self in  the  Nile  in  122  A.D.  Adrian 
set  no  bounds  to  his  grief  for  his  loss. 
He  gave  his  name  to  a  newly-discov- 
ered star,  erected  temples  in  his  honor, 
called  a  city  after  him,  and  caused 
him  to  be  adored  as  a  god  throughout 
the  empire. 

Antioch  (ancient,  Antiochia),  cap- 
ital of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria ;  on 
the  Orontes ;  about  21  miles  from  the 
sea.  It  was  founded  by  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator,  in  300  B.  c.,  and  was  named 
after  his  father  Antiochus.  Famous 
in  ancient  times,  and  the  place  where 
the  disciples  of  Christ  were  first 
called  Christians,  it  is  now  a  poor 
place  with  about  20,000  inhabitants. 

Antiochus  III.,  surnamed  the 
Great,  born  B.  c.  242,  succeeded  in 
B.  c.  223.  The  Romans  defeated  him 
by  sea  and  land,  and  he  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Scipio  at  Mount  Sipy- 
lus,  in  Asia  Minor,  B.  c.  190,  and  very 
severe  terms  were  imposed  upon  him. 
He  was  killed  while  plundering  a  tem- 
ple in  Elymais  to  procure  money  to 
pay  the  Romans. 


Antipope 

Antiochus  IV.,  called  Epiphanes, 
youngest  son  of  the  above,  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  his  attempt  to  extir- 
pate the  Jewish  religion,  and  to  es- 
tablish in  its  place  the  polytheism  of 
the  Greeks.  This  led  to  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Maccabees,  by  which  the 
Jews  ultimately  recovered  their  inde- 
pendence. He  died  B.  c.  164. 

Antipaedobaptist,  one  who  is  op- 
posed to  the  doctrine  of  infant  bap- 
tism. 

Antiparos,  one  of  the  Cyclades 
(islands),  in  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
containing  a  famous  stalactitic  grotto 
or  cave. 

Antipater,  a  general  and  friend 
of  Philip  of  Macedon,  father  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  He  died  in  B.  c.  317, 
at  an  advanced  age. 

Antipater,  procurator  of  Judea 
for  the  Romans  from  47  to  43  B.  c. 
He  received  the  appointment  from  Ju- 
lius Caesar ;  and  died  from  poison  in 
the  last  mentioned  year.  He  was  the 
father  of  Herod  the  Great 

Antipathy,  a  special  dislike  ex- 
hibited by  individuals  to  particular  ob- 
jects or  persons,  usually  resulting  from 
physical  or  nervous  organization. 

Antiperiodics,  medicines  which 
prevent  or  relieve  the  paroxysms  of 
certain  diseases  which  exhibit  a  peri- 
odic character. 

Antiphlogistic,  a  term  applied 
to  medicines  or  methods  of  treatment 
that  are  intended  to  counteract  in- 
flammation, such  as  blood  letting,  pur- 
gatives, diaphoretics,  etc. 

Antiphony,  opposition  or  contra- 
riety of  sound ;  also  the  alternate 
chanting  or  singing  in  a  cathedral,  or 
similar  service  by  the  choir,  divided 
into  two  parts  for  the  purpose,  and 
usually  sitting  upon  opposite  sides. 

Antipodes,  the  name  given  rela- 
tively to  the  people  or  places  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  earth,  so  situated  that 
a  line  drawn  from  one  to  the  other 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  earth 
and  forms  a  true  diameter.  The  longi- 
tudes of  two  such  places  differ  by 
180°.  The  difference  in  their  time 
is  about  12  hours,  and  their  seasons 
are  reversed. 

Antipope,  a  pontiff  elected  in  op- 
position to  one  canonical!}-  chosen. 


Antipyretics 

Antipyretics,  medicines,  which 
reduce  the  temperature  in  fever. 

Antipyrine,  an  alkaloid  exten- 
sively used  in  medicine  as  an  antipy- 
retic, and  possessing  the  valuable 
property  of  materially  reducing  the 
temperature  of  the  body  without  the 
production  of  any  distressing  bodily 
symptoms.  Hence,  it  is  much  resort- 
ed to  in  fevers,  pneumonia,  acute  rheu- 
matism, phthisis,  and  erysipelas.  To 
produce  a  more  rapid  action  the  drug 
is  often  injected  hypodermically. 

Antiquaries,  those  devoted  to  the 
study  of  ancient  times  through  their 
relics,  as  old  places  of  sepulcher,  re- 
mains of  ancient  habitations ;  early 
monuments,  implements  or  weapons, 
statues,  coins,  medals,  paintings,  in- 
scriptions, books,  and  manuscripts, 
with  the  view  of  arriving  at  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  relations,  modes  of  living, 
habits,  and  general  condition  of  the 
people  who  created  or  employed  them. 
The  American  Antiquarian  Society 
was  organized  in  1812,  and  has  its 
headquarters  in  Worcester,  Mass. 

Antique,  a  province  of  Panay, 
Philippine  Islands,  on  the  W.  coast; 
area,  with  dependent  islands,  1,340 
square  miles;  pop.  (1903)  131,245,  of 
whom  2,921  were  wild;  chief  native 
race,  Visayan;  is  rich  in  minerals. 

Anti-Rent  Party,  a  party  which 
gained  some  political  influence  in  New 
York,  and  which  had  its  origin  in  the 
refusal  of  tenants,  who  were  dissat- 
isfied with  the  patroon  system  to  pay 
rent  The  matter  was  settled  by  com- 
promise in  1850.  The  patroons  were 
early  Dutch  settlers  who  received  vast 
tracts  of  land  in  what  is  now  New 
York,  on  conditions  which  made  them 
virtually  feudal  lords  of  the  soik  The 
tenants  rebelled  against  these  condi- 
tions, and  popular  sympathy  being 
with  them,  the  heirs  of  the  patroons 
were  brought  to  terms  by  legislation 
inimical  to  the  system  under  which 
they  held  their  lands,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  rights  of  property  were 
sustained. 

Antiscorbutics,  remedies  against 
scurvy.  Lemon  juice,  ripe  fruit, 
milk,  salts  of  potash,  green  vegetables, 
potatoes,  fresh  meat,  and  raw  or  light- 
ly boiled  eggs,  are  some  of  the  princi- 
pal antiscorbutics. 


Antithesis 

Anti-Semites,  the  modern  oppo- 
nents of  the  Jews  in  Russia,  Rumania, 
Hungary,  and  Eastern  Germany.  In 
France  the  second  trial  of  Capt. 
Alfred  Dreyfus,  in  1899,  aroused  an 
intense  anti-Semitic  feeling.  The 
cruel  massacre  of  Jews  in  Kishineff, 
Russia,  by  an  anti-Semitic  mob,  in 
1903,  excited  indignation  throughout 
the  civilized  world. 

Antisepsis,  the  exclusion  of  mi- 
crobes or  bacteria  from  wounds,  etc., 
by  the  use  of  antiseptics  or  other 
means  in  order  to  prevent  putrefac- 
tion, infection,  or  blood-poisoning. 

Antiseptic,  a  substance  which 
has  the  effect  of  counteracting  the  ten- 
dency to  putrefaction.  Garrod  makes 
disinfectants  and  antiseptics  the  sec- 
ond order  of  his  Division  III.  Chem- 
ical agents  used  for  other  than  their 
medicinal  properties.  Antiseptics  pre- 
vent chemical  change  by  destroying 
the  putrefactive  microbes  or  bacteria, 
the  chemical  composition  of  the  body 
still  in  many  cases  remaining  the 
same ;  while  disinfectants  decompose 
and  remove  the  infectious  matter  it- 
self. Antiseptics  are  called  also  coly- 
tics.  Among  them  may  be  named  car- 
bolic acid,  alcohol,  sulphurous  acid, 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt), 
etc. 

Antiseptic  Surgery,  treatment  to 
kill  germs  in  accidental  wounds,  and 
surgical  operations. 

Antispasmodi.es,  medicines  which 
are  used  to  prevent  or  allay  spasms. 
In  all  spasmodic  diseases,  cold  baths 
or  sponging,  sun-baths,  moderate  exer- 
cise, and  a  plain  but  nutritious  diet 
should  be  employed  ;  late  hours,  a  close 
atmosphere,  exhausting  emotions,  or 
excessive  mental  or  bodily  work  should 
be  avoided. 

Antisthenes,  a  Greek  philosopher 
and  the  founder  of  the  school  of  Cyn- 
ics, born  at  Athens  about  B.  C.  444. 
He  held  virtue  to  consist  in  complete 
self  denial  and  disregard  of  riches, 
honor,  or  pleasure  of  every  kind.  He 
himself  lived  as  a  beggar.  He  died  in 
Athens  at  an  advanced  age. 

Antithesis,  a  sharp  opposition  or 
contrast  between  word  and  word, 
clause  and  clause,  sentence  and  sen- 
tence, or  sentiment  and  sentiment,  es- 
pecially designed  to  impress  the  lis- 
tener or  reader. 


Antitoxine 

Antitoxine,  the  name  given  to  a 
new  remedy  for  diphtheria.  The  de- 
crease of  deaths  from  this  disease 
since  the  introduction  of  this  remedy 
is  remarkable,  and  in  most  large  cities 
it  is  provided  free  to  all  unable  to  pay 
for  the  medicine. 

Anti- Trade,  a  name  given  to  any 
of  the  upper  tropical  winds  which 
move  northward  or  southward  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  trade-winds  which 
blow  beneath  them  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. 

Antitrinitarians,  all  who  do  not 
eceiye  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine 
Trinity,  or  the  existence  of  three  per- 
sons in  the  Godhead ;  especially  ap- 
plied to  those  who  oppose  such  a  doc- 
trine on  philosophical  grounds,  as  con- 
trasted with  Unitarians,  who  reject  the 
doctrine  as  not  warranted  by  Scrip- 
ture. 

Antlers,  bony  outgrowths  from 
the  frontal  bones  of  almost  all  the 
members  of  the  deer  family.  Except 
in  the  reindeer,  they  are  restricted  to 
the  males. 

Ant  Lion,  the  larva  of  an  insect, 
of  the  order  of  neuroptera,  remarkable 
for  its  ingenious  methods  of  captur- 
ing ants  and  other  insects,  on  which 
it  feeds,  by  making  pitfalls  in  the 
sand.  Some  species  are  common  in 
North  America. 

Antoinette,  Marie  (MABIE  AN- 
TOINETTE JOSEPH  JEANNE  DE  LOR- 
RAINE), Archduchess  of  Austria  and 
Queen  of  France ;  the  youngest  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  and  of 
Maria  Theresa ;  born  in  Vienna,  Nov. 
2, 1755.  She  became  wife  of  the  dauph- 
in, afterward  Louis  XVI.  of  France, 
and  perished  with  him  in  the  Revolu- 
tion. Louis  was  executed  on  Jan.  21, 
1793.  The  dauphin,  their  son,  who 
afterward  perished  miserably  in  con- 
finement, was  next  separated  from  the 
queen,  and  on  Aug.  2,  1793,  Marie  An- 
toinette was  transferred  to  the  Con- 
ciergerie  to  be  brought  before  the  Rev- 
olutionary tribunal.  The  act  of  ac- 
cusation was  completed  on  Oct.  14. 
She  was  condemned  at  4  A.  M.  on  Oct. 
16,  1793,  and  at  11  A.  M.  was  led  from 
the  Conciergerie  to  the  place  of  exe- 
cution. She  died  with  the  firmness 
that  became  her  character. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo,  Cardinal, 
born  1806 ;  was  educated  at  the  Grand 


Antonius 

Seminary  of  Rome,  where  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI., 
who  appointed  him  to  several  impor- 
tant offices.  On  the  accession  of  Pius 
IX.,  in  1846,  Antonelli  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  cardinal-deacon ;  two 
years  later  he  became  president  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and,  in 
1850,  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
State.  During  the  sitting  of  the 
CEcumenical  Council  (1869-1870)  he 
was  a  prominent  champion  of  the 
papal  interest.  He  strongly  opposed 
the  assumption  of  the  united  Italian 
crown  by  Victor  Emmanuel.  He  died 
in  1876. 

Antoninus,  Wall  of,  a  barrier 
erected  by  the  Romans  in  Britain, 
across  the  isthmus  between  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde,  in  the  reign  of  An- 
toninus Pius. 

Antoninus  Pins  (TlTUS  AUBE- 
LIUS  FULVUS),  Roman  emperor,  of  a 
family  originally  from  Nemausus 
(now  Nimes),  in  Gaul;  was  born  in 
Lavinium,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Rome,  A.  D.  86.  He  died  A.  D.  161. 
His  remains  were  deposited  in  the 
tomb  of  Hadrian.  His  adopted  sons 
built  a  pillar  to  his  memory,  the  frag- 
ments of  which  were  found  at  Rome 
in  1705. 

Antonins,  Marcus  (Mark  An- 
tony), Roman  triumvir,  born  83  B.  c., 
was  connected  with  the  family  of 
Caesar  by  his  mother.  When  war 
broke  out  between  Caesar  and  Pompey, 
Antony  led  reinforcements  to  Caesar 
in  Greece,  and,  in  the  battle  of  Phar- 
salia  he  commanded  the  left  wing.  He 
afterward  returned  to  Rome  with  the 
appointment  of  master  of  the  horse 
and  governor  of  Italy  (47).  In  B.  C. 
44  he  became  Caesar's  colleague  in  the 
consulship.  In  the  struggle  for  the 
empire  of  Rome  which  followed  the 
murder  of  Caesar,  Antony  was  over- 
come by  Octavianus  (afterward  called 
Augustus),  Caesar's  nephew  and  heir. 
His  passion  for  Cleopatra,  Queen  of 
Egypt,  enthralled  his  faculties,  and 
made  him  an  easy  prey  to  his  great 
political  rival.  Antony  lost,  in  the 
naval  battle  at  Actium  (B.  c.  31), 
the  dominion  of  the  world.  He 
followed  Cleopatra  to  Alexandria, 
and,  on  the  arrival  of  Octavianus  his 
fleet  and  cavalry  deserted,  and  his  in- 
fantry was  defeated.  Plutarch  says 
that  Antony  commanded  his  slave 


Ant  Thrush 


Apartment  House 


Eros  to  slay  him,  but  the  slave  killed 
himself  instead.  Moved  by  this  exhi- 
bition of  heroic  affection  and  deceived 
by  a  false  report  which  Cleopatra  had 
disseminated  of  her  death,  he  fell  upon 
his  own  sword  (B.  c.  30).  On  being 
told  that  Cleopatra  was  still  alive,  he 
caused  himself  to  be  carried  into  her 
presence,  that  he  might  die  in  her 
arms. 

Ant  Thrush,  a  name  given  to 
certain  passerine  or  perching  birds 
having  resemblances  to  the  thrushes 
and  supposed  to  feed  largely  on  ants. 

Antwerp,  the  chief  port  of  Bel- 
gium, and  the  capital  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  Scheldt, 
about  50  miles  from  the  open  sea.  It 
is  strongly  fortified,  being  completely 
surrounded  on  the  land  side  by  a  semi- 
circular inner  line  of  fortifications,  the 
defenses  being  completed  by  an  outer 
line  of  forts  and  outworks.  The  cathe- 
dral, with- a  spire  400  feet  high,  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  Gothic  architecture  in  Bel- 
gium. There  are  numerous  and  varied 
industries.  Pop.  (1911)  308,618. 

After  the  German  invasion  of  Bel- 
gium at  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War,  this  beautiful  city  became  an 
early  victim  of  Teutonic  ruthlessness. 
It  was  occupied  by  the  invaders  on 
Oct.  9, 1914,  after  its  most  magnificent 
buildings  had  been  wrecked  or  dam- 
aped  by  shell-fire.  See  APPENDIX: 
World  War. 

Anns,  the  opening  at  the  lower 
or  posterior  extremity  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal  through  which  the  excre- 
ment or  waste  products  of  digestion 
are  expelled. 

Aorta,  the  great  arterial  trunk, 
which  rises  from  the  left  ventricle  of 
the  heart,  and  with  its  branches,  ex- 
tends throughout  the  whole  body.  The 
blood  travels  through  the  aorta  at  the 
rate  of  300  to  500  millimetres  a 
second. 

Aoudad,  a  remarkable  species  of 
sheep,  with  certiin  affinities  to  the 
goats.  It  inh-xbits  mountainous  re- 
gions in  Abyssinia  and  Barbary. 

Apaches,  a  tribe  of  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  formerly  very  fierce  and 
numerous,  living  in  portions  of  Texas, 
New  Mexico,  and  Arizona,  and  belong- 
ing to  the  Athabascan  family.  They 


were  long  the  scourge  of  the  frontiers, 
and  resisted  obstinately  every  attempt 
to  civilize  them.  Long  after  the  an- 
nexation of  their  territory  by  the 
United  States  they  continued  their 
raids  in  spite  of  severe  defeats.  An 
attempt  made  by  the  United  States 
Government  to  confine  the  Apaches 
within  a  reserved  territory  in  Arizona 
led  to  bloodshed  in  1871.  The  number 
of  the  Apaches  proper  within  the 
United  States  may  be  put  at  nearly 
7,000. 

Apartment  House,  a  structure 
built  to  accommodate  a  number  of 
families  each  in  its  own  set  of  rooms, 
which  form  a  separate  dwelling  with 


AMERICAN    APARTMENT    HOUSE. 

an  entrance  of  its  own.  The  term  is 
chiefly  used  in  the  United  States, 
where  such  dwellings  are  of  compara- 
tively recent  introduction ;  but  houses 
of  this  kind  have  long  been  built  in 
Europe.  Nearly  every  large  American 
city  now  has  many  such  buildings, 
some  costing  over  $1,000,000  each  and 
containing  suites  of  rooms  from  five 
to  twenty-five  each  in  number,  with 
yearly  rentals  as  high  as  $20,000. 


Ape 


Apocalyptic  'Writings 


Ape,  a  common  name  of  a  number 
of  quadrumanous  animals,  inhabiting 
the  Old  World  (Asia  and  the  Asiatic 
islands,  and  Africa),  and  including  a 
variety  of  species.  The  word  ape  was 
formerly  applied  indiscriminately  to 
all  quadrumanous  mammals ;  but  it  is 
now  limited  to  the  anthropoid  or  man- 
like monkeys.  The  family  includes 
the  chimpanzee,  gorilla,  orang-ou- 
tang, etc. 

Apelles,  the  most  famous  of  the 
painters  of  ancient  Greece  and  of  an- 
tiquity, was  born  in  the  4th  century 
B.  C.,  probably  at  Colophon.  His  re- 
nown was  at  its  height  about  B.  C. 
330,  and  he  died  about  the  end  of  the 
century. 

Apennines,  a  prolongation  of  the 
Alps,  forming  the  "  backbone  of 
Italy."  On  the  S.  slopes  volcanic 
masses  are  not  uncommon.  Mount 
Vesuvius,  the  only  active  volcano  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  is  an  in- 
stance. The  lower  slopes  are  well 
clothed  with  vegetation,  the  summits 
are  sterile  and  bare. 

Apepi,  in  heathen  mythology,  the 
Great  Serpent  or  Typhon,  the  embodi- 
ment of  evil. 

Aperient,  a  medicine  which,  in 
moderate  doses,  gently  but  completely 
opens  the  bowels ;  examples,  castor-oil, 
Epsom  salts,  senna,  etc. 

Aphasia,  in  pathology,  a  symptom 
of  certain  morbid  conditions  of  the 
nervous  system,  in  which  the  patient 
loses  the  power  of  expressing  ideas  by 
means  of  words,  or  loses  the  appropri- 
ate use  of  words,  the  vocal  organs  the 
while  remaining  intact  and  the  intelli- 
gence sound.  There  is  sometimes  an 
entire  loss  of  words  as  connected  with 
ideas,  and  sometimes  only  the  loss  of 
a  few.  In  one  form  of  the  disease, 
called  aphemia,  the  patient  can  think 
and  write,  but  cannot  speak ;  in  an- 
other, called  agraphia,  he  can  think 
and  speak,  but  cannot  express  his 
ideas  in  writing.  In  a  great  majority 
of  cases,  where  post  mortem  examina- 
tions have  been  made,  morbid  changes 
have  been  found  in  the  left  frontal 
convolution  of  the  brain. 

Aphelion,  that  part  of  the  orbit 
of  the  earth  or  any  other  planet  in 
which  it  is  at  the  point  remotest  from 
the  sun. 


Aphis,  a  genus  of  insects,  the  typi- 
cal one  of  the  family  aphidae.  The 
species  of  aphides  are  very  numerous, 
and  are  generaly  called  after  the 
plants  on  which  they  feed. 

Aphonia,  in  pathology,  the  great* 
er  or  less  impairment,  or  the  complete 
loss  of  the  power  of  emitting  vocal 
sound. 

Aphrodite,  one  of  the  chief  di- 
vinities of  the  Greeks,  the  goddess  of 
love  and  beauty,  so  called  because  she 
was  sprung  from  the  foam  (aphros) 
of  the  sea.  Aphrodite  has  had  the 
most  important  place  in  the  history  of 
art  as  the  Greek  ideal  of  feminine 
grace  and  beauty. 

Apia,  the  principal  town  and  com- 
mercial emporium  of  the  Samoan  Is- 
lands in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean;  on 
the  N.  coast  of  the  island  of  Upolu, 
about  midway  between  the  E.  and  W. 
extremities  of  the  island.  It  has  a 
small  harbor,  which  is  usually  a  safe 
one.  In  1899,  during  a  hurricane,  sev- 
eral United  States'  and  German  war- 
vessels  were  wrecked  here,  a  British 
man-of-war  alone  escaping. 

Apis,  a  bull  to  which  divine  honors 
were  paid  by  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  regarded  him  as  a  symbol  or 
Osiris.  At  Memphis  he  had  a  splendid 
residence,  containing  extensive  walks 
and  courts  for  his  entertainment,  and 
he  was  waited  upon  by  a  large  train  of 
priests,  who  looked  upon  his  every 
movement  as  oracular.  He  was  not 
suffered  to  live  beyond  twenty-five 
years,  being  secretly  killed  by  the 
priests  and  thrown  into  a  sacred  well. 
Another  bull,  characterized  by  certain 
marks,  as  a  black  color,  a  triangle  of 
white  on  the  forehead,  a  white  cres- 
cent-shaped spot  on  the  right  side,  &c., 
was  selected  in  his  place.  His  birth- 
day was  annually  celebrated. 

Apocalypse,  the  name  frequently 
given  to  the  last  book  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, in  the  English  version  called 
the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine. 

Apocalyptic  Number,  the  mystic 
number  666  found  in  Rev.  xiii.  18.  As 
early  as  the  2d  century  ecclesiastical 
writers  found  that  the  name  Antichrist 
was  indicated  by  the  Greek  characters 
expressive  of  this  number. 

Apocalyptic  'Writings,  writings 
such  as,  like  the  prophecies  of  Daniel, 
their  prototype,  set  forth  in  a  figura- 


Apoplexy 


tive  and  pictorial  manner  the  future 
progress  and  completion  of  the  world's 
history,  especially  in  its  religious  as- 
pects. The  two  apocalyptic  books  re- 
ceived into  the  canon  of  Scripture  are 
the  books  of  Daniel  and  the  Apoca- 
lypse especially  so-called,  the  Revela- 
tion of  St.  John,, 

Apocrypha,  in  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church,  (1)  books  published 
anonymously;  (2)  those  suitable  for 
private  rather  than  public  reading; 
(3)  books  deemed  unau  then  tic  though 
purporting  to  be  written  by  sacred 
authors ;  (4)  dangerous  books  written 
by  heretics. 

Apodal  Fishes,  the  name  applied 
to  such  malacopterous  fishes  as  want 
ventral  fins.  They  constitute  a  small 
natural  family,  of  which  the  common 
eel  is  an  example. 

Apogee,  that  point  in  the  orbit  of 
the  moon  or  a  planet  where  it  is  at  its 
greatest  distance  from  the  earth ;  prop- 
erly this  particular  part  of  the  moon's 
orbit. 

Apollinarians,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tians who  maintained  the  doctrine  that 
the  Logos  (the  Word)  holds  in  Christ 
the  place  of  the  rational  soul,  and  con- 
sequently that  God  was  united  in  him 
with  the  human  body  and  the  sensitive 
soul.  Apollinaris,  the  author  of  this 
opinion,  was,  from  A.  D.  362  till  at 
least  A.  D.  382,  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  in 
Syria. 

Apollo,  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter) 
and  Leto  (Latona).  From  being  the 
god  of  light  and  purity  in  a  physical 
sense  he  gradually  became  the  god  of 
moral  and  spiritual  light  and  purity, 
the  source  of  all  intellectual,  social, 
and  political  progress. 

Apollodorus,  a  famous  Athenian 
painter,  about  B.  c.  408. 

Apollodorus,  born  in  Damascus, 
and  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and 
Hadrian.  His  fame  as  an  architect 
caused  the  former  to  employ  him  in 
building  a  great  stone  bridge  over  the 
Danube,  and  other  works.  Apollodor- 
us subsequently  falling  into  disgrace 
with  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  was  put 
to  death  by  his  command. 

Apollonius,  a  Pythagorean  philos- 
opher, born  at  Tyana,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Christian  era.  He  died 
at  Ephesus  about  A.  D.  97. 


Apollonius  of  Ferga,  Greek 
mathematician,  called  the  "  Great  Ge- 
ometer," flourished  about  240  B.  c., 
and  was  the  author  of  many  works, 
only  one  of  which,  a  treatise  on  "  Con- 
ic Sections,"  partly  in  Greek  and 
partly  in  an  Arabic  translation,  is  now 
extant. 

Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  a  Greek 
poet,  born  in  Egypt,  but  long  residing 
at  Rhodes,  where  he  founded  a  school 
of  rhetoric.  He  afterward  became 
keeper  of  the  famous  library  of  Alex- 
andria, B.  c.  149. 

Apollonius  of  Tyre,  the  hero  of 
a  Greek  metrical  romance,  very  popu- 
lar in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Apollos,  a  Jew  of  Alexandria,  who 
learned  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
at  Ephesus  from  Aquila  and  Priscilla, 
became  a  preacher  of  the  gospel  in 
Achaia  and  Corinth,  and  an  assistant 
of  Paul  in  his  missionary  work.  Some 
have  regarded  him  as  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

Apollyon,  a  name  used  in  Rev.  ix : 
11  for  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit. 

Apologetics,  the  department  of 
theology  which  treats  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  evidences  and  defense  of 
the  doctrines  of  a  faith.  Christian 
apologetics,  generally  called  simply 
apologetics,  treats  of  the  evidences  of 
Christianity,  and  seeks  to  establish  the 
truth  of  the  Bible  and  the  doctrines 
educed  from  it. 

Apologue,  a  story  or  relation  of 
fictitious  events  intended  to  convey 
some  useful  truths.  It  differs  from  a 
parable  in  that  the  latter  is  drawn 
from  events  that  pass  among  mankind, 
whereas  the  apologue  may  be  founded 
on  supposed  actions  of  brutes  or  inan« 
imate  things.  JEsop's  fables  are  good 
examples  of  apologues. 

Apology,  a  term  at  one  time  ap- 
plied to  a  defense  of  one  who  is  ac- 
cused, or  of  certain  doctrines  called 
in  question. 

Apoplexy,  a  serious  malady,  com- 
ing on  so  suddenly  and  so  violently 
that  anciently  anyone  affected  by  it 
was  said  to  be  attonitus  (thunder- 
struck), or  sideratus  (planetstruck). 
When  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  takes  place, 
there  is  a  loss  of  sensation,  voluntary 
motion,  and  intellect  or  thought,  while 
respiration  and  the  action  of  the  heart 
and  general  vascular  system  still  con- 


Apostate 

tinue.  The  disease  now  described  is 
properly  called  cerebral  apoplexy,  the 
brain  being  the  part  chiefly  affected. 

Apostate,  literally  designates  any- 
one who  changes  his  religion,  what- 
ever may  be  his  motive ;  but,  by  cus- 
tom, the  word  is  always  used  in  an  in- 
jurious sense,  as  equivalent  to  one 
who,  in  changing  his  creed,  is  actuated 
by  unworthy  motives. 

Apostle,  one  who  is  sent  off  or 
away  from ;  one  sent  on  some  impor- 
tant mission ;  a  messenger ;  a  mission- 
ary. The  name  given,  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  to  the  12  men  whom 
Jesus  selected  from  His  disciples  as 
the  best  instructed  in  His  doctrines, 
and  the  fittest  instruments  for  the 
propagation  of  His  religion.  Their 
names  were  as  follows :  Simon  Peter, 
Andrew,  hie  brother ;  James  the  great- 
er, and  John,  his  brother,  who  were 
sons  of  Zebedee ;  Philip  of  Bethsaida, 
Bartholomew,  Thomas,  Matthew ; 
James,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  commonly 
called  James  the  less ;  Lebbeus,  his 
brother,  who  was  surnamed  Thaddeus, 
and  was  called  Judas,  or  Jude ;  Simon 
the  Canaanite,  and  Judas  Iscariot.  Of 
this  number,  Simon  Peter,  John, 
James  the  greater,  and  Andrew  were 
fishermen ;  and  Matthew,  a  publican 
or  tax-gatherer.  When  the  apostles 
were  reduced  to  11  by  the  suicide  pf 
Judas,  who  had  betrayed  Christ,  they 
chose  Matthias  by  lot,  on  the  proposi- 
tion of  St.  Peter.  Soon  after,  their 
number  became  13,  by  the  mi- 
raculous vocation  of  Saul,  who, 
under  the  name  of  Paul  became 
one  of  the  most  zealous  propa- 
gators of  the  Christian  faith. 

Apostles'  Islands,  or  The 
Twelve  Apostles,  a  group  of  27 
islands  in  Lake  Superior.  They  be- 
long to  Wisconsin.  They  were  first 
settled  in  1680  by  the  French. 

Apostolic,  or  Apostolical,  per- 
taining or  relating  to  the  apostles. 

Apostolic  Church. —  The  Church  in 
the  time  of  the  apostles,  constituted 
according  to  their  design.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  the  four  churches  of 
Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jeru- 
salem, and  is  claimed  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  occasionally  by 
the  Episcopalians. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Canons. 
—  A  collection  of  regulations  attrib- 


Apo  strophe 

uted  to  the  apostles,  but  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  spurious.  They  appeared 
in  the  4th  century ;  are  divided  into 
eight  books,  and  consist  of  rules  and 
precepts  relating  to  the  duty  of  Chris- 
tians, and  particularly  to  the1  cere- 
monies and  discipline  of  the  Church. 

Apostolic  Delegate. —  A  permanent 
representative  of  the  Pope  in  a  for- 
eign country.  It  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  word  ablegate,  the 
latter  meaning  a  temporary  represen- 
tative of  the  Pope  for  some  special 
function. 

Apostolic  Fathers. —  The  Christian 
writers  who,  during  any  part  of  their 
lives,  were  contemporary  with  the 
apostles.  There  are  five  —  Clement, 
Barnabas,  Hennas,  Ignatius,  Poly- 
carp. 

Apostolic  King. —  A  title  granted 
by  the  Pope  to  the  Kings  of  Hungary, 
first  conferred  on  St.  Stephen,  the 
founder  of  the  royal  line  of  Hungary, 
on  account  of  what  he  accomplished 
in  the  spread  of  Christianity. 

Apostolic  See.— The  see  of  the 
Popes  or  Bishops  of  Rome ;  so  called 
because  the  Popes  profess  themselves 
the  successors  of  St.  Peter,  its 
founder. 

Apostolic  Succession. —  The  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  bishops,  and, 
through  them,  of  priests  and  deacons 
(these  three  orders  of  ministers  being 
called  the  apostolical  orders),  in  the 
Church  by  regular  ordination  from 
the  first  apostles  down  to  the  present 
day.  All  Episcopal  churches  hold  the- 
oretically, and  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  many  members  of  the  Eng-; 
lish  Church  strictly,  that  such  succes- 
sion is  essential  to  the  officiating 
priest,  in  order  that  grace  may  be 
communicated  through  his  administra- 
tions. 

Apostrophe.  In  rhetoric,  a  fig- 
ure of  speech  by  which,  according  to 
Quintilian,  a  speaker  turns  from  the 
rest  of  his  audience  to  one  person,  and 
addresses  him  singly. 

In  grammar,  the  substitution  of  a 
mark  like  this  (')  for  one  or  more  let- 
ters omitted  from  a  word,  as  tho'  for 
though,  'twas  for  it  was,  king's  for 
kinges. 

The  mark  indicating  such  substitu- 
tion, especially  in  the  case  of  the  pos- 
sessive. 


Apothecary 


Apping 


Apothecary,  the  name  formerly 
given  to  members  of  an  auxiliary 
branch  of  the  medical  profession. 

In  the  United  States,  state  laws 
generally  require  that  apothecaries 
shall  be  duly  examined  and  licensed. 

Apotheosis,  a  deification;  the 
placing  of  a  prince  or  other  distin- 
guished person  among  the  heathen 
deities. 

Appalachian  Mountains,  also 
called  Alleglianies,  a  vast  mountain 
range  in 'North  America,  extending  for 
1300  miles  from  Cape  Gaspe,  on  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  S.  W.  to  Ala- 
bama. The  highest  peaks  rise  over 
6,600  feet  (not  one  at  all  approaching 
the  snow  level),  but  the  mean  height 
is  about  2,500  feet.  Lake  Champlain 
is  the  only  lake  of  great  importance  in 
the  system,  but  numerous  rivers  of 
considerable  size  take  their  rise  here. 
Magnetite,  hematite,  and  other  iron 
ores  occur  in  great  abundance,  and  the 
coal  measures  are  among  the  most  ex- 
tensive in  the  world.  Gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  copper  are  also  found,  but  not  in 
paying  quantities,  while  marble,  lime- 
stone, fire  clay,  gypsum,  and  salt 
abound.  The  forests  covering  many  of 
the  ranges  yield  large  quantities  of 
valuable  timber,  such  as  sugar  maple, 
white  birch,  beech,  ash,  oak,  cherry 
tree,  white  poplar,  white  and  yellow 
pine,  etc.,  while  they  form  the  haunts 
of  large  numbers  of  bears,  panthers, 
wild  cats,  and  wolves. 

Appanage,  properly,  lands  as- 
signed as  portions  to  the  younger  sons, 
or  sometimes  the  brothers  of  the 
French  king,  who  in  general  took  their 
titles  from  the  appanages  which  they 
held. 

Apparition,  according  to  a  belief 
held  by  some,  a  disembodied  spirit 
manifesting  itself  to  mortal  sight ;  ac- 
cording to  the  common  theory  an  illu- 
sion involuntarily  generated,  by  means 
of  which  figures  or  forms,  not  present 
to  the  actual  sense,  are  nevertheless 
depictured  with  a  vividness  and  in- 
tensity sufficient  to  create  a  temporary 
belief  of  their  reality.  Such  illusions 
are  now  generally  held  to  result  from 
an  overexcited  brain,  a  strong  imagi- 
nation, or  some  bodily  malady. 

Appeal.  The  distinction  between 
an  appeal,  which  originated  in  the 
civil  law,  and  a  writ  of  error, 


which  is  of  common  law  origin,  is  that 
the  former  carries  the  whole  case  for 
review  by  the  higher  court,  including 
both  the  facts  and  the  law ;  while  the 
latter  removes  only  questions  of  law. 

Appendicitis,  a  disease  caused  by 
inflammation,  suppuration,  and  conse- 
quent gangrene  in  the  tissue  of  the 
vermiform  appendix,  usually  due  to 
insufficient  circulation  of  blood  in  the 
part  itself. 

Appendicitis  usually  occurs  between 
the  ages  of  10  and  50  years.  It  is 
rare  above  or  below  those  ages.  It  is 
more  frequently  among  males  than  fe- 
males, the  exact  proportion  being  un- 
known. The  probable  cause  of  this 
difference  is  of  very  recent  discovery 
and  is  not  even  known  generally  among 
the  medical  profession.  Dr.  Clado, 
a  French  surgeon  and  investigator, 
sought  an  explanation  of  the  compara- 
tive immunity  of  the  female  sex  from 
the  malady  and  discovered  that  the 
appendix  in  woman  has  an  extra 
blood  vessel  (a  small  branch  of  the 
ovarian  artery  I  that  does  not  exist  ia 
man.  This  discovery  was  not  only  a 
bit  of  new  knowledge  of  great  value, 
but  was  an  additional  proof  of  the 
theory  that  disease  of  the  appendix  is 
often  due  in  part  to  its  want  of  vital 
resistance. 

Appiani,  Andrea,  a  painter,  born 
at  Milan  in  1754.  Napoleon  appoint- 
ed him  court  painter,  and  portraits  of 
almost  the  whole  of  the  imperial  fam- 
ily were  painted  by  him.  He  died  in 
1817. 

Appian  Way,  the  great  Roman 
highway  constructed  by  the  below- 
mentioned  Appius  Claudius,  from 
Rome  to  Capua,  and  afterward  ex- 
tended to  Brundusium,  and  finished 
B.  o.  312.  It  was  built  of  stones  four 
or  five  feet  long,  carefully  joined  to 
each  other,  covered  with  gravel,  fur- 
nished with  stones  for  mounting  and 
descending  from  horseback,  with  mile- 
stones, and  with  houses  at  which  to 
lodge. 

Appins,  Claudius  Crassinns,  a 
Roman  decemvir  (451  to  449  B.  c.). 
Being  passionately  in  love  with  Vir- 
ginia, daughter  of  Virginius,  a  re- 
spectable plebeian  absent  with  the 
army,  he  persuaded  M.  Claudius,  his 
client,  to  gain  possession  of  her,  under 
the  pretense  that  she  was  the  daughter 


Apple 

of  one  of  his  slaves.  Virginius,  hur- 
riedly recalled  from  the  army  by  his 
friends,  appeared  and  claimed  his 
daughter ;  but,  after  a  mock  trial,  she 
was  adjudged  to  be  the  property  of 
Marcus  Claudius.  To  save  his  daugh- 
ter from  dishonor,  the  unhappy  father 
seized  a  knife  and  slew  her.  The  pop- 
ular indignation  excited  by  the  caise 
was  headed  by  the  senators  Valerius 
and  Horatius,  who  hated  the  decem- 
virate.  The  army  returned  to  Rome 
with  Virginius,  who  had  carried  the 
news  to  them,  and  the  decemviri  were 
deposed.  Appius  Claudius  died  in 
prison,  by  his  own  hand  (as  Livy 
states),  or  was  strangled  by  order  of 
the  tribunes. 

Apple,  the  fruit  of  the  pyrus  ma- 
lus,  a  species  of  the  genus  pyrus.  All 
the  different  kinds  of  apple  trees  now 
in  cultivation  are  usually  regarded  as 
mere  varieties  of  the  one  species  which, 
in  its  wild  state,  is  known  as  the  crab- 
tree.  The  uses  of  the  apple  for  cul- 
inary and  conserving  processes  are 
sufficiently  well  known.  Cider,  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  apple,  is  a 
favorite  drink  in  some  places  of  the 
United  States. 

Apple  of  Discord,  in  Greek  my- 
thology, the  golden  apple  thrown  into 
an  assembly  of  the  gods  by  the  god- 
dess of  discord  (Eris),  bearing  the  in- 
scription "  For  the  fairest."  Aphro- 
dite (Venus).  Hera  (Juno),  and  Pal- 
las (Minerva)  became  competitors  for 
it,  and  its  adjudication  to  the  first  by 
Paris  so  inflamed  the  jealousy  and 
hatred  of  Hera  to  all  of  the  Trojan 
race  (to  which  Paris  belonged)  that 
she  did  not  cease  her  machinations  till 
Troy  was  destroyed. 

Apple  of  Sodom,  a  fruit  described 
by  old  writers  as  externally  of  fair  ap- 
pearance, but  turning  to  ashes  when 
plucked ;  probably  the  fruit  of  sola- 
num  sodomeum. 

Appleton,  city  and  capital  of 
Outagamie  county,  Wis.;  on  the  Fox 
river  and  railroads;  100  miles  N.  W. 
of  Milwaukee;  is  in  a  farming  and 
lumbering  section;  has  excellent 
water  power  for  manufacturing  and 
large  industrial  and  mercantile  inter- 
ests; and  is  the  seat  of  Lawrence 
University.  Pop.  (lylO)  16,776. 

Appleton,  John  Howard,  an 
'American  chemist,  born  in  1844 ;  was 


Approximation 

graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1863 ;  was  instructor  in  chemistry 
there  in  1863-1868;  and  in  the  last 
year  became  professor  of  that  depart- 
ment. 

Appleton,  Nathan  and  Samuel, 
American  merchants  and  philanthro- 
pists, brothers,  born  in  1779  and  1766 
respectively ;  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  goods ;  were  founders  of 
the  city  of  Lowell,  Mass. ;  and  widely 
known  for  their  active  benevolence. 
Nathan  set  up  the  first  power  loom 
ever  used  in  the  United  States,  in  hij 
Waltham  mill.  Nathan  died  in  1861 ; 
Samuel  in  1853. 

Appomattox  Court  Honse,  a 
village  in  Appomattox  county,  Va.,  20 
miles  E.  of  Lynchburg.  Here,  on  April 
9,  1865,  General  Lee  surrendered  to 
General  Grant,  and  thus  virtually  con- 
cluded the  Civil  War. 

Apportionment  Bill,  a  bill 
adopted  by  the  United  States  Con- 
gress every  10  years,  and  directly  af- 
ter the  completion  of  the  Federal  cen- 
sus, which  determines  the  number  of 
members  that  each  State  is  entitled  to 
send  to  the  National  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  provides  for  the  neces- 
sary reorganization  of  the  Congress- 
ional electoral  districts.  The  appor- 
tionment based  on  the  enumeration  of 
1910  was  one  representative  to  212,- 
407  population. 

Apprenticeship,  in  law,  a  con- 
tract by  which  a  person  who  under- 
stands some  art,  trade,  or  business, 
and  called  master,  undertakes  to  teach 
the  same  to  another  person,  commonly 
a  minor,  and  called  the  apprentice, 
who,  on  his  part,  is  bound  to  serve  the 
master,  during  a  definite  period  of 
time,  in  such  art,  trade,  or  business. 

Appropriation,  a  specific  sum  set 
apart  by  the  legislative  power  for  a 
designated  purpose.  In  the  United 
States  all  bills  for  appropriating 
money  originate  in  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives;  but  may  be  amended  in 
the  Senate.  The  same  procedure  is 
observed  in  the  several  States. 

Approximation,  a  term  used  in 
mathematics  to  signify  a  continual  ap- 
proach to  a  quantity  required,  when 
no  process  is  known  for  arriving  at  it 
exactly.  Although,  by  such  an  approx- 
imation, the  exact  value  of  a  quantity 


Apraxin  

cannot  be  discovered,  yet,  in  practice, 
it  may  be  found  sufficiently  correct. 
1  Apraxin,  Feodor  Mateievitch, 
a  Russian  admiral,  born  in  1671.  He 
may  be  considered  as  the  creator  of 
the  Russian  navy,  and  was  the  most 
powerful  and  influential  person  at  the 
court  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  made 
him  chief-admiral.  He  died  in  1724. 

Apricot,  a  fruit,  that  of  the 
prunus  armeniaca ;  also  the  tree  on 
which  it  grows.  It  is  wild  in 
Africa  and  in  the  Caucasus,  where 
the  mountains  in  many  places  are 
covered  with  it ;  it  is  found  also 
in  China  and  some  other  countries.  It 
is  esteemed  only  second  to  the  peach. 

April,  the  fourth  month  of  the 
year. 

April-fools'  Day. —  The  first  day  of 
April,  so  called  from  the  old  custom  of 
sending  any  one,  on  this  day,  upon  a 
bootless  errand.  This  strange  custom 
of  April-fools'  day  exists  throughout 
Europe,  and  in  those  parts  of  the 
United  States  where  the  traditions  of 
the  mother-country  prevail.  One  of 
the  explanations  of  the  custom  is  as 
follows :  In  the  Middle  Ages,  scenes 
from  Biblical  history  were  often  rep- 
resented by  way  of  diversion,  without 
any  feeling  of  impropriety.  The  scene 
in  the  life  of  Jesus,  where  He  is  sent 
from  Pilate  to  Herod,  and  back  again 
from  Herod  to  Pilate,  was  represented 
in  April,  and  may  have  given  occasion 
to  the  custom  of  sending  on  fruitless 
errands,  and  other  tricks  practiced  at 
this  season. 


iLPTEBYX   OB   K1W1K1WI. 

Apteryx,    a    genus    of    birds,    the 

typical  one  of  the  family  apterygidse. 

Two  species  are  known  —  the  A.  aus- 

tralis  and  A.  mantelli,  both  from  New 


Aquarian* 

Zealand.  The  natives  call  the  former, 
and  probably  also  the  latter,  Kiwiki- 
wi,  which  is  an  imitation  of  their  pe- 
culiar cry.  The  A.  australis  is  some- 
what less  in  size  than  an  ordinary 
goose.  It  runs  when  pursued,  shelters 
itself  in  holes,  and  defends  itself  with 
its  long  bill ;  but  unable  as  it  is  to  fly, 
its  fate,  it  is  to  be  feared,  will  soon 
be  tbat  of  the  dodo  —  it  is  now  almost 
extinct. 

Apulia,  formerly  a  part  of  Sapy- 
gia  (so  called  from  Sapyx,  son  of  Dae- 
dalus) ,  including  the  modern  Italian 
provinces  of  Capitanata,  Terra  di 
Bari,  Terra  d'Otranto,  etc.  Area  7,- 
376  square  miles ;  pop.  (1915)  2,237,- 
791. 

Apnre,  a  navigable  river  of  Ven- 
ezuela, formed  by  the  junction  of  sev- 
eral streams  which  rise  in  the  Andes 
of  Colombia ;  it  falls  into  the  Orinoco. 

Apnrimac,  a  river  of  South  Amer- 
ica, which  rises  in  the  Andes  of  Peru ; 
and  being  augmented  by  the  Vilca- 
mayu  and  other  streams  forms  the 
Ucayale,  one  of  the  principal  head- 
waters of  the  Amazon. 

Aq.na,  a  word  much  used  in  phar- 
macy and  old  chemistry.  Aqua  fortis 
(=1  strong  water),  a  weak  and  impure 
nitric  acid.  It  has  the  power  of  eat- 
ing into  steel  and  copper,  and  hence 
is  used  by  engravers,  etchers,  etc.  Aqua 
marina,  a  fine  variety  of  beryl.  Aqua 
regia,  or  aqua  regalis,  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  with  the 
power  of  dissolving  gold  and  other  no- 
ble metals.  Aqua  Tofana,  a  poisonous 
fluid  made  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  by  an  Italian  woman, 
Tofana  or  Toffania,  who  is  said  to 
have  procured  the  death  of  no  fewer 
than  600  individuals  by  means  of  it 
It  consisted  chiefly,  it  is  supposed,  of 
a  solution  of  crystallized  arsenic. 
Aqua  vitse  (=water  of  life) ,  or  simply 
aqua,  a  name  familiarly  applied  to 
whisky,  corresponding  in  meaning  with 
the  usquebaugh  of  Ireland,  the  eau-de- 
vie  (brandy)  of  the  French. 

Aquamarine,  a  name  given  to 
some  of  the  finest  varieties  of  beryl  of 
a  sea-green  or  blue  color.  Varieties 
of  topaz  are  also  so  called. 

Aquarians,  or  Aqnarii,  Chris- 
tians in  the  primitive  Church  who 
]  used  water  instead  of  wine  in  the 
|  Lord's  Supper. 


Aquarium 

Aquarium,  an  artificial  tank, 
pond,  or  vessel,  filled  with  salt  or  fresh 
water,  and  used,  in  the  former  case 
chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
alive  marine  animals  in  circumstances 
which  render  it  easy  to  study  their 
habits,  and  in  the  latter  for  cultivat- 
ing aquatic  plants. 

Aquarius,  in  astronomy  (1)  the 
llth  of  the  12  ancient  zodiacal  con- 
stellations, now  generally  called  signs 
of  the  Zodiac.  It  is  generally  quoted 
as  "  Aquarius,  the  Water  bearer." 

Aquatic  Animals,  animals  living 
in  or  about  water. 

Aquatic  Plants,  plants  growing 
in  or  belonging  to  water. 

Aqueduct,  an  artificial  channel  or 
conduit  for  the  conveyance  of  water 
from  one  place  to  another ;  more  par- 
ticularly applied  to  structures  for  con- 
veying water  from  distant  sources  for 
the  supply  of  large  cities. 

There  are  a  number  of  important 
aqueducts  in  America.  For  125  years, 
the  city  of  Otumba,  in  Mexico,  re- 
ceived its  supply  of  water  through  the 
aqueduct  of  Zempoala,  which,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  used  since  1700, 
though  the  aqueduct  is  said  to  be  in 
almost  perfect  condition.  It  is  27 
miles  long.  New  York  is  supplied 
with  water  from  Croton  river,  which 
falls  into  the  Hudson  above  Sing  Sing. 
The  first  aqueduct  was  constructed 
between  the  years  1837  and  1842,  is 
88  miles  long,  with  a  general  declivity 
of  13^4  inches  to  the  mile,  and  is  8 
feet  5  inches  in  height,  and  7  feet 
8  inches  in  greatest  breadth.  Stone, 
brick,  and  cement  are  used  for  the  en- 
casing masonry.  When  the  conduit 
reaches  the  Harlem  river,  the  water 
is  conveyed  in  iron  pipes  over  a  splen- 
did bridge,  150  feet  above  the  river. 

An  aqueduct  for  supplying  Boston 
with  water  was  first  built  in  1846- 
J848,  and  exactly  30  years  later  a 
Dew  aqueduct  was  built  from  the  Sud- 
bury  river  to  Boston,  and  was  carried 
across  the  Charles  river  and  Waban 
valley  by  two  fine  bridges.  As  the 
supply  of  water  did  not  prove  suffi- 
cient for  the  growth  of  the  city,  a 
large  reservoir  was  built,  taking  a 
large  part  of  the  town  of  Boylston, 
Mass.,  so  that  it  was  supposed  the 
supply  of  water,  when  the  valley  was 
filled  would  suffice  for  many  years. 

E.8. 


Arabesque 

Aqueous  Humor,  the  limpid  wa- 
tery fluid  which  fills  the  space  between 
the  cornea  and  the  crystalline  lens. 

Aqueous  Rocks,  mechanically 
formed  rocks,  composed  of  matter  de- 
posited by  water.  Called  also  sedi- 
mentary or  stratified  rocks. 

Aqnifoliaceae,  a  natural  order  of 
plants ;  the  holly  tribe.  The  species 
consists  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the 
order  includes  the  common  holly  and 
the  Paraguayan  tea  tree. 

Aquila,  a  native  of  Pontus,  cele- 
brated for  his  close  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek. 

Aquila,  Kaspar,  a  German  Prot- 
estant theologian,  born  in  Bavaria, 
Aug.  7,  1488;  assisted  Luther  in  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament ;  be- 
came pastor  at  Saalfeld  in  1527;  was 
outlawed  by  Charles  V.  in  1548;  fled 
the  country;  and  after  1552  returned 
to  Saalfeld,  where  he  died  Nov.  15. 
1560. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  or  Thomas 
of  Aquino,  was  of  the  family  of  the 
Counts  of  Aquino,  and  was  born  about 
1226,  in  the  castle  of  Rocca  Secca, 
near  Aquino,  a  small  town  half-way 
between  Rome  and  Naples.  He  treat- 
ed Christian  morals  according  to  an 
•arrangement  of  his  own,  and  with  a 
comprehensiveness  that  procured  him 
the  title  of  the  "  Father  of  Moral  Phi- 
losophy." He  died  at  the  Cistercian, 
abbey  of  Fossa-Nuova,  March  7.,  1274. 
Aquinas  was  canonized  by  John 
XXII.  in  1323,  and  proclaimed  a 
"  Doctor  of  the  Church,"  by  Pius  V. 
in  1567. 

Aquitania,  later  Aquitaine,  a 
Roman  province  in  Gaul,  which  com- 
prehended the  countries  on  the  coast 
from  the  Garonne  to  the  Pyrenees, 
and  from  the  sea  to  Toulouse.  It  was 
brought  into  connection  with  England 
by  the  marriage  of  Henry  II.  with 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  last  Duke  of 
Aquiline.  The  title  to  the  province 
was  for  long  disputed  by  England  and 
France,  but  it  was  finally  secured  by 
the  latter  (1453). 

Arabesque,  a  style  of  ornamenta- 
tion in  which  are  represented  men, 
animals  (the  latter  consisting  of 
mythic  as  well  as  actual  forms)  ; 
plants,  with  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit; 
mathematical  figures,  etc. ;  the  whole 
put  together  in  a  whimsical  way,  80 


Arabia 

that,  for  instance,  the  animals  not 
merely  rest  upon  the  plants,  but  grow 
out  of  them  like  blossoms. 


ARABESQUE   ARCHWAY. 

Arabia,  the  extreme  S.  W.  part 
of  Asia,  called  by  the  natives  Jeziret 
el  Arab,  that  is,  the  Peninsula  of  the 
Arabs;  and  by  the  Turks  and  Per- 
sians, Arabistan.  Arabia  is  encom- 
passed on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  name- 
ly, on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Persian  Gulf, 
on  the  S.  E.  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
on  the  S.  W.  by  the  Red  Sea.  Arabia 
includes  also  the  peninsula  of  Sinai, 
between  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  that  of 
Akabah.  The  whole  area  of  the  vast 
country  thus  described  does  not  prob- 
ably fall  much  short  of  1,000,000 
square  miles. 

The  population  of  Arabia  has  been 
estimated  by  some  at  12,000,000,  by 
others  at  no  more  than  4,000,000.  The 
former  number  is  certainly  too  high, 
and  it  is  believed  that  between  5,000,- 
000  and  6,000,000  is  very  near  the 
truth. 

The  Arabs  present,  as  a  nation  and 
as  individuals,  much  that  is  peculiar 
in  their  mental  and  physical  develop- 
ment. They  are  of  middle  stature,  of 
a  powerful  make,  and  have  a  skin  of 
brownish  color.  Their  features  ex- 
press dignity  and  pride ;  they  are  nat- 
urally active,  intelligent,  and  courte- 
ous ;  and  their  character  is  marked  by 
temperance,  bravery,  and  hospitality, 
along  with  a  strong  propensity  for 
poetry.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are 
revengeful  in  their  disposition  and 
predatory  in  their  habits.  The  women 


Arack 

have  the  entire  education  of  the  chil- 
dren in  their  early  years. 

The  mode  of  life  of  the  Arabs  is 
either  nomadic  or  settled,  or  in  other 
words,  they  either  live  in  tents  and 
derive  their  subsistence  from  the  rear- 
ing of  cattle,  wherever  sufficient  pas- 
ture is  obtainable,  and  from  the  trans- 
port of  caravans  through  the  desert ; 
or  from  the  pursuits  of  agriculture 
and  commerce.  The  nomadic  tribes  in 
Arabia  are  termed  Bedouins,  Beduins, 
or  Bedawins ;  those  following  settled 
occupations,  Hadji  and  Fellahs.  A 
considerable  trade,  partly  overland, 
partly  maritime,  is  carried  on,  chiefly 
in  coffee,  dates,  figs,  spices,  and  aro- 
matic substances  of  various  kinds, 
though  the  present  amount  of  traffic 
is  scarcely  a  shadow  of  what  it  was 
in  the  times  previous  to  the  discovery 
of  the  passage  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Commerce  is  partly  in  the 
hands  of  foreigners^  chiefly  Jews  and 
Banian  Hindus.  In  1916  the  Arabs 
declared  their  independence.  Grand 
Shereef  Hussein  Ben  Ali  became  sov- 
ereign of  an  independent  Kingdom  of 
Arabia,  with  capital  at  Mecca,  in  July, 

Arabian  Nights'  Entertain- 
ments, or  "  The  Thousand  and 
One  Nights,"  a  celebrated  collection 
of  Oriental  tales,  which  have,  since 
their  introduction  to  the  civilized 
world,  become  the  delight  of  all  who 
peruse  them.  This  collection,  which 
had  long  been  famous  throughout  the 
East,  was  brought  to  the  notice  of 
Europeans  by  the  translation  of  An- 
toine  Galland,  a  great  French  Orien- 
talist, in  1704.  It  speedily  became 
translated  into  the  other  principal  Eu- 
ropean languages,  fixed  popular  ad- 
miration, and  tp  this  day  retains  its 
place  in  popular  literature. 

Aracari,  the  name  given  in  Brazil 
to  several  scansorial  birds.  They  have 
smaller  bills  than  the  toucans  proper, 
and  are  of  brighter  colors,  being  gen- 
erally green,  with  red  or  yellow  on 
their  breasts. 

Arachnida,  the  class  of  animals 
which  contains  spiders,  scorpions,  and 
mites. 

Arack,  or  Arrack,  a  spirituous 
liquor  manufactured  in  the  East  In- 
dies from  a  great  variety  of  substances. 
It  is  often  distilled  from  fermented 


Arafat 

rice,  or  it  may  be  distilled  from  the 
juice  of  the  cocoanut  and  other  palms. 

Arafat,  or  Jebel  er  Rahmeh,  a 
hill  in  Arabia,  about  200  feet  high, 
with  stone  steps  reaching  to  the  sum- 
mit, 15  miles  S.  E.  of  Mecca ;  one  of 
the  principal  objects  of  pilgrimage 
among  Mohammedans,  who  say  that  it 
was  the  place  where  Adam  first  re- 
ceived his  wife,  Eve,  after  they  had 
been  expelled  from  Paradise  and  sep- 
arated from  each  other  120  years.  A 
sermon  delivered  on  the  mount  consti- 
tutes the  main  ceremony  of  the  Hadj 
or  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  entitles 
the  hearer  to  the  name  and  privileges 
of  a  Hadji  or  pilgrim. 

Arago,  Dominique  Francois,  an 
eminent  French  astronomer  and  physi- 
cist ;  born  near  Perpignan,  Feb.  26, 
1786.  He  died  in  1853.  As  Minister 
of  War  and  Marine  after  the  fall  of 
Louis  Philippe  he  was  instrumental  in 
abolishing  negro  slavery  in  the  French 
colonies. 

Arago,  Eticnne  Vincent,  a 
French  poet,  journalist,  and  play- 
wright, born  at  Perpignan,  Feb.  9, 
1802.  He  died  in  1892. 

Aragon,  once  a  kingdom,  now  di- 
vided into  the  three  provinces  of  Sara- 
gpssa,  Huesca,  and  Teruel,  in  the  N. 
E.  of  Spain ;  greatest  length  from  N« 
to  S..  190  miles;  breadth.  130;  area, 
17,980  square  miles;  pop.  (1910) 
950,633.  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Pyrenees,  and  borders  on  Navarre, 
the  Castiles,  Valencia,  and  Catalonia. 
<  Aragnay,  or  Araguaya,  a  large 
river  of  Brazil,  which  rises  in  about 
19°  S.  lat.,  near  the  Parana,  flowing 
to  about  6  S.  lat,  where  it  joins  the 
Tocantins.  The  united  stream,  after 
a  course  of  1,000  miles,  falls  into  the 
delta  of  the  Amazon  in  S.  lat.  1°  40'. 
Many  tribes  of  warlike  Indians  dwell 
on  its  banks. 

Aral  Lake,  separated  by  the  pla- 
teau of  Ust-Urt  from  the  Caspian  Sea, 
is  the  largest  lake  in  the  steppes  of 
Asia.  It  lies  wholly  within  the  limits 
of  Russian  Central  Asia,  embracing 
an  area  of  about  24,000  square  miles. 

Aram,  Eugene,  a  self-taught 
scholar  whose  unhappy  fate  has  been 
made  the  subject  of  a  ballad  by  Hood 
and  a  romance  by  Lord  Lytton,  born 
in  Yorkshire.  England,  in  1704.  In 
1734  he  opened  a  school  at  Knares- 


Araucania 

borough.  About  1745  a  shoemaker  of 
that  place,  Daniel  Clarke,  was  sud- 
denly missing  under  suspicious  cir- 
cumstances; and  no  light  was  thrown 
on  the  matter  till  13  years  afterward, 
when  an  expression  dropped  by  one 
Richard  Houseman  respecting  the  dis- 
covery of  a  skeleton  supposed  to  be 
Clarke's,  caused  him  to  be  taken  into 
custody.  From  his  confession  an  or- 
der was  issued  for  the  apprehension  of 
Aram,  who  had  long  quitted  York- 
shire, and  was  at  the  time  acting  as 
usher  at  the  grammar  school  at  Lynn. 
He  was  brought  to  trial  on  Aug.  3, 
1759,  at  York,  where,  notwithstand- 
ing an  able  and  eloquent  defense  which 
he  made  before  the  court,  he  was  con- 
victed of  the  murder  of  Clarke,  sen- 
tenced to  death,  and  executed. 

Aramaean,  or  Aramaic,  a  Se- 
mitic language  nearly  allied  to  the 
Hebrew  and  Phrenician,  anciently 
spoken  in  Syria  and  Palestine  and 
eastward  to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
being  the  official  language  of  this  re- 
gion under  the  Persian  domination. 

Arapahoes,  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians  located  near  the  head-waters 
of  the  Arkansas  and  Platte  rivers. 

Arapaima,  a  genus  of  tropical 
fishes,  including  the  largest  known 
fresh  water  forms.  They  are  found  in 
the  rivers  of  South  America,  and  are 
sometimes  taken  in  the  Rio  Negro,  15 
feet  in  length,  and  400  pounds  in 
weight.  They  are  shot  with  arrows 
or  harpooned,  and  are  highly  esteemed 
as  food. 

Ararat,  a  celebrated  mountain  in 
Armenia,  forming  the  point  of  contact 
of  Russia  with  Turkey  and  Persia,  to 
all  of  which  it  belongs.  It  rises,  an 
isolated  cone,  on  the  S.  border  of  the 
plain  of  the  Aras  of  Araxes.  The 
summit  of  the  Great  Ararat  rises  16,- 
964  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice 
for  about  3  miles  from  its  summit 
downward  in  an  oblique  direction. 
Mount  Ararat  was  the  resting  place 
of  the  ark  when  the  flood  abated. 

Araucania,  the  country  of  the 
Araucos  or  Araucanian  Indians,  in 
the  south  of  Chile.  The  Chilean  prov- 
ince of  Arauco,  lying  between  the 
Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Concepcion,  on 
the  S.  by  Valdivia,  was  formed  in 


Arbitration 

1875,  with  an  area  of  2,446  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  59,237.  A 
large  part  of  the  territory  in  Arauco 
and  the  more  southerly  province  of 
Valdivia,  is  occupied  by  Indians,  who 
have  of  late  mostly  submitted  to  Chil- 
ean authority. 

Arbitration,  an  adjudication  by 
private  persons,  called  arbitrators,  ap- 
pointed to  decide  a  matter  or  matters 
in  controversy,  either  by  written  or 
oral  submission,  by  agreement  of  the 
disputants.  It  differs  from  a  reference 
which  is  made  by  the  order  of  a  court 
of  law.  The  proceeding  generally  is 
called  a  submission  to  arbitration ;  the 
parties  appointed  to  decide  are  termed 
arbitrators,  not  referees :  and  their  ad- 
judication is  called  an  award.  This 
mode  of  settling  disputes  has  been 
approved  by  some  legislatures,  and 
there  are  statutes  in  a  number  of 
States  regulating  the  proceedings. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  the  legal  re- 
quirements have  helped  to  any  great 
extent  in  the  settlement  of  disputes  be- 
between  labor  and  capital.  Either  or 
both  sides  claim  that  an  injustice  has 
been  done,  and  while  a  modus  vivendi 
may  be  determined,  it  is  only  that  mat- 
ters may  be  arranged  for  a  more  suc- 
cessful outcome  of  the  next  difficulty. 
The  settlement  of  the  great  coal  strike 
of  1902  by  the  arbitrators  selected  by 
President  Roosevelt,  ended  the  conflict 
for  the  time  being,  but  did  not  satisfy 
either  party  to  the  dispute. 

The  first  general  treaty  of  arbitra- 
tion ever  drawn  between  nations  was 
signed  Jan.  11,  1897,  in  Washington, 
by  Richard  Olney,  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  United  States,  and  Sir  Julian 
Pauncefote,  Ambassador  of  Great 
Britain  to  the  United  States,  for 
Great  Britain.  This  treaty  was 
placed  before  the  United  State  Sen- 
ate, Jan.  11,  1897  accompanied  by  a 
special  message  from  President  Cleve- 
land, but  the  Senate  refused  to  ratify 
it.  Since  then  similar  treaties  have 
been  made  and  ratified  between  Italy 
and  the  Argentine  Republic  and  be- 
tween the  Argentine  Republic  and 
Uruguay.  The  International  Peace 
Convention  at  The  Hague,  in  1899,  es- 
tablished an  International  Court  of 
Arbitration  which  has  been  ratified  by 
the  United  States  and  other  signatory 
powers.  In  1903,  Holland  accepted 
Mr.  Carnegie's  offer  of  $1,500.000 


Are 

for  a  Temple  of  Peace  and  Interna- 
tional Law  Library  at  The  Hague,  for 
the  sessions  of  the  Court. 

Arbor  Day,  a  day  set  apart  to 
encourage  the  voluntary  planting  of 
trees  by  the  people.  The  custom  was 
inaugurated  by  the  Nebraska  State 
Board  of  Agriculture  in  1874,  which 
recommended  that  the  second  Wednes- 
day in  April  annually  be  designated 
as  Arbor  Day,  and  that  all  public 
school  children  should  be  urged  to  ob- 
serve it  by  setting  out  young  trees. 
The  custom  has  since  been  extended, 
till  now  nearly  every  State  and  Terri- 
tory in  the  country  has  set  apart  one 
day  by  legislative  enactment  or  other- 
wise, for  this  purpose ;  several  of  the 
States  making  the  day  a  legal  holiday, 
others  making  it  a  school  holiday. 

Arbor  Vitae  (lit.  'tree  of  life'), 
the  name  of  several  coniferous  trees 
of  the  genus  Thuja,  allied  to  the  cy- 
press, with  flattened  branchlets,  and 
small  imbricated  or  scale-like  leaves. 
The  common  Arbor  Vitse  (Thuja  oc- 
cidentalis)  is  a  native  of  North  Amer- 
ica, where  it  grows  to  the  height  of 
40  or  50  feet.  The  young  twigs  have 
an  agreeable  balsamic  smell. 

Arbutus,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  of  ericaceae  (heath 
worts).  Trailing  arbutus  is  a  creep- 
ing or  trailing  plant;  with  rose  colored 
blossoms,  found  chiefly  in  New  Eng- 
land in  the  spring.  Commonly  called 
Mayflower.  In  the  Southern  States  it 
is  known  as  Ground  Laurel. 

Arc,  in  geometry,  a  portion  of  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  cut  off  by 
two  lines  which  meet  or  intersect  it. 
Its  magnitude  is  stated  in  degrees, 
minutes,  and  seconds,  which  are  equal 
to  those  of  the  angle  which  it  subtends. 

In  mathematical  geography,  an  arc 
of  the  earth's  meridian,  or  a  merid- 
ional arc,  is  an  arc  partly  measured  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  from  N.  to  S., 
partly  calculated  by  trigonometry.  It 
was  by  these  measurements  that  the 
earth  was  discovered  to  be  an  oblate 
spheroid. 

In  electricity,  a  voltaic  arc  is  a  lu- 
minous arc,  which  extends  from  one 
pencil  of  charcoal  to  another,  when 
these  are  fixed  to  the  terminals  of  a 
battery  in  such  a  position  that  their 
extremities  are  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
apart. 


Arcade 

Arcade,  a  series  of  arches  of  any 
form,  supported  on  pillars,  either  in- 
closing a  space  before  a  wall,  or  any 
building  which  is  covered  in  and 
paved ;  or,  when  used  as  an  architec- 
tural feature  for  ornamenting  the 
towers  and  walls  of  churches  entirely 
closed  up  with  masonry.  The  cloisters 
of  the  old  monasteries  and  religious 
houses  were,  strictly  speaking,  arcades. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  covered 
passage  having  stores  on  either  side 
of  it 

Arcadia,  the  classical  name  of 
Middle  Peloponnesus,  now  forming  the 
modern  province  of  Arkadia,  in  the 
Morea,  Greece. 

Arcesilans,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
founder  of  the  New  Acr.demy,  was 
born  at  Pitane  in  JEolia,  Asia  Minor, 
316  B.  c.  He  died  B.  c.  241. 

Arch,  in  architecture,  a  series  of 
wedge-shaped  stones  or  bricks,  so  ar- 
ranged over  a  door  or  window  in  an 
edifice  for  habitation,  or  between  the 
piers  of  a  bridge,  as  to  support  each 
other,  and  even  bear  a  great  superin- 
incumbent  weight  The  curved  arch 
was  known  to  the  Assyrians  and  the 
Old  Egyptians. 

There  is  no  mention  of  the  genuine 
arch  in  Scripture,  the  term  "arches," 
in  Ex.ek.  xl :  16,  being  a  mistranslation. 

The  arch  was  brought  into  extensive 
use  by  the  Romans,  and  everywhere 
prevailed  till  the  12th  century  A.  D. 
when  the  arcl  pointed  at  the  apex,  and 
called  in  consequence  the  pointed  arch 
—  the  one  so  frequently  seen  in  Gothic 
architecture  —  appeared  in  Europe  as 
its  rival.  The  forms  of  both  curved 
and  pointed  arches  may  be  varied  in- 
definitely. 

Arch,  Triumphal,  a  structure 
raised  by  the  Romans  to  celebrate  a 
victory,  or  some  great  historical  event ; 
or  to  add  an  additional  luster  to  the 
commemoration  of  the  military  ex- 
ploits of  a  victorious  general.  The 
practice  has  been  adopted  by  some  of 
the  modern  nations  of  which  France 
is  the  foremost. 

Arch,  Joseph,  an  English  reform- 
er, born  in  Barford,  Warwickshire,  in 
1826,  and,  while  still  a  farm  laborer, 
became  a  Primitive  Methodist  preach- 
er. In  1872  be  founded  the  National 
Agricultural  Laborers'  Union,  and 
thereby,  according  to  Justin  M'Carthy, 


Archelan* 

"  began  the  emancipation  of  the  rural 
laborers."  He  afterward  visited  Can- 
ada to  inquire  into  the  labor  and  emi- 
gration questions;  and,  in  1885-1886, 
he  represented  in  Parliament  the 
northwest  division  of  Norfolk,  which 
again  returned  him  in  1892  and  1895. 

Archaeology,  the  science  which 
makes  us  acquainted  with  the  antiqui- 
ties of  nations  that  have  lived  and 
died,  and  the  remains  of  various  kinds 
which  throw  a  light  upon  the  history 
of  those  now  existing.  Every  country 
owns,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  relics 
of  antiquity  highly  interesting  to  the 
archaeologist.  In  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America,  evidences  have  been 
found  of  the  existence  of  a  clever  and 
ingenious  people  who  had  died  before 
the  discovery  of  America. 

Archaeopteryx,  a  unique  fossil 
bird  from  the  oolitic  limestone  of  Sol- 
enhofen,  of  the  size  of  a  rook,  and  dif- 
fering from  all  known  birds  in  having 
two  free  claws  representing  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  projecting  from  the 
wing,  and  about  twenty  tail  vertebra 
free  and  prolonged  as  in  mammals. 

Archangel,  a  seaport,  capital  of 
the  Russian  government  of  same  name, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  northeastern 
Dwina,  about  20  miles  above  its  mouth 
in  the  White  Sea.  Below  the  town  the 
river  divides  into  several  branches  and 
forms  a  number  of  islands,  on  one  of 
which,  called  Sollenbole,  is  the  harbor. 
The  port  is  closed  for  six  months  by 
ice.  Archangel,  was  long  the  only 
port  which  Russia  possessed.  Pop.  20,- 
993. 

Archdeacon,  an  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nitary next  in  rank  below  a  bishop, 
who  has  jurisdiction  either  over  a  part 
of  or  over  the  whole  diocese.  He  is 
usually  appointed  by  the  bishop,  under 
whom  he  performs  various  duties,  and 
he  holds  a  court  which  decides  cases 
subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  bishop. 

Archduke,  a  duke  whose  authori- 
ty and  power  is  superior  to  that  of 
other  dukes.  In  the  present  day,  this 
title  is  not  assumed  by  any  excepting 
the  princes  of  the  imperial  House  of 
Austria. 

Archelaus,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
the  disciple  and  successor  of  Anaxa- 
goras.  Archelaus  is  said  to  have  had 
Socrates  for  his  pupil  at  Athens. 
Flourished  about  440  B.  c. 


Arclielaus 


Architecture 


Arclielaus,  son  of  Herod  the 
Great.  His  reign  is  described  as  most 
tyrannical  and  bloody.  The  people  at 
length  accused  him  before  Augustus 
(Judea  being  then  dependent  upon 
Rome).  The  Emperor,  after  hearing 
bis  defense,  banished  him  to  Vienne, 
in  Gaul.  To  avoid  the  fury  of  this 
monster,  7  A.  D.,  Joseph  and  Mary  re- 
tired to  Nazareth. 

Archer,  Branch  T.,  a  Texan  pa- 
triot, born  1790;  died  1856.  In  1831 
he  left  Virginia  where  he  had  practiced 
medicine,  and  settled  in  Texas  where 
he  took  an  active  part  in  ^all  the 
troubles  that  preceeded  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  territory.  He  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  who  asked  aid  from 
the  United  States  government,  arid  was 
speaker  of  the  Texas  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, and  Secretary  of  War  for 
the  new  Republic. 

Archer,  William,  a  Scottish  crit- 
ic, born  at  Perth,  Sept.  23,  1856.  He 
graduated  at  Edinburgh  University, 
1876,  and  was  called  to  the  bar,  1883. 
He  has  long  been  dramatic  critic  for 
various  London  papers. 

Archer  Fish,  the  toxotes  aculator, 
which  shoots  water  at  its  prey.     It  is  | 
found  in  the  East  Indian  and  Polyne- 
sian Seas. 

Archery,  the  art  of  shooting  with 
a  bow  and  arrow.     This  art,  either  as 
a  means  of  offense  in  war,  or  as  sub- 
sistence   and    amusement    in    time   of 
peace,  may  be  traced  in  the  history  of  | 
almost  every  nation.     It  always,  how- 
ever    declines    with    the    progress    of 
time,  which  introduces  weapons  more 
to  be  depended  on,  and  not  so  easily  \ 
exhausted    as    a    bundle    of    arrows.  ! 
With   the   ancients,   the   sagitarii,   or 
archers,  were  an   important  class   of 
troops.     The    English     archers    were 
famous  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  turned 
the  side  in  important  battles. 

Archilochus,  a  Greek  poet,  flour- 
ished in  the  7th  century  B.  c.  Of  his 
life,  nothing  is  definitely  known.  He 
was  classed  by  the  ancients  with  the 
greatest  poets,  Homer,  Pindar,  Sopho- 
cles ;  but  of  his  works  only  a  few  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us. 

Archimedes,  the  most  famous  of 
ancient  mathematicians,  was  a  native 
of  Syracuse.  He  possessed  equal 
knowledge  of  the  sciences  of  astrono- 
my, geometry,  hydrostatics,  mechanics, 


and  optics.  Among  his  inventions 
were  the  combination  of  pulleys  for 
lifting  heavy  weights,  the  revolving 
screw,  and  a  spherical  representation 
of  the  motion  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
His  inventive  genius  was  especially  ex- 
emplified in  the  defense  of  Syracuse 
when  besieged  by  Marcellus.  It  is 
said  that  on  this  occasion  he  devised 
a  burning-glass,  formed  of  reflecting 
mirrors  of  such  power  that  by  it  he  set 
tire  to  the  enemy's  fleet.  This  well 
known  story  is,  however,  believed  to 
be  equally  an  invention.  Upon  the 
city  being  taken  by  storm,  Archimedes, 
then  in  his  74th  year,  was  among  those 
who  lost  their  lives,  B.  c.  212. 

Archimedes,  Principle  of,  a 
well  known  principle  in  hydrostatics, 
the  discovery  of  which  is  attributed  to 
the  celebrated  philosopher  whose  name 
it  bears.  This  important  theorem  may 
be  thus  defined :  When  a  solid  is  im- 
mersed in  a  fluid,  it  loses  a  portion  of 
its  weight,  and  this  portion  is  equal 
to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  which  it  dis- 
places, that  is,  to  the  weight  of  its 
own  bulk  of  the  fluid. 

Archimedian  Screw,  or  Spiral 
Pump,  a  machine  invented  by  Archi- 
medes, the  celebrated  Syracusan  phi- 
losopher, while  studying  in  Egypt.  Ob- 
serving the  difficulty  of  raising  water 
from  the  Nile  to  places  above  the  reach 
of  the  flood  tides,  he  is  said  to  have  de- 
signed this  screw  as  a  means  of  over- 
coming the  obstacle.  It  consists  of  a 
pipe  twisted  in  a  spiral  form  around  a 
cylinder,  which,  when  at  work,  is  sup- 
ported in  an  inclined  position.  The 
lower  end  of  the  pipe  is  immersed  in 
water,  and  when  the  cylinder  is  made 
to  revolve  on  its  own  axis,  the  water 
is  raised  from  bend  to  bend  in  the 
spiral  pipe  until  it  flows  out  at  the 
top.  The  Archimedian  screw  is  still 
used  in  Holland  for  raising  water,  and 
draining  low  grounds. 

Archipelago,  a  term  applied  to 
such  tracts  of  sea  as  are  interspersed 
with  many  islands.  It  is  more  es- 
pecially applied  to  the  numerous  is- 
lands of  the  ^Bgean  Sea,  or  that  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  lying  between 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 

Architecture,  the  art  of  bui'iing, 
especially  with  a  view  to  beauty  or 
magnificence.  It  is  an  art  which  is 
ever  advancing  as  the  needs  of  civil- 
ized man  change  and  increase.  Some 


Archives 


Arctic  Expeditions 


of  the  architectural  work  of  the  an- 
cients has  never  been  surpassed  in 
later  ages  in  massiveness  and  in ; 
beauty,  and  the  grand  architectural 
monuments  of  the  Middle  Ages  are ' 
the  chief  redeeming  features  of  that  j 
period  of  intellectual  gloom.  The ' 
architecture  of  the  twentieth  century 
bids  fair  to  keep  abreast  of  the  mar- 
vellous progress  of  other  arts,  and 
nowhere  is  it  achieving  more  signal 
triumphs  than  in  the  United  States, 
with  its  mighty  office-buildings,  its 
magnificent  public  structures,  and  its 
residences  including  every  comfort 
and  improvement. 

Archives,  the  place  in  which  rec- 
ords are  kept ;  also  the  records  and 
papers  which  are  preserved,  as  evi- 
dence of  facts. 

Archons,  the  chief  magistrates  of 
ancient  Athens,  chosen  to  superintend 
civil  and  religious  concerns. 

Archytas,  an  ancient  Greek  math- 
ematician, statesman,  and  general,  whc  i 
flourished  about  400  B.  c.,  and  belong- 
ed to  Tarentum,  in  Southern  Italy. 
The  invention  of  the  analytic  method 
in  mathematics  is  ascribed  to  him,  as 
well  as  the  solution  of  many  geometri- 
cal and  mechanical  problems. 

Arc  Light,  that  species  of  the 
electric  light  in  which  the  illuminating 
source  is  the  current  of  electricity 
passing  between  two  sticks  of  carbon 
kept  a  short  distance  apart,  one  of 
them  being  in  connection  with  the  pos- 
itive, the  other  with  the  negative  ter- 
minal of  a  battery  or  dynamo. 

Arcon,  Jean  Claude  Lcmi- 
ceaud  d%  a  French  engineer,  born 
in  1733.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
the  invention  of  the  famous  floating 
batteries  used  at  the  siege  of  Gibral- 
tar, in  1782.  He  died  in  1800. 

Arctic  Circle,  a  small  circle  or 
the  globe,  23°  28'  distant  from  the 
North  Pole,  which  is  its  center.  It  is 
opposed  to  the  Antarctic  circle,  which 
is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  South 
Pole. 

Arctic  Expeditions,  expeditions 
projected  to  explore  the  regions  sur- 
rounding the  North  Pole.  The  ob- 
ject with  which  these  enterprises  were 
commenced  by  the  English  was  to  ob- 
tain a  passage  by  way  of  the  polar  re- 
gions to  India,  Egypt  being  in  Moham- 
medan hands,  and  fear,  which  now 


seems  absolutely  ludicrous,  being  felt 
that  the  Portuguese  would  successfully 
debar  daring  English  seamen  from 
using  the  route  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  When  the  utter  hopelessness 
of  finding  either  a  northwestern  or  a 
northeastern  passage  to  India  through 
the  polar  regions  became  apparent,  it 
was  felt  that  Arctic  expeditions  might 
still  profitably  be  sent  out  for  purely 
scientific  exploration,  one  main  object 
now  being  to  make  as  near  an  ap- 
proach as  possible  to  the  Pole.  They 
have  continued  at  intervals  to  our 
own  times,  and  are  not  likely  ever  to 
cease.  Two  of  the  most  notable  events 
in  their  history  which  have  hitherto 
occurred  have  been  the  discovery  of 
the  northwest  passage  by  Captain  Mc- 
Clure,  of  the  "  Investigator,"  on  Oct. 
26,  1850,  and  the  tragic  deaths  of  Sir 
John  Franklin  and  his  crew,  about  the 
year  1848,  the  catastrophe  being  ren- 
dered all  the  more  impressive  to  tBe 
public  mind  by  the  uncertainty  which 
long  hung  over  the  gallant  explorers' 
fate. 

In  September,  1895,  Lieut.  Robert 
E.  Peary,  of  the  United  States  navy, 
returned  from  an  Arctic  expedition, 
after  an  absence  of  two  years.  He 
did  not  get  so  far  north  as  some  of 
his  predecessors,  but  in  scientific  re- 
sults his  expedition  surpassed  all 
others  of  recent  years.  His  surveys 
and  maps  extend  our  knowledge  of  the 
coast  northward  2°.  He  started  on 
another  expedition  in  1897.  On  Aug. 
13,  1896,  Dr.  Fridtjof  Nansen,  of  Nor- 
way, returned  from  an  Arctic  expedi- 
tion, after  an  absence  of  more  than 
three  years.  The  most  northerly 
point  reached  by  him  was  86°  14'  N, 
latitude,  or  200  miles  nearer  the  Pole 
than  ever  reached  before.  He  found 
no  indications  of  land  N.  of  82°  N. 
latitude,  and  in  the  higher  latitudes  no 
open  sea,  only  narrow  cracks  in  the 
ice. 

The  following  are  the  farthest  points 
of  N.  latitude  reached  by  Arctic  ex- 
plorers, up  to  present  date : 
Year  Explorers  North  Latitude 

1607.  Hudson     A  .- 80°     23'       0" 

1773.   Phipps     7. 80°     48'       0" 

1806.   Scoresby    81"     12'     42" 

1827.   Parry     82"     50'       0" 

1874.  Meyer    (on    land)...     82°       0'       0" 

1875.  Markham    and     Parr 

(Nares'  expedition.     83"     20'     86" 

1876.  Payer    83"     07'       0* 


Arctic  Ocean 


Are 


Year          Explorers  North  Latitude 

1882.  Lockwood     (Greely's 

party) 83°      24'      0" 

1896.  Nansen  86°      14'      0" 

1900.  Abruzzi    86°      33'      0" 

1908.  Peary    87°        6'      0" 

1909.  April  6.     Peary The  Pole 

In  1902  Lieutenant  Peary  attained 
lat.  84°  17',  404  statute  miles  from 
the  Pole.  He  pushed  the  advance  on 
the  American  side  30  miles  beyond  his 
own  best  record  in  1901.  In  1906  he 
came  within  200.36  miles  of  his  goal, 
when  he  was  forced  back  by  insur- 
mountable obstacles.  The  Baldwin 
(1902)  and  the  Fiala  (1905)  expedi- 
tions, which  proceeded  by  way  of 
Franz  Josef  Land,  did  not  reach  such 
high  latitudes.  In  1909  tidings  of 
Arctic  discovery  were  highly  sensa- 
tional in  character.  On  Sept.  1  Dr. 
Frederick  A.  Cook  telegraphed  that  he 
had  discovered  the  Pole  on  April  21, 
1908,  and  five  days  later  Peary  an- 
nounced that  he  had  reached  it  on 
April  6,  1909.  On  their  return  the 
rival  claimants  were  honored  at  home 
and  abroad,  but  a  scientific  investiga- 
tion of  their  records  resulted  in  credit- 
ing the  achievement  to  Peary. 

Arctic  Ocean,  in  its  widest  sense, 
that  portion  of  the  ocean  which  ex- 
tends from  the  Arctic  circle  (lat.  66° 
32'  N.)  to  the  North  Pole,  or  more  re- 
etrictedly  from  about  lat  70°  N.  As- 
suming the  former  limit,  the  Arctic 
Ocean  is  found  entering  deeply,  in  the 
form  of  gulfs,  bays,  etc.,  into  the  N. 
parts  of  the  continents  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America.  The  water  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  is  extremely  pure,  shells 
being  distinctly  visible  at  a  great 
depth ;  it  also  presents  rapid  transi- 
tions of  color,  chiefly  from  ultramarine 
to  olive-green,  the  latter  variations  of 
color  being  produced  by  myriads  of 
minute  animals,  belonging  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  Coelenterata  and  Mollusca. 

Arctic  Kegions,  the  regions 
round  the  North  Pole,  and  extending 
from  the  pole  on  all  sides  to  the  Arctic 
circle  in  lat.  66°  32'  N.  The  Arctic 
or  North  Polar  circle  just  touches  the 
N.  headlands  of  Iceland ;  cuts  off  the 
S.  and  narrowest  portion  of  Green- 
land ;  crosses  Fox  Strait  N.  of  Hudson 
bay,  whence  it  goes  over  the  American 
continent  to  Bering  Strait.  Thence 
it  runs  to  Obdorsk  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Obi ;  then,  crosing  Northern  Russia, 


the  White  Sea,  and  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  returns  to  Iceland. 

Arct-urus,  in  astronomy,  a  fixed 
star  of  the  first  magnitude,  called  also 
Alpha  Bootis.  It  is  one  of  the  very 
brightest  stars  in  the  northern  heav- 
ens. 

Ardahan,  a  village  of  about  300 
houses,  in  the  portion  of  Turkish  Ar- 
menia, ceded  in  1878  to  Russia,  35 
miles  N.  W.  of  Kars.  Its  position 
gives  it  strategic  importance.  Its 
fortress  was  dismantled  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  the  war  of  1854-1856 ;  in  1878 
the  Berlin  Congress  sanctioned  the  ces- 
sion to  Russia  of  Ardahan,  which  had 
been  captured  early  in  the  war.  On 
account  of  the  severity  of  the  climate, 
the  houses  of  Ardahan  are  mainly  con- 
structed underground. 

Ardennes,  an  extensive  hill-coun- 
try and  forest,  occupying  the  S.  E. 
corner  of  Belgium,  between  the  Moselle 
and  the  Meuse,  but  extending  also  into 
France  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  It  con- 
sists of  a  broken  mass  of  hills,  for  the 
most  part  of  no  great  elevation,  which 
gradually  slope  toward  the  plains  of 
Flanders.  Enormous  supplies  of  coal 
are  found  in  the  north,  a  very  impor- 
tant element  in  Belgium's  industrial 
wealth.  The  region  was  the  scene  of 
important  military  operations  in  the 
early  part  of  the  World  War. 

Arditi,  Luigi,  an  Italian  musi- 
cian and  composer,  born  in.  Piedmont, 
July  16,  1822 ;  studied  music  at  the 
Conservatoire  of  Milan.  Famous  first 
as  a  violinist,  then  as  a  conductor,  he 
conducted  Italian  opera  and  concerts 
in  places  as  remote  from  one  another 
as  New  York  and  Constantinople. 
He  died  in  May,  1903. 

Ardmore,  city  and  capital  of  Car- 
ter county,  Okla.;  in  what  was  the 
Chickasaw  Nation,  Ind.  Terr. ;  on  the 
Santa  Fe  and  other  railroads;  100 
miles  S.  of  Oklahoma  City;  is  in  a 
cotton-growing,  natural  gas,  petro- 
leum, coal,  and  asphalt  section;  has 
a  Carnegie  library,  two  colleges, 
water,  electric  light,  and  telephone 
services,  and  cotton  compressers  and 
oil  mill;  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
cotton  industry.  Pop.  (1910)  8,618. 

Are,  the  unit  of  the  French  land 
measure,  equal  to  100  square  meters, 
or  1,076.44  square  feet. 


Arena 

Arena,  the  inclosed  space  in  the 
central  part  of  the  Roman  ampmtnea- 
ters,  in  which  took  place  the  combats 
of  gladiators  or  wild  beasts.  It  was 
usually  covered  with  sand  or  saw  dust 
to  prevent  the  gladiators  from  slip- 
ping, and  to  absorb  the  blood. 

Arecibo,  city,  seaport,  and  capital 
of  department  of  same  name,  Porto 
Rico;  on  the  Arecibo  river,  40  miles 
W.  of  San  Juan;  settled  in  1616; 
greatly  damaged  by  hurricane  in 
1899;  has  a  roadstead  available  only 
by  small  vessels.  Pop.  (1910)  9,612. 

Areolar  Tissue,  a  tissue  widely 
diffused  through  the  body,  and  com- 
posed of  white  and  yellow  fibers,  the 
former  imparting  to  it  strength,  and 
the  latter  elasticity. 

Areometer,  an  instrument  de- 
signed to  measure  the  specific  gravity 
of  liquids. 

Areopagus,  the  name  of  a  hill  or 
rocky  eminence  lying  to  the  W.  of  the 
Acropolis  at  Athens,  which  was  the 
meeting-place  of  the  chief  court  of 
judicature  of  that  city;  hence  called 
the  Council  of  Areopagus.  It  was  of 
very  high  antiquity,  and  existed  as  a 
criminal  tribunal  long  before  the  time 
of  Solon.  Solon  enlarged  its  sphere 
of  jurisdiction,  and  gave  it  extensive 
powers  of  a  censorial  and  political  na- 
ture. Some  say  that  the  Apostle  Paul 
was  taken  before  this  council ;  but  the 
Scripture  does  not  bear  out  this  idea. 
It  would  seem,  rather,  that  the  Athen- 
ians had  taken  him  to  the  hill  in  or- 
der to  hear  him  expound  his  new  doc- 
trines. 

Arequipa,  a  city  of  Peru,  capi- 
tal of  the  Department  of  the  same 
name ;  40  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
on  the  Chile  river ;  altitude,  7.850  feet 
above  sea  level.  Gold  and  silver  are 
mined  in  the  vicinity.  A  great  earth- 
quake occurred,  Aug.  13  and  14,  1868, 
which  destroyed  more  than  $12,000,000 
worth  of  property,  and  the  lives  of 
more  than  500  persons.  Its  public 
buildings  and  dwellings  are  one  or  two 
stories  high  and  constructed  of  stone. 
Near  at  hand  Harvard  University  has 
an  observatory,  at  an  altitude  of  over 
8,000  feet. 

Area,  the  Greek  god  of  war,  or 
more  particularly  of  its  horror  and  tu- 
mult. He  is  represented  in  Greek 


Argenionr 

poetry  as  a  most  sanguinary  divinity 
delighting  in  war  for  its  own  sake. 

Aretaeus,  a  Greek  physician  of 
Cappadocia,  who  flourished  about  100 
A.  D.  He  is  considered  to  rank  next  to 
Hippocrates  in  the  skill  with  which  he 
treated  diseases;  was  eclectic  in  his 
method ;  and  in  the  diagnosis  of  dis- 
ease is  superior  to  most  of  the  ancient 
physicians. 

Aretino,  Pietro,  an  Italian  poet 
and  dramatist,  born  at  Arezzo,  April 
20,  1492.  His  "Letters"  are  a  val- 
uable contribution  to  the  history  of  the 
times.  He  died  in  Venice,  Oct.  21, 
1556. 

Argali,  the  name  for  some  species 
of  the  genus  ovis,  or  sheep,  which  in- 
habits the  mountains  and  steppes  of 
Northern  Asia.  They  are  very  keen- 
sighted,  quick  of  hearing,  and  possess 
a  delicate  sense  of  smell.  They  attach 
themselves  closely  to  one  locality,  and 
are  noted  for  their  great  powers  of 
leaping,  even  from  heights  of  20  or  30 
feet.  The  Big-horn  sheep  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  are  sometimes  called  Amer- 
ican argali. 

Argali,  Sir  Samuel,  an  ear/y 
English  adventurer  in  Virginia,  born 
about  1572 ;  planned  and  executed  the 
abduction  of  Pocahontas,  the  daughter 
of  the  Indian  chief  Powhatan,  in  order 
to  secure  the  ransom  of  English  prison- 
ers. He  was  Deputy  Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia (1617-1619),  and  was  accused 
of  many  acts  of  rapacity  and  tyranny. 
By  carrying  on  trade  in  violation  of  the 
law  he  managed  to  acquire  a  fortune, 
and  was  shielded  from  justice  by  the 
Earl  of  Warwick.  He  died  in  1639. 

Argand.  Lamp,  a  lamp  named 
after  its  inventor,  Aim§  Argand,  a 
Swiss  chemist  and  physician  (born 
1755,  died  1803),  the  distinctive  fea- 
ture of  which  is  a  burner  forming  a 
ring  or  hollow  cylinder  covered  by  a 
chimney,  so  that  the  flame  receives  a 
current  of  air  both  on  the  inside  and 
on  the  outside. 

Argemone,  a  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  poppy-worts.  It  has 
three  sepals  and  six  petals.  The^A. 
Mexicana,  believed,  as  its  name  im- 
ports, to  have  come  from  Mexico,  has 
conspicuous  yellow  flowers.  From 
having  its  calyx  prickly,  it  is  often 
called  Mexican  thistle.  The  seeds  are 
a  more  powerful  narcotic  than  opium, 


Argent 

Argent,  in  coats  or  arms,  the  her- 
aldic term  expressing  silver ;  repre- 
sented in  engraving  by  a  plain  white 
surface. 

Argenta,  a  town  in  Pulaski 
county,  Ark.;  on  the  Arkansas  river, 
and  the  Choctaw,  Oklahoma  &  Gulf 
and  other  railroads;  nearly  opposite 
Little  Rock;  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
live-stock  and  cotton  industries.  Pop. 
(1910)  11.13& 

Argentina,  formerly  called  the 
United  Provinces  of  La  Plata,  a  vast 
country  of  South  America ;  extreme 
length,  2,100  miles ;  average  breadth 
a  Tittle  over  500  miles ;  total  area, 
1,153,418  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Bolivia ;  on  the  E.  by 
Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic;  on  the  S.  by  the  Antarctic 
Ocean;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Andes. 

With  the  exception  of  the  N.  W., 
where  lateral  branches  of  the  Andes 
run  into  the  plain  for  150  or  200  miles, 
and  the  province  of  Entre  Rios,  which 
is  hilly,  the  characteristic  feature  of 
the  country  is  the  great  monotonous 
and  level  plains  called  pampas.  In  the 
N.,  these  plains  are  partly  forest-cov- 
ered, but  all  the  central  and  S.  parts 
present  vast  treeless  tracts,  which  af- 
ford pasture  to  immense  herds  of 
horses,  oxen,  and  sheep,  and  are  varied 
in  some  places  by  brackish  swamps,  in 
others  by  salt  steppes. 

European  grains  and  fruits,  includ- 
ing the  vine,  have  been  successfully  in- 
troduced, and  are  cultivated  in  most 
parts  of  the  republic,  countless  herds 
of  cattle  and  horses  and  flocks  of  sheep 
are  pastured  on  the  pampas,  and  mul- 
tiply there  very  rapidly.  Gold,  siver, 
nickel,  copper,  tin,  lead,  and  iron,  be- 
sides marble,  jasper,  precious  stones, 
and  bitumen,  are  found  in  the  moun- 
tainous districts  of  the  northwest, 
while  petroleum  wells  have  been  dis- 
covered on  the  Rio  Vermejo;  but  the 
development  of  this  mineral  wealth  has 
hitherto  been  greatly  retarded  by  the 
•want  of  proper  means  of  transport. 
As  a  whole,  there  are  not  extensive 
forests  in  the  country,  except  in  the 
region  of  the  Gran  Chaco  (which  ex- 
tends also  into  Bolivia),  where  thera 
is  known  to  be  60,000  square  miles  of 
timber.  Thousands  of  square  miles  are 
covered  with  thistles,  which  grow  to  a 
great  height  in  their  season.  Cacti 
also  form  great  thickets.  Peach  and 


Argon 

apple  trees  are  abundant  in  some  dis- 
tricts. The  native  fauna  includes  the 
puma,  the  jaguar,  the  tapir,  the  llama, 
the  alpaca,  the  vicuna,  armadilos,  the 
rhea  or  nandu,  a  species  of  ostrich,  etc. 
The  climate  is  agreeable  and  healthful, 
97°  being  about  the  highest  tempera- 
ture experienced.  The  native  Indians, 
few  in  number,  give  little  trouble  to 
white  settlers,  although  some  of  the 
Gran  Chaco  tribes  are  warlike  and 
have  killed  foreign  travellers.  Some 
tribes,  still  in  a  savage  state,  inhabit 
less  known  districts  and  live  by  hunt- 
ing and  fishing.  The  typical  inhabi- 
tants of  the  pampas  are  the  Gauchos, 
a  race  of  half-breed  cattle- rearers  and 
horsebreakers,  almost  continually  in 
saddle,  galloping  the  plains. 

A.  is  divided  into  14  provinces  and 
10  territories.  Buenos  Aires,  the  cap- 
ital, is  connected  with  other  large 
towns  including  Rosario,  La  Plata, 
Tucuman,  Cordoba,  Santa  F6,  Men- 
doza,  Parana,  etc.,  by  extensive  and 
modern  lines  of  railroads  and  tele- 
graphs. Industries  and  commerce 
have  increased  with  the  arrival  of 
large  numbers  of  immigrants,  averag- 
ing about  300,000  yearly.  In  1915  the 
imports  aggregated  $220,085.951,  and 
the  exports  $541,532,224.  The  chief 
foreign  trade,  in  order  of  importance, 
was  with  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  Italy,  France,  and  Brazil,  and 
was  largely  affected  by  the  World 
War. 

The  government  is  republican,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  President  is  elected  for  six  years. 
The  population  was  estimated  in 
1914  at  about  9.000,000,  Buenos  Aires 
having  1,700,000.  The  constitution 
bears  date  of  May  15,  1853,  with 
amendments  in  1866  and  1898. 

Argillaceous  Rocks.  Rocks  in- 
cluding slate,  in  which  clay  prevails. 

Argol,  a  salt  deposited  by  wine 
on  the  inside  of  bottles  and  barrels. 
It  may  be  purified  in  hot  water,  and 
clarified  by  adding  clay,  and  recrys- 
tallizing.  In  repeating  the  process  it 
becomes  white  and  is  called  cream  of 
tartar. 

Argon,  a  constituent  gaseous  ele- 
ment discovered  in  our  atmosphere  by 
Lord  Rayleigh  and  Prof.  Ramsay,  in 
1894.  There  is  still  much  doubt  con- 
cerning its  true  status. 


Argonaut 

Argonaut,  one  of  the  heroes  who 
accompanied  Jason  in  the  ship 
"  Argo  "  when  he  sailed  on  his  mythic 
voyage  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece 
(generally  used  in  the  plural).  The 
tales  describing  the  return  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts differ  very  essentially. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  genus 
of  cephalopod  mollusks,  the  typical  one 
of  the  family  argonautidse.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  argonaut,  or  pa- 
per sailor.  The  shell  is  thin  and 
translucent.  Aristotle  supposed  that 
it  floated  with  the  concave  side  up,  the 
animal  holding  out  its  arms,  after  the 
manner  of  sails,  to  catch  the  breeze. 
Poets  have  since  repeated  the  fable. 

Argonne,  a  rocky,  forest-clad  pla- 
teau, extending  along  the  borders  of 
Lorraine,  Germany,  and  Champagne, 
France,  watered  by  the  Meuse,  Marne, 
and  Aisne  rivers ;  noted  as  the  scene 
of  Dumouriez's  campaign  against  the 
Prussians  in  1792,  of  military  move- 
ments preceding  the  battle  of  Sedan 
in  1870,  and  of  struggles  for  the  pos- 
session of  Alsace-Lorraine  in  the 
World  War. 

Argos,  a  town  of  Greece,  in  the 
N.  E.  of  the  Peloponnesus,  between 
the  gulfs  of  JEgina  and  Nauplia  or 
Argos.  This  town  and  the  surround- 
ing territory  of  Argolis  were  famous 
from  the  legendary  period  of  Greek 
history  onward,  the  territory  contain- 
ing, besides  Argos,  Mycenae,  where 
Agamemnon  ruled,  with  a  kind  of  sov- 
ereignty, over  all  the  Peloponnesus. 

Argosy,  a  poetical  name  for  a 
large  merchant  vessei ;  derived  from 
Ragusa,  a  port  which  was  formerly 
more  celebrated  than  now,  and  whose 
vessels  did  a  considerable  trade  with 
England. 

Argot,  the  jargon,  slang  or  pecu- 
liar phraseology  of  a  class  or  profes- 
sion ;  originally  the  conventional  slang 
of  thieves  and  vagabonds,  invented  for 
the  purpose  of  disguise  and  conceal- 
ment. 

Argument,  a  term  sometimes  used 
as  synonymous  with  the  subject  of  a 
discourse,  but  more  frequently  appro- 
priated to  any  kind  of  method  employ- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  confuting  or  at 
least  silencing  an  opponent. 

Argus.  (1)  In  classical  mythol- 
ogy, a  son  of  Arestor,  said  to  have  had 
100  eyes,  of  which  only  two  slept  at 


Arlan 

!  one  time,  the  several  pairs  doing  so  in 
!  succession.  When  killed  by  Mercury, 
his  eyes  were  put  into  the  tail  of  the 
peacock,  by  direction  of  Juno,  to  whom 
this  bird  was  sacred.  Argus  was 
deemed  a  highly  appropriate  name  to 
give  to  a  vigilant  watch  dog. 

(2)  In  zoology,  a  genus  of  birds. 
It  contains  the  argus,  or  argus  pheas- 
ant. The  male  measures  between  five 
and  six  feet  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to 
the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and  is  an  em- 
inently beautiful  bird,  the  quill-feath- 
ers of  the  wings,  which  often  exceed 
three  feet  in  length,  being  ornamented 
all  along  by  a  series  of  ocellated  spots, 
about  80,000  in  number. 

Argyle,  Campbells  of,  a  historic 
Scottish  family,  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  the  person  of  Sir  Duncan  Campbell 
of  Lochow,  in  1445.  JOHN,  second 
Duke  and  Duke  of  Greenwich,  son  of 
Archibald,  born  1G78,  died  1743  ;  served 
under  Marlborough  at  the  battles  of 
Ramilies,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet, 
and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  Lisle  and 
Ghent.  He  incurred  considerable 
odium  in  his  own  country  for  his  ef- 
forts in  promoting  the  union  with 
England. 

Ariadne,  a  daughter  of  Minos, 
King  of  Crete,  who,  falling  in  love 
with  Theseus,  then  shut  up  by  her 
father  in  the  labyrinth,  gave  him  a 
clue  by  which  he  threaded  his  way  out. 

Arian,  a  follower  of  Arius,  Pres- 
byter of  Alexandria  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury A.  D.,  or  one  holding  the  system 
of  doctrine  associated  with  his  name. 
In  the  year  317,  Alexander,  Bishop  of 
Alexandria,  having  publicly  expressed 
his  opinion  that  the  Son  of  God  is  not 
only  of  the  same  dignity  as  the 
Father,  but  of  the  same  essence  (in 
Greek,  ousia),  Arius,  one  of  the 
Presbyters,  considered  this  view 
as  leaning  too  much  to  Sabel- 
lianism,  and,  rushing  to  the  other 
extreme,  he  declared  that  the  Son  of 
God  was  only  the  first  and  noblest  of 
created  beings,  and  though  the  universe 
had  been  brought  into  existence 
through  His  instrumentality  by  the 
Eternal  Father,  yet  to  that  Eternal 
Father  He  was  inferior,  not  merely  in 
dignity,  but  in  essence.  The  views  of 
Arius  commended  themselves  to  multi- 
tudes, while  they  were  abhorrent  to 
still  more ;  fierce  controversy  respect- 
ing them  broke  out,  and  the  whole 


Ariel 


Aristolmlus 


Christian  world  was  soon  compelled  to 
take  sides.  It  would  occupy  too 
much  space  to  detail  the  vicissitudes 
of  a  highly  checkered  struggle ;  suffice 
it  to  say  that  the  Arians  greatly  weak- 
ened themselves  by  splitting  into  sects, 
and  the  doctrines  regarding  the  rela- 
tion of  the  three  Divine  Personages 
authoritatively  proclaimed  at  Nice* 
were  at  last  all  but  universally  adopt- 
ed. They  may  be  found  detailed  in 
what  are  popularly  termed  the  Nicene 
and  the  Athanasian  Creeds.  They 
were  held  almost  without  a  dissentient 
voice  through  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
were  cordially  accepted  by  the  leading 
reformers. 

Ariel,  the  name  of  several  person- 
ages mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament ; 
in  the  demonology  of  the  later  Jews  a 
spirit  of  the  waters.  In  Shakespeare's 
"  Tempest,"  Ariel  was  the  "  tricksy 
spirit  "  whom  Prospero  had  in  his  ser- 
vice. 

Aries,  in  astronomy,  the  constel- 
lation Aries,  or  the  Ram,  one  of  the 
ancient  zodiacal  constellations,  and 
generally  called  the  first  sign  of  the 
zodiac ;  also  the  portion  of  the  eclip- 
tic between  0°  and  30°  longitude, 
which  the  sun  enters  on  March  21st 
(the  vernal  equinox). 

Arimanes,  or  Aliriman,  the 
principle  of  evil  in  the  Persian  theol- 
ogy, which  perpetually  counteracts  the 
designs  of  Ormuzd  or  Oromazdes,  who 
denotes  the  principle  of  good. 

Arimatlifea,  a  town  of  Palestine, 
identified  with  the  modern  Ramleh,  22 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Jerusalem. 

Arion,  an  ancient  Greek  poet  and 
musician,  born  at  Methymna,  in  Les- 
bos, flourished  about  B.  c.  625.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  rescued  from 
drowning  by  a  dolphin,  which  at- 
tracted by  his  music,  bore  him  to  land. 
A  fragment  of  a  hymn  'M  Poseidon, 
ascribed  to  Arion,  is  extant. 

Ariosto,     I/udovico,     an     Italian 
poet,  born  at  Reggio,  Sept.  8,  1474.  i 
Was  one  of  the  three  great  epic  poets  I 
of  Italy,  and  styled  "  The  Divine  "  by 
his  countrymen.     He  died  in  Ferrara, 
June  6,  1533. 

Arista,  Don  Mariano,  a  Mex- 
ican statesman,  born  in  1803.  Of 
Spanish  descent,  he  at  an  early  age 
entered  the  army,  in  which  he  at- 
tained to  the  rank  of  major-general. 


He  served  with  distinction  in  the  war 
against  the  United  States,  was,  in 
1848,  appointed  Minister  of  War,  and, 
in  1850,  President  of  the  Republic. 
He  was  succeeded  as  President  in 
1852,  by  Don  Juan  Cebellos.  He  died 
in  1855. 

Aristarchns,  a  Greek  grammar- 
ian, who  criticised  Homer's  poems 
with  the  greatest  severity. 

Aristarchus  of  Samos,  a  famous 
astronomer,  born  267  B.  c.  First  as- 
serted the  revolution  of  the  earth 
about  the  sun.  His  work  on  the  mag- 
nitude, and  distance  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  is  still  extant.  He  is  also  re- 
garded as  the  inventor  of  the  sun-dial. 

Aristides,  a  statesman  of  ancient 
Greece,  for  his  strict  integrity  sur- 
named  "  The  Just."  He  died  at  an 
advanced  age  about  B.  c.  468,  so  poor 
that  he  was  buried  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. It  was  customary  in  Athens 
for  citizens  to  vote  by  a  ballot  of 
shells  —  hence  called  ostracism  from 
the  Greek  word  for  shell  —  for  the 
exile  of  any  citizen  who  might  be  un- 
popular, without  any  specific  charge 
being  made  against  him.  Aristides 
was,  on  one  occasion  the  victim  of  os- 
tracism, and  a  citizen  who  voted 
against  him  gave  as  a  reason,  that  he 
was  tired  of  hearing  him  called  "  The 
Just." 

Aristippns,  a  disciple  of  Socrates, 
and  founder  of  a  philosophical  school 
among  the  Greeks,  which  was  called 
the  Cyrenaic,  from  his  native  city  Gy- 
rene, in  Africa ;  flourished  in  380 
B.  C.  His  moral  philosophy  differed 
widely  from  that  of  Socrates,  and  was 
a  science  of  refined  voluptuousness. 
His  writings  are  lost. 

Aristobulus,  name  of  several  roy- 
al personages  of  Judea  :  ARISTOBULUS 
I.,  son  of  John  Hyrcanus,  high  priest 
of  the  Jews ;  from  105-104  B.  C.  King 
of  Judea.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first  of  the  Hasmoneans  to 
take  the  title  of  king.  In  the  single 
year  of  his  reign  he  conquered  por 
tions  of  Iturea  and  Trachonitis,  and 
compelled  the  people  to  accept  Juda- 
ism. ARISTOBULUS  II.,  son  of  Alex- 
ander Jannsenus,  was  named  as  high 
priest  by  bis  mother,  Queen  Regent 
Alexandra,  while  to  Hyrcanus  II.:  his 
elder  brother,  the  throne  was  given. 
In  a  contest  for  the  throne,  he  was 


Aristobnlns 


Arizona 


defeated  by  Pompey  in  63  B.  c.,  and 
carried  captive  to  Rome.  He  died 
about  48  B.  c.  ARISTOBULUS  III.,  a 
grandson  of  Hyrcanus  II. ;  his  sister, 
Mariamne,  was  the  wife  of  Herod  I., 
who  appointed  him  high  priest,  but, 
fearing  his  popularity,  had  him  assas- 
sinated about  30  B.  c.  ARISTOBULUS 
III.  was  the  last  male  of  the  Hasmo- 
nean  family. 

Aristobulus,  an  Alexandrian 
Jew  and  peripatetic  philosopher,  who 
lived  about  170  B.  c.,  was  considered 
by  the  early  fathers  as  the  founder  of 
the  Jewish  philosophy  in  Alexandria.  | 

Aristocracy,    a    form    of    govern- ! 
ment  by  which  the  wealthy  and  noble,  | 
or   any   small    privileged   class,    rules  i 
over    the    rest   of   the    citizens ;    now 
mostly  applied  to  the  nobility  or  chief 
persons  in  a  State. 

Aristophanes,  the  greatest  of  the 
Greek  writers  of  comedy  (B.  c.  448?- ' 
380?),  born  at  Athens. 

Aristotle,   the  most   renowned   of 
Greek   philosophers,   born  at   Stagira, 
Macedonia,  384  B.  c. ;  was  for  20  years 
a  student  of  philosophy  in  the  school 
of  Plato  at  Athens,  but  at  the  same 
time  a  teacher,  in  the  meantime  mas- 
tering and  digesting  all  the  accessible 
results  of  philosophical  and  scientific 
research  and  speculation  in  his  time. 
After  Plato's  death,  he  opened  a  school 
of  Philosophy  at  the  court  of  Hermias, 
King  of  Atarnous,  in  Mysia,  who  had 
been    his    fellow    student    in    Plato's 
Academy,  and  whose  adopted  daugh- 1 
ter  he  afterward  married.    At  the  in-  j 
vitation  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  he  un- '. 
dertook  the  education  of  his  son,  Alex- ! 
ander.     When  Alexander  succeeded  to 
the   throne,   the   philosopher   returned 
to  Athens  and  opened  a  school  in  the 
Lyceum,  so  called  from  the  neighbor- , 
ing  temple  of  the  Lycian  Apollo.     He 
taught  in  the  Lyceum  for  13  years, 
and  to  that  period  we  owe  the  compo-  j 
sition  of  most  of  his  numerous  writ-  | 
ings.  _    The    number    of    his    separate 
treatises  is  given  by  Diogenes   Laer- 
tius  as  146 ;  only  46  separate  works ! 
bearing  the  name  of  the  philosopher  I 
have  come  down  to  our  time.    He  died 
at  Chalcis,  Euboea,  in  322  B.  C. 

Arithmetic,  in  its  broadest  sense, 
the  science  and  art  which  treat  of  the 
properties  of  numbers.  This  defini- 
tion, however,  would  include  algebra, 


which  is  considered  a  distinct  branch. 
Algebra  deals  with  certain  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  such  as  x,  y,  z,  a,  b,  c, 
etc.,  standing  as  symbols  for  numbers; 
arithmetic  operates  on  numbers  them- 
selves, as  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  Viewed  as  a 
science,  arithmetic  is  a  branch  of 
mathematics ;  looked  on  as  an  art,  its 
object  is  to  carry  out  for  practical 
purposes  certain  rules  regarding  num- 
bers, without  troubling  itself  to  in- 
vestigate the  foundation  on  which 
those  rules  are  based. 

Ari  Thorgilsson,  the  father  of 
Icelandic  literature  (1067-1148). 

Arizona,  a  State  in  the  Mountain 
Division  of  the  North  American 
Union ;  bounded  by  Nevada,  Utah, 
New  Mexico,  California  and  the  Mex- 
ican State  of  Souora ;  gross  area, 
113,956  square  miles ;  organized  as  a 
Territory  Feb.  14.  1863 ;  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  State,  Feb.  14,  1912. 
Number  of  counties,  14;  pop.  (1900) 
122,212;  (1916)  255,544;  capital, 
Phoenix. 

A.  abounds  with  mineral  wealth  in- 
cluding coal,  iron,  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  platinum,  quicksilver,  tin,  etc. ; 
mining,  ranching  and  lumbering  are 
the  chief  industries. 

Of  the  total  area,  embracing  over 
72,500,000  acres,  only  about  5,000,000 
acres  is  farming  land.  The  rainfall 
is  so  small  that  irrigation  is  depended 
upon  to  make  agriculture  profitable. 
The  construction  of  irrigating  canals 
and  water  storage  reservoirs  is  being 
steadily  promoted  and  over  500,000 
acres  are  now  productive  thereby.  In 
the  calendar  year  1916  farm  crops 
had  a  value  of  $13.597.000  and  all 
farm  property,  over  $80,000,000.  The 
pine  timber  land  covers  an  area  of 
nearly  4,000,000  acres,  giving  the  Ter- 
ritory resources  for  timber  and  build- 
ing material  unsurpassed  anywhere  in 
the  country.  , 

The  State  is  rich  in  mineral  re- 
sources, largely  copper,  coal,  iron, 
gold,  silver,  lead,  quicksilver,  and 
precious  stones.  The  value  of  all 
productions  in  1915  was  $91,541,403, 
copper  yielding  $80,495,152.  In  1914 
the  manufacturing  industries  had  a 
combined  output  valued  at  $64.090,000 
on  a  capital  of  $40,300,000.  the  lead- 
ing industry  being  the  smelting  and 
refining  of  copper. 

The    governor   is    elected    for    two 


Ark 

years.  Legislature  meets  biennially  ; 
Senate,  19  members,  House,  35.  One 
Representative-at-Large  in  Congress. 
State  officials  and  Legislature  Demo- 
cratic in  1917. 

Ark,  a  chest  or  coffer  for  the  safe- 
keeping of  any  valuable  thing ;  a  de- 
pository. The  large  floating  vessel  in 
which  Noah  and  his  family  were  pre- 
served during  the  deluge. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  in  the 
synagogue  of  the  Jews,  was  the  chest 
or  vessel  in  which  the  tables  of  the 
law  were  preserved. 

Arkansas,  a  State  in  the  West 
South  Central  Division  of  the  Nofth 
American  Union ;  bounded  by  Mis- 
souri, Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 
ana, Texas  and  Oklahoma  ;  gross  area, 
53,850  square  miles  ;  admitted  into  the 
Union,  June  15,  1836 ;  seceded,  March 
4,  1861;  readmitted  June  22,  1868; 
number  of  counties,  75 ;  pop.  (1900) 
1,311,564;  (1916)  1,739,723 ;  capital, 
Little  Rock. 

The  State  contains  semi-anthracite, 
cannel,  and  bituminous  coal ;  iron  and 
zinc  ores ;  galena,  frequently  bearing 
silver  ;  manganese  ;  gypsum,  oil-stone 
of  superior  quality ;  marble ;  alabas- 
ter ;  rock  crystal ;  copper ;  granite ; 
kaolin  ;  marl ;  mineral  ochers,  and  salt. 
In  1915  the  value  of  all  mineral  pro- 
ductions was  $6,558,693. 

The  soil  varies  with  the  geological 
characteristics  and  surface  conditions 
already  described.  Agriculturally,  the 
most  valuable  soil  is  found  in  the 
river  bottom-lands,  and  as  the  surface 
rises  from  these  bottoms  the  soil  be- 
comes less  productive.  There  are  large 
submerged  tracts  that  only  require 
proper  drainage  to  make  them  valu- 
able to  the  farmer.  The  uplands  gen- 
erally are  well  timbered  and  well  wa- 
tered. The  various  crops  of  1916  had 
a  value  of  $175.057,000,  cotton  lead- 
ing with  $107,430,000. 

In  1914  there  were  2,604  manufac- 
turing establishments  reported,  em- 
ploying $77,162,000  capital  and  41,979 
persons  ;  paying  $20,752,000  for  wages 
and  $44,907,000  for  materials;  and 
having  a  combined  output  valued  at 
$83,940,000.  The  principal  articles 
were  lumber,  sawed  and  worked  ;  flour 
and  grist ;  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake ; 
foundry  and  machine  shop  products ; 
and  brick  and  tile. 

The    public    schools    ar,e    liberally 


Arkansas 

maintained  and  well  attended.  In 
1914  the  school  census  was  reported 
at  635,462,  of  whom  439,624  were  en- 
rolled in  public  schools  and  298,597 
were  in  average  daily  attendance. 
There  were  10,361  teachers  in  the 
public  schools,  6,429  buildings  used 
for  public  school  purposes  and  public 
school  property  valued  at  $11,950,315. 
The  principal  universities  and  colleges 
are  Arkansas  College  (opened  1872, 
Presb.)  ;  University  of  Arkansas 
(1872,  non-sect.)  ;  Philander  Smith 
College  (1877,  Meth.  Epis.)  ;  Hendrix 
College  (1884,  Meth.  Epis.  S.)  ; 
Ouachita  College  (1886,  Bapt.)  ; 
Arkadelphia  College  (1890,  Meth. 
Epis.)  ;  Arkansas-Cumberland  College 
(1891,  Cumb.  Presb.)  ;  Central  Col- 
lege (1892,  Women,  Bapt.)  ;  and 
Mountain  Home  College  (1893, 
Bapt.). 

In  1916  the  net  State  revenue  was 
$3,810,994;  net  expenditure,  $4,010,- 
281 ;  the  assessed  valuation  of  all  tax- 
able property,  $447,020,270;  the  tax 
levy,  $3,577,503  ;  and  the  net  debt,  $2,- 
183,538.  There  were  over  5,400  miles 
of  steam  railroad  in  operation.  Under 
the  National  Banking  Act  of  1913,  the 
State  is  included  in  Federal  Reserve 
District  No.  8. 

The  Governor  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years  and  receives  a  salary  of 
$5,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  held  biennially,  and  are  lim- 
ited to  60  days  each.  The  Legislature 
has  35  members  in  the  Senate  and  100 
in  the  House.  There  are  7  Repre- 
sentatives in  Congress.  In  1917  the 
State  was  Democratic. 

Arkansas  Post,  a  village  in  Ar- 
kansas county,  Ark. ;  on  the  Arkansas 
River ;  117  miles  S.  E.  of  Little  Rock. 
Its  elevated  location  gave  it  consider- 
able military  importance  during  the 
Civil  War.  The  Confederates  estab- 
lished strong  works  here,  which  were 
reduced  by  a  combined  assault  of  a 
portion  of  the  United  States  army, 
under  General  McClernand,  and  a  na- 
val command  under  Admiral  Porter, 
on  Jan.  11,  1863. 

Arkansas,  University  of,  a  co- 
educational institution  organized  in 
1872,  with  academic  and  technical  de- 
partments in  Fayetteville,  law  and 
medical  departments  in  Little  Rock, 
and  normal  school  for  colored  students 
in  Pine  Bluff. 


Armenia 


Armenia 


Armenia,  together  with  Kurdistan, 
forms  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
in  Asia.  The  total  area  is  about 
75,000  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion was  recently  estimated  at,  from 
2,500,000  to  about  5,000,000,  but  a 
serious  plan  of  extermination  was 
steadily  pursued  by  Turkey  through- 
out 1915-16. 

Tradition  assigns  the  cradle  of  the 
human  race  to  Armenia.  In  1916 
the  country  was  divided  into  three 
vilayets  or  governments — Erzerum, 
Mamuret  ul  Aziz,  and  Diarbekir,  with 
the  districts  of  Bitlis  and  Van.  The 
inhabitants  are  of  the  Christian  faith, 
most  of  them  belonging  to  the 
Gregorian  Church,  which  greatly  re- 
sembles the  Greek  Church  in  doctrine 
and  ritual.  There  are  many,  how- 
ever, who  acknowledge_  the  authority 
of  Rome,  although  retaining  their  own 
distinctive  ritual.  Sheep,  cattle,  and 
wool  are  largely  exported,  and  there 
is  a  growing  silk  industry  in  Diar- 
bekir. 

Armenia  was  at  one  time  subdivided 
into  First,  Second  and  Third  Armenia, 
to  which  a  Fourth  was  afterward 
added  ;  but  the  division  by  which  it  was 
almost  universally  known  was  into 
Armenia  Major  and  Armenia  Minor, 
or  the  Greater  and  the  Less  Armenia. 
It  would  seem  to  have  stretched  from 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  prov- 
ince of  Azerbijan  on  the  E.  to  Asia 
Minor  on  the  W.,  and  from  the  Kur 
or  Cyrus  river  on  the  N.  to  Kurdistan 
and  Mesopotamia  on  the  S.  Armenia 
Major  comprised  the  larger  and  E. 
portion  of  this  area,  extending  W.  as 
far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the  Anti- 
Taurus,  and  having  an  area  of  about 
84.000  square  miles.  Armenia  Minor 
extended  from  the  Euphrates  to  Asia 
Minor,  and  its  area  may  be  stated  at 
about  53,000  square  miles.  The 
Euphrates  thus  intersects  Armenia 
almost  centrally,  and  forms  the 
natural  boundary  between  the  two 
divisions  now  described.  The  terri- 
tory of  this  kingdom  became  parti-' 
tioned  among  Turkey,  Persia,  and 
Russia,  Turkey  possessing  the  largest 
share. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  the 
genuine  Armenian  stock ;  but  besides 
them,  in  consequence  of  the  repeated 
subjugation  of  the  country,  various 
other  races  have  obtained  a  footing. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  the  Turco- 


mans, who  still  maintain  their  no- 
madic habits,  and  from  whom  the 
country  has  received  the  name  of  Tur- 
comadia.  In  the  S.  portion  are  the 
predatory  Kurds  and  the  Turks ;  on 
the  Tchorak,  Georgians ;  and  through- 
out the  whole  country,  Greeks,  Jews, 
and  Gypsies.  Armenians  are  scattered 
over  various  countries,  and  being 
strongly  addicted  to  commerce,  play 
an  important  part  as  merchants. 
They  are  found  over  all  Western 
Asia ;  about  200,000  are  in  Constanti- 
nople and  its  vicinity ;  numbers  are 
in  Russia,  Hungary,  and  Italy ;  some 
in  Africa  and  the  United  States,  and 
many  in  India,  chiefly  in  the  great 
marts,  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Calcutta. 

The  Armenians  received  Christian- 
ity as  early  as  the  3d  century.  Dur- 
ing the  Monophysitic  disputes,  being 
dissatisfied  with  the  decisions  of  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  they  sep- 
arated from  the  Greek  Church  in  the 
year  536.  The  Popes  have  at  different 
times  attempted  to  gain  them  over  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  but  have 
not  been  able  to  unite  them  perma- 
nently and  generally  with  the  Roman 
Church.  There  are,  however,  small 
numbers  here  and  there  of  United  Ar- 
menians, who  acknowledge  the  spirit- 
ual supremacy  of  the  Pope,  agree  in 
their  doctrines  with  the  Catholics,  but 
retain  their  peculiar  ceremonies  and 
discipline.  At  different  times  force 
has  been  used  to  make  them  conform 
to  the  religion  of  Mohammed ;  but  the 
far  greater  part  are  yet  Monophy- 
sites,  and  have  remained  faithful  to 
their  old  religion  and  worship.  They 
have  suffered  the  usual  fate  of  Chris- 
tian populations  subject  to  Turkey, 
and  the  massacres  of  Armenians  in 
1895,  1896,  and  1915-16,  excited  the 
horror  of  the  civilized  world. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  World  War, 
while  the  British  Expeditionary  Force 
was  fighting  under  adverse  conditions 
in  Mesopotamia,  the  Russian  army  in 
the  Caucasus,  after  a  long  period  of 
apparent  inactivity,  was  striking  hard 
blows  at  the  Turks  in  the  mountain- 
ous region  of  Armenia.  On  Jilne  17, 
1916,  the  Russians  broke  the  Turkish 
center  at  Kopri-Keui ;  on  Feb.  16, 
captured  Erzerum ;  on  March  19,  en- 
tered Ispahan ;  and  on  April  17, 
forced  the  capitulation  of  Trebizond. 
See  APPENDIX:  World  War. 


Armenian  Literature 


Armistice 


Armenian  Literature.  Previous 
to  the  introduction  of  Christianity  by 
Gregory  (A.  D.  300),  the  Armenians 
had  adhered  to  the  Assyrian  or  Medo- 
Persian  system  of  culture  ;  but  except- 
ing a  few  old  songs  or  ballads,  no  re- 
mains of  that  early  period  exist.  After 
their  conversion  to  Christianity,  the 
Greek  language  and  its  literature  soon 
became  favorite  objects  of  study,  and 
many  Greek  authors  were  translated 
into  Armenian.  The  Armenian  lan- 
guage has  an  alphabet  of  its  own,  con- 
sisting of  36  letters,  introduced  by 
Meisrob  in  406.  The  most  flourishing 
period1  of  Armenian  Literature  ex- 
tends from  the  4th  to  the  14th  century. 
The  numerous  Armenian  theological 
writers  and  chroniclers  of  this  era  sup- 
ply materials  for  a  history  of  the  East 
during  the  Middle  Ages  which  have 
hitherto  been  too  much  neglected. 
These  Armenian  writers  generally 
copied  the  style  of  the  later  Greek  and 
Byzantine  authors ;  but  in  adherence 
to  facts  and  good  taste,  they  are  su- 
perior to  the  general  order  of  Oriental 
historians.  In  the  14th  century  litera- 
ture began  to  decline,  and  few  remark- 
able works  were  afterwards  produced, 
but  since  the  time  of  their  dispersion, 
the  Armenians  have  preserved  recollec- 
tions of  their  national  literature ;  and 
wherever  they  are  found — in  Amster- 
dam, Lemberg,  Leghorn,  Venice,  As- 
trakan,  Moscow,  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  Ispahan,  Madras,  or  Calcutta 
— the  printing-office  is  always  a  fea- 
ture in  their  colonies.  The  most  inter- 
esting Armenian  settlement  is  that  of 
the  Mechitarists  on  the  island  of  San 
Lazaro,  near  Venice. 

The  Bible  translated  into  Armenian 
(the  Old  Testament  from  the  text  of 
the  Septuagint)  by  Meisrob  and  his 
scholars  is  esteemed  the  highest  model 
of  classic  style.  Translations  of  sev- 
eral Greek  authors,  made  about  the 
same  time,  have  been  partly  preserved, 
and  contain  some  writings  of  which  the 
originals  have  been  lost — namely,  the 
Chronicle  of  Eusebius ;  the  Discourses 
of  Philo  ;  Homilies  by  St.  Chrysostom, 
Severianus,  Basil  the  Great,  and 
Ephraim  Syrus.  Several  old  geograph- 
ical and  historical  works  have  been 
preserved.  Among  philosophical  and 
theological  writers  may  be  mentioned  : 
David,  the  translator  and  commenta- 
tor of  Aristotle,  Esnik,  and  Joannes 


Ozniensis.  The  "Lives  of  Armenian 
Saints,  12  vols.  Ven.  1814,"  contains 
many  notices  of  the  history  of  Ar- 
menia. In  poetry  and  fiction  Arme- 
nian Literature  is  poor.  Somal,  in  his 
work  entitled  "Quadro  della  Storia 
Litteraria  di  Armenia"  (Venice, 
1829),  gives  a  general  view  of  the  con- 
tents of  Armenian  Literature.  The 
Armenian  belongs  to  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  group  of  languages,  but  has 
many  peculiarities  of  structure.  It  is 
harsh  and  disagreeable  to  the  ear.  The 
old  Armenian,  the  language  of  litera- 
ture, is  no  longer  a  living  tongue ; 
while  the  new  Armenian,  split  up  into 
four  dialects,  contains  many  Turkish 
words  and  grammatical  constructions. 

Armida,  one  of  the  most  prominent 
female  characters  in  Tasso's  "Jerusa- 
lem Delivered."  As  the  poet  tells  us. 
when  the  Crusaders  arrived  at  the 
Holy  City,  Satan  held  a  council  to  de- 
vise some  means  of  disturbing  the 
plans  of  the  Christian  warriors,  and 
Armida,  a  very  beautiful  sorceress, 
was  employed  to  seduce  Rinaldo  and 
other  Crusaders.  Rinaldo  was  con- 
ducted by  Armida  to  a  remote  island, 
where,  in  her  splendid  palace,  sur- 
rounded by  delightful  gardens  and 
pleasure-grounds,  he  utterly  forgot  his 
vows,  and  the  great  object  to  which 
he  had  devoted  his  life.  To  liberate 
him  from  his  voluptuous  bondage,  two 
messengers  from  the  Christian  army — 
Carlo  and  Ubaldo — came  to  the  island, 
bringing  a  talisman  so  powerful  that 
the  witchery  of  Armida  was  destroyed. 
Rinaldo  escaped,  but  was  followed  by 
the  sorceress,  who  was  defeated  by 
Rinaldo,  who  persuaded  her  to  become 
a  Christian.  The  story  of  Armida  has 
been  made  the  subject  of  an  opera  by 
Gluck  and  by  Rossini. 

Arminianism,  the  doctrine  of 
Arminius,  a  Protestant  divine,  who 
maintained  that  God  had  predestinat- 
ed the  salvation  or  condemnation  of 
individuals  only  from  having  foreseen 
who  would  and  who  would  not  accept 
of  offered  mercy. 

Arminius,  Jacobus,  a  Protestant 
divine,  born  at  Oudewater,  Holland, 
1560,  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Ar- 
minians.  A  life  of  perpetual  labor 
and  vexation  of  mind  at  last  brought 
on  a  sickness,  of  which  he  died,  1609. 

Armistice,  the  term  given  to  a 
truce  or  suspension  of  hostilities  be- 


A   COMPRESSED  STEEL  INGOT. 


BENDING  AN  ARMOR  PLATE  FOR  A 
CONNING  TOWER. 

MAKING  AND  TESTING 


HEATING  AN   ARMOR   PLAT1 


MACHINING  AN  ARMOR  PLATE— DR 


PLANING  AN  ARMC 


THE  BOLT  HOLES. 


FORGING  AN  ARMOR  PLATE. 


TESTING  AN  ARMOR  PLATE. 

STEEL  ARMOR  PLATES. 


Armitage 

tween  two  armies  or  nations  at  war, 
by  mutual  consent. 

Armitage,  Edward,  an  English 
historical  and  mural  painter,  born  in 
London,  May  20,  1817. 

Armitage,  Thomas,  an  American 
clergyman ;  born  at  Pontefract,  Eng- 
land, Aug.  2,  1819 ;  was  an  important 
influence  in  the  Baptist  Church  in 
New  York  city,  and  the  prime  mover 
in  the  establishment  of  the  American 
Bible  Union  in  1850.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  that  bodv  from  1856  to  1875. 
Died,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  21,  1896. 

Armor,  a  word  formerly  applied 
to  all  such  contrivances  as  served  to 
defend  the  body  from  wounds  or  to 
annoy  the  enemy.  Hence  it  was  di- 
vided into  two  kinds,  defensive  and 
offensive.  A  complete  suit  of  defen- 
sive armor  anciently  consisted  of  a 
casque  or  helm,  a  gorget,  cuirass, 
gauntlets,  tasses,  brassets,  cuishes  and 
covers  for  the  legs,  to  which  the  spurs 
were  fastened.  This  was  called  armor, 
cap-a-pie,  and  was  worn  by  cavaliers 
and  men-at-arms.  The  infantry  had 
only  part  of  it,  viz.,  a  pot  or  head- 
piece, a  cuirass  and  tasses.  The 
horses  had  armor  which  covered  the 
head  and  neck.  In  the  World  War 
trench  fighters  on  both  sides  were  pro- 
vided with  metal  helmets  and  German 
infantry  were  said  to  wear  a  metallic 
covering  for  the  chest  and  stomach. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  pro- 
tection given  to  warships,  war  motors, 
etc.,  usually  plates  of  steel. 

Armored  Train,  one  of  the  mod- 
ern instruments  of  war  that  received 
severe  tests  in  the  American  opera- 
tions against  Filipino  insurgents  in 
1898-1899,  and  in  those  of  the  British 
against  the  Boers  in  1899-1900. 

Armor-Piercing  Shells,  projec- 
tiles so  constructed  as  to  bore  through 
the  metallic  plates  with  which  modern 
ships  of  war  are  coated. 

Armor  Plates,  slabs  of  metal  with 
which  the  sides  of  war  vessels  are  cov- 
ered to  render  them  shot-proof. 

Armour,  Philip  Danforth,  an 
American  philanthropist,  born  in 
Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1832;  re- 
ceived a  common  school  education ; 
;  was  a  Drainer  in  California  in  1852- 
i  1856 ;  in  the  commission  business  in 
Milwaukee  in  1856-1863;  and  later 
became  the  head  of  a  large  meat-pack- 

E.  9. 


Armstrong 

ing  concern  in  Chicago.  He  founded 
the  Armour  Mission  and  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology,  both  in  Chi- 
cago ;  the  former  at  a  cost  of  about 
$250,000,  and  the  latter  with  an  en- 
dowment of  $1,500,000,  subsequently 
increased.  He  died  Jan.  6,  1901. 

Arms,  a  term  applied  to  weapons 
of  offense,  which  are  divisible  into  two 
distinct  sections  —  firearms,  and  arms 
used  without  gunpowder  or  other  ex- 
plosive substance. 


ABMOH-PIEBCING  SHELLS. 

Arms,  Coat  of,  or  Armorial 
Bearings,  a  collective  name  for  tha 
devices  borne  on  shields,  banners,  etc., 
as  marks  of  dignity  and  distinction, 
and,  in  the  case  of  family  and  feudal 
arms,  descending  from  father  to  son. 
They  were  first  employed  by  the  cru- 
saders, and  became  hereditary  in  fam- 
ilies at  the  close  of  the  12th  century. 
They  took  their  rise  from  the  knighta 
painting  their  banners  or  shields  each 
with  a  jigure  or  figures  proper  to  him- 
self, to  enable  him  to  be  distinguished 
in  battle  when  clad  in  armor. 

Arms,  Stand  of,  the  Get  of  arms 
necessary  for  the  equipment  of  a  sin- 
gle soldier. 

Armstrong,  Sir  Alexander,  an 
English  physician,  born  in  Ireland 


Armstrong 

about  1820;  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh;  and  became  widely 
known  as  an  explorer.  He  died  July 
5,  1899. 

Armstrong,  John,  an  American 
author  and  soldier;  born  at  Carlisle, 
Pa.,  Nov.  25,  1758 ;  served  in  the  War 
of  the  Revolution  on  the  staff  of  Gen- 
eral Gates ;  was  United  States  Min- 
ister to  France,  1804-1810,  afterward 
to  Spain;  and  Secretary  of  War, 
1813-1814.  Author  of  "  Newburg  Let- 
ters," begun  in  camp,  1783,  anony- 
mously, and  intended  to  arouse  Con- 
gress to  redress  army  grievances.  They 
gave  General  Washington  displeasure. 
He  died  at  Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  April  1, 
1843. 

Armstrong,  Samuel  Chapman, 
an  American  educator,  born  in  Ha- 
waii in  1839,  a  son  of  Richard  Arm- 
strong, an  American  missionary  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands.  In  1860  he  came 
to  the  United  States;  in  1862  was 
graduated  at  Williams  College;  and 
in  June  of  the  same  year  he  organized 
a  company  for  the  125th  Regiment  of 
New  York  Infantry,  and  with  it  was 
assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 
At  Harper's  Ferry  he  was  captured 
and  held  prisoner  for  three  months. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  mus- 
tered out  of  the  volunteer  service  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  During 
his  service  he  volunteered  for  the  com- 
mand of  a  regiment  of  colored  troops, 
with  whom  he  served  two  years.  In 
1866  he  took  up  the  work  of  the  Freed- 
man's  Bureau  and  at  first  had  the 
oversight  of  the  colored  people  in  10 
counties  of  Virginia.  After  two  years 
in  this  work  he  procured  help  from 
the  American  Missionary  Association 
and  personal  friends  in  the  North  and 
founded  a  school  which  afterward  be- 
came famous  as  the  Hampton  Normal 
and  Agricultural  Institute.  The  United 
States  Government,  recognizing  the 
great  value  of  his  work  for  colored 
youth  here,  began  sending  Indian 
youth  to  the  Institute  in  1878,  and 
since  then  the  two  races  have  been 
educated  together.  General  Armstrong 
served  as  president  of  the  Institute 
till  his  death,  May  11,  1893. 

Armstrong,  William  George, ! 
Lord,  an  English  inventor,  born  in  I 
1810  at  Newcastle,  where  his  father ! 
was  a  merchant.  During  the  Crimean ; 


Army  "Worm 

War,  Armstrong  was  employed  by  the 
War  Office  to  make  explosive  appa- 
ratus for  blowing  up  the  ships  sunk 
at  Sebastopol.  This  led  him  soon  af- 
terward to  consider  improvements  in 
ordnance,  and  he  devised  the  form  of 
cannon  that  bears  his  name.  Cam- 
bridge and  Oxford  conferred  honorary 
degrees  on  Armstrong,  who  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Armstrong  in 
1887.  He  died  Dec.  27,  1900. 

Army,  the  national  military  of  a 
country,  usually  divided  into  a  stand- 
ing, and  the  reserves,  in  the  United 
States  known  as  militia,  who  are 
called  to  arms  only  in  emergency. 

On  Aug.  7,  1917,  the  United  States 
War  Department  issued  orders  provid- 
ing for  important  changes  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  army  selected  for 
service  abroad.  The  force  was  to  be 
apportioned  into  (1)  armies,  (2) 
army  corps,  (3)  divisions,  and  the 
ordinary  artillery  and  the  machine 
gun  strength  was  to  be  greatly  en- 
larged. The  various  changes  were  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  the  American 
contingents  into  closer  co-ordination 
with  the  armies  of  the  Entente  Allies. 

Army  Corps,  one  of  the  largest 
divisions  of  an  army  in  the  field,  com- 
prising all  arms,  and  commanded  by 
a  general  officer ;  subdivided  into  di- 
visions, which  may  or  may  not  com- 
prise all  arms. 

Army  Hospital  Train,  a  rail- 
way contrivance  for  military  pur- 
poses, introduced  by  the  Surgeon-Gen- 
eral of  the  United  States  Army  during 
the  war  with  Spain,  in  1898,  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers,  on  their  arrival 
from  Cuba,  at  Florida  ports,  to  the 
various  military  hospitals  in  the 
United  States.  This  train  had  a  full 
staff  of  physicians,  surgeons  and 
trained  nurses,  and  was  completely 
equipped  with  everything  necessary 
for  the  medical  and  surgical  treatment 
of  the  soldiers.  It  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  first  train  service  completely 
organized  for  such  purpose. 

Army  War  College,  a  depart- 
ment of  the  United  States  military 
educational  establishment  authorized 
by  Congress  in  1900. 

Army  Worm,  the  very  destructive 
larva  of  the  moth,  so  called  from  its 
habit  of  marching  in  compact  bodies 
of  enormous  number,  devouring  al- 


Arnaud 

most  every  green  thing  it  meets.  It 
is  about  1%  inches  long,  greenish  in 
color,  with  black  stripes,  and  is  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  but  is 
particularly  destructive  in  North 
America. 

Arnaud,  Henri,  the  pastor  and 
military  leader  of  the  Vaudois  of  Pied- 
mont ;  born  in  1641.  At  the  head  of 
his  people  he  successfully  withstood 
the  united  forces  of  France  and  Sa- 
voy, and  afterward  did  good  service 
against  France  in  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  He  had  to  re- 
tire from  his  country,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  number  of  his  people,  to 
whom  he  discharged  the  duties  of  pas- 
tor till  his  death,  which  occurred  in 
1721. 

Arnaud,  Jacques  Achille  Le- 
roy  De  Saint,  Slarshal  of  France ; 
born  in  Bordeaux,  Aug.  20,  1796.  In 
March,  1854,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  French  army  which 
was  engaged  in  the  war  against  Rus- 
sia. He  died  Sept.  29  following. 

Arndt,  Ernst  Moritz,  a  German 
writer  and  patriot,  born  at  Schoritz, 
Isle  of  Rugen,  Dec.  29,  1769.  He 
died  in  Bonn,  Jan.  29,  1860. 

Arndt,  Johann,  a  German  Lu- 
theran clergyman,  born  at  Ballenstedt, 
Anhalt,  in  1555.  His  "  True  Chris- 
tianity "  was  translated  into  most  Eu- 
ropean languages,  and  is  yet  popular 
in  Germany.  Its  object  is  edification. 
He  died  at  Celle,  Hanover,  in  1621. 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustine,  an 
English  musical  composer,  born  in 
London,  March  12,  1710.  He  wrote 
the  music  for  the  revival  of  Milton's 
"  Masque  of  Comus,"  in  which  first 
appeared  the  song  of  "  Rule  Britan- 
nia," since  acknowledged  as  the  na- 
tional air  of  England.  He  died  in 
1778. 

Arnee,  one  of  the  numerous  In- 
dian varieties  of  the  buffalo,  remark- 
able as  being  the  largest  animal  of 
the  ox  kind  known.  It  measured 
about  7  feet  high  at  the  shoulders,  and 
from  9  to  10  *£  feet  long  from  the 
muzzle  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  It  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  forests  at  the  base 
of  the  Himalayas. 

Arneth,  Alfred  von,  an  Aus- 
trian historian,  born  in  Vienna,  July 
10,  1819.  He  died  in  Vienna,  July 
81,  1897. 


Arnold 

Arnica,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  order  asteraceae,  or  com- 
posites ;  also  the  English  name  of 
plants.  As  an  outward  application, 
arnica  is  in  constant  use  as  a  remedy 
for  sores,  wounds,  bruises,  and  ail- 
ments of  a  similar  kind.  It  ia  also 
employed  as  an  internal  medicine. 

Arnim,  Acliim  von,  a  German 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Berlin,  Jan. 
26,  1781.  He  died  at  Wiepersdorf, 
Jan.  31,  1831. 

Arnim,  Elizabeth  von,  better 
known  as  BETTINA,  wife  of  the  Ger- 
man novelist  Louis  Achim  von  Arnim, 
and  sister  of  the  poet  Clemens  Bren- 
tano ;  born  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
April  4,  1785.  She  died  in  Berlin, 
Jan.  20,  1859. 

Arnim,  Harry,  Graf  von,  a  Ger- 
man diplomatist,  born  in  Pomerania, 
in  1824 ;  from  1864  to  1870,  was  Prus- 
sian ambassador  at  Rome,  where  he 
supported  the  anti-infalliblists  during 
the  Vatican  Council.  He  was  reward- 
ed with  the  title  of  Graf,  but,  as  Ger- 
man ambassador  to  France  (1872- 
1874),  he  fell  into  Prince  Bismarck's 
disfavor,  and,  on  a  charge  of  purloin- 
ing State  documents,  was  sentenced  to 
three  months',  to  six  months',  and  to 
five  years'  imprisonment.  He  had, 
however,  retired  into  exile,  and  died 
at  Nice,  May  19,  1881. 

Arno,  a  river  of  Italy,  which  rises 
in  the  Etruscan  Apennines,  makes  a 
sweep  to  the  South  and  then  trends 
westward,  divides  Florence  into  two 
parts,  washes  Pisa,  and  falls,  4  miles 
below  it,  into  the  Tuscan  Sea,  after  a 
course  of  130  miles. 

Arnold,  Abraham  Kerns,  an 
American  military  ofBcei,  born  in 
1837;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1859;  en- 
tered the  cavalry  branch  of  the  army; 
served  through  the  Civil  War  and  re- 
ceived a  Congressional  medal  of  honor 
for  gallantry  in  action ;  and  after  the 
war  served  against  the  Indians  on  the 
frontier.  In  1898,  he  was  commis- 
sioned a  Brigadier-General  and  served 
in  the  field  during  the  war  with 
Spain ;  and  in  1899  became  command- 
er of  the  2d  Division,  7th  Army  Corps, 
in  Cuba.  He  died  Nov.  23,  1901. 

Arnold,  Sir  Arthur,  an  English 
statesman  and  author,  born  in  1833. 
He  acted  as  assistant  commissioner  to 


Arnold 


Arnold  of  Brescia 


administer  the  Public  Works  Act  dur- 
ing the  cotton  famine,  1863-1866; 
knighted  in  June,  1895. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Jan.  14,  1741.  He  was  set- 
tled in  extensive  business  at  New 
Haven  when  the  War  of  Independence 
broke  out.  After  the  news  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Lexington,  he  raised  a  body  of 
volunteers,  and  received  a  colonel's 
commission.  After  commanding,  for 
a  short  time,  a  small  fleet  upon  Lake 
Champlain,  he  was  with  General 
Montgomery,  charged  with  the  diffi- 
cult duty  of  leading  a  force  of  1,100 
men  across  the  wilds  of  the  country 
to  Quebec,  to  stir  up  rebellion  there, 
and  displace  the  British  garrison.  In 
this  unsuccessful  attempt  Montgomery 
was  killed  and  Arnold  severely  wound- 
ed. After  this,  we  find  him  in  vari- 
ous important  commands,  but  as  often 
involved  in  quarrels  with  Congress 
and  his  fellow-officers.  It  would  be  of 
little  interest  now  to  enter  into  a  de- 
tail of  his  grievances.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  singularly  brave,  but  reck- 
less and  unprincipled,  man.  Washing- 
ton valued  him  for  his  acts  of  daring, 
and  would  gladly  have  overlooked  his 
faults;  but  Congress  and  his  brother- 
officers  regarded  him  with  dislike,  and 
sought  every  possible  means  to  humble 
and  annoy  him.  After  many  disputes 
about  the  honor  that  was  due  to  him 
for  his  services,  he  was  invested  with 
the  government  of  Philadelphia.  There 
his  imprudence  was  most  marked; 
-indeed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  clear 
him  from  the  charge  of  actual  dishon- 
esty. He  was  brought  before  a  court- 
martial;  four  charges  were  urged 
against  him ;  two  of  these  were  found 
proven,  and  he  was  sentenced  to  be 
reprimanded  by  the  commander-in- 
chief.  Arnold  could  not  bear  the  af- 
front, nor  longer  endure  the  difficul- 
ties into  which  he  had  brought  him- 
self. He,  accordingly,  formed  the  dis- 
graceful design  of  deserting  to  the 
ranks  of  the  enemy,  and  put  himself 
in  communication  with  Sir  Henry 
Clinton,  the  British  commander. 
Major  Andre  was  sent  by  Sir  Henry 
to  negotiate  with  Arnold,  and  they 
had  an  interview  near  West  Point, 
which  fortress  Arnold  had  offered  to 
surrender  to  the  enemy.  On  :-is  way 
to  the  British  camp,  however,  the 


young  officer  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans,  and  the  whole  plot  was  of 
course  discovered.  The  news  of  An- 
dre's capture  reached  Arnold  just  in 
time  to  enable  him  to  make  his  es- 
cape and  reach  the  British  camp  in 
safety.  There  he  retained  his  rank 
of  brigadier-general,  and  fought  with 
as  much  daring  against  the  cause  of 
American  independence  as  he  had  be- 
fore fought  against  the  royal  forces. 
He  took  command  in  an  expedition 
against  Virginia,  and  again  in  an  in- 
cursion into  his  native  State.  After- 
ward he  served  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  at  last  settled  in 
London,  England,  whose  he  died,  June 

14,  1801. 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  an  English 
poet  and  journalist,  born  in  Rochester, 
June  10,  1832.  He  graduated  from 
Oxford  in  1854 ;  taught  for  a  while  in 
Birmingham ;  and  became  principal  of 
the  Sanskrit  College  at  Poona,  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  where  he  render- 
ed important  service  to  the  govern- 
ment during  the  great  rebellion  in  In- 
dia. Returning  to  London  in  1861,  he 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  "  Daily 
Telegraph."  He  has  twice  visited  the 
United  States.  He  died  March,  1904. 

Arnold,  Edwin  Lester,  an  Eng- 
lish author,  son  of  Sir  Edwin  Arnold. 

Arnold,  George,  an  American 
poet,  born  in  New  York,  June  24, 
1834;  died  at  Strawberry  Farms.  N. 
J.,  Nov.  3,  1865. 

Arnold,  Hans,  pseudonym  of 
BERTHA  VON  BULOW,  a  German  story 
writer,  born  at  Warmbrunn,  Silesia. 
Sept.  30,  1850. 

Arnold,  Isaac  Newton,  an 
American  lawyer,  politician,  and 
author,  born  at  Hartwick,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
30,  1815 ;  was  a  member  of  Congress 
from  1861  to  1865.  He  died  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  April  24,  1884. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  an  English 
poet,  critic,  and  essayist,  born  at  Lale- 
ham,  Dec.  24,  1822 ;  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1844,  and  was  Professor  of 
Poetry  there  from  1857  to  1867.  Ar- 
nold first  became  known  as  a  poet  ot 
classical  taste  by  the  volume  of  poems 
and  selections  issued  under  his  name 
in  1854.  He  died  in  Liverpool,  April 

15,  1888. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  one  of  the 
reformers  prior  to  the  Reformation,  a 


Arnold  of  Winkelried 


Arrack 


disciple  of  Abelard  of  Paris,  and  of 
Berengarius.  As  early  as  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  his  bold  spirit, 
his  scriptural  knowledge,  and  his  elo- 
quence, had  succeeded  in  arousing 
France  and  Italy  against  the  abuses 
of  the  Roman  Church.  Driven  by  the 
clergy  from  Italy,  he  sought  refuge  in 
Zurich,  where  he  made  many  converts. 
At  length,  through" the  instigation  of 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  he  was 
charged  with  heresy,  and  excommuni- 
cated by  Pope  Innocent  II.  At  this 
juncture,  serious  popular  tumults  oc- 
curred at  Rome,  and  Arnold,  hasten- 
ing thither,  was  received  with  great 
cordiality,  and  soon  vested  with  su- 
preme power.  In  1155,  however,  Ad- 
rian IV.  interdicted  and  expelled  him 
from  the  city.  For  a  time  he  lived  in 
Gampagna,  but  was  seized,  and  taken 
back  to  Rome,  where  he  was  executed, 
and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into  the 
Tiber. 

Arnold  of  Winkelried,  a  Swiss 
hero,  who,  at  the  battle  of  Sempach, 
in  1386,  sacrificed  himself  to  insure 
victory  to  his  countrymen.  The  Aus- 
trian knights,  dismounted,  had  formed 
themselves  into  a  phalanx,  which  the 
Swiss  vainly  strove  to  pierce ;  when 
Arnold,  rushing  on  the  spear  points 
of  the  enemy,  and  burying  several  in 
his  breast,  thus  opened  a  gap  in  the 
fence  of  steel.  The  Swiss  rushed  in 
through  the  opening,  and  routed  the 
Austrians  with  great  slaughter. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  an  English 
clergyman  and  historian,  born  in 
Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  June  13,  1795. 
He  entered  Oxford  University  in  1811, 
and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  Col- 
lege in  1815.  While  in  this  place  he 
vras  the  friend  and  contemporary  of 
the  poet  Keble,  of  Copleston,  and  of 
Archbishop  Whately.  In  1828,  Ar- 
nold was  elected  to  the  head-master- 
ship of  Rugby  School,  which  office  he 
held  until  his  death,  and  raised  it,  by 
the  enlightened  system  of  education 
he  inaugurated,  to  the  highest  rank 
among  the  great  public  schools  of  Eng- 
land. He  died  June  12,  1842. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  an  English 
writer  on  literature,  and  editor  of  old 
texts,  son  of  Dr.  Arnold,  of  Rugby, 
and  brother  of  Matthew  Arnold,  born 
at  Laleham,  Nov.  30,  1823.  He  pub- 
lished a  manual  of  English  literature 
that  is  widely  used.  He  was  one  of 


those  engaged  in  the  Tractarian  move- 
ment, and  was  closely  connected  with 
Cardinal  Newman.  He  died  in  1900. 

Arnolfi,  di  Cambio,  or  di  Lapo, 
an  Italian  architect  and  sculptor,  born 
in  Florence,  in  1232.  He  died  in  1300. 

Arnott,  Neil,  a  Scottish  physicist, 
born  in  Aberdeen,  in  1788.  He  died 
in  1874. 

Arnotto,  the  waxy-looking  pulp 
which  envelops  the  seeds  in  the  ar- 
notto-tree.  This  is  detached  by 
throwing  the  seed  into  water,  after 
which  it  is  dried  partially,  and  made 
up  first  into  soft  pellets,  rolled  in 
leaves,  in  which  state  it  is  called  flag, 
or  roll  arnotto.  Afterward,  becom- 
ing quite  dry,  it  is  formed  into  cakes, 
and  becomes  cake  arnotto.  The  South 
American  Indians  color  their  bodies 
red  with  it ;  farmers  here  and  else- 
where use  it  to  stain  cheese,  and 
some  dairymen  also  use  it  to  color 
butter;  the  Spaniards  put  it  in  their 
chocolate  and  soups ;  dyers  use  it  to 
produce  a  reddish  color,  and  varnish 
makers,  to  impart  an  orange  tint  to 
some  varnishes. 

Arpostook,  an  American  river ; 
rises  in  Piscataquis  county,  Me. ;  flows 
more  than  120  miles  in  a  circuitous 
course,  receiving  many  important  trib- 
utaries ;  and  enters  the  St.  John  River 
in  New  Brunswick.  It  was  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  settlement  of  the 
long-pending  dispute  concerning  the 
boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  British  America. 

Arpad,  the  conqueror  of  Hungary, 
and  founder  of  the  Arpad  dynasty, 
which  reigned  till  1301,  was  born  in 
the  second  half  of  the  9th  century.  He 
died  in  907. 

Arpent,  formerly  a  French  meas- 
ure for  land,  equal  to  five-sixths  of  an 
English  acre ;  but  it  varied  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  France. 

Arquebus,  a  hand-gun ;  a  species 
of  firearm  resembling  a  musket,  an- 
ciently used.  It  was  fired  from  a 
forked  rest,  and  sometimes  cocked  by 
a  wheel,  and  carried  a  ball  that 
weighed  nearly  two  ounces.  A  larger 
kind  used  in  fortresses  carried  a  heav- 
ier shot. 

Arrack,  a  term  used  in  the  coun- 
tries to  which  the  Arabs  have  pene- 
trated, for  distilled  spirits. 


Arras 

Arras,  a  city  of  France ;  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Pas-de-Calais ;  27 
miles  S.  W.  of  Lille,  60  miles  S.  E.  of 
Calais,  100  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Paris,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Scarpe  and  Crin- 
chon  rivers;  pop.  (1901)  25,813.  It 
was  a  noted  place  before  the  Christian 
era ;  was  strongly  fortified  by  Vau- 
ban ;  and  has  been  the  seat  of  many 
historic  conflicts,  most  recently  giving 
its  name  to  a  great  series  of  battles 
between  the  Allies  and  the  Teuton 
forces  early  in  1917.  See  APPENDIX: 
World  War. 

Arrow,  a  missile  weapon,  designed 
to  be  propelled  by  the  impulse  com- 
municated by  the  snapping  of  the 
string  of  a  bow,  temporarily  bent  into 
an  angular  form,  back  to  its  normal 
state  of  rest  in  a  straight  line.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  of  weapons. 

Arrow  Lake,  an  expansion  of  the 
Columbia  river,  in  British  Columbia, 
Canada ;  about  95  miles  long  from  N. 
to  S. ;  often  regarded  as  forming  two 
lakes — Upper  and  Lower  Arrow  Lake. 

Arrowroot.  In  botany,  the  Eng- 
lish name  of  the  botanical  genus  ma- 
ranta.  The  root  is  a  fleshy  corm, 
which,  when  washed,  grated,  strained 
through  a  sieve,  and  again  repeatedly 
washed,  furnishes  the  substance  so 
much  prized  as  food  for  invalids. 

Arrow-smith,  Aaron,  an  Eng- 
lish cartographer,  born  in  1750,  died 
in  1823.  He  raised  the  execution  of 
maps  to  a  perfection  it  had  never  be- 
fore attained. 

Arm  Islands,  a  group  of  over  80 
islands  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  ly- 
ing W.  of  New  Guinea,  with  a  united 
area  of  about  2,650  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  some  15,000.  The  in- 
habitants resemble  the  Melanesians  of 
New  Guinea. 

Arsaces,  founder  of  the  Parthian 
monarchy.  He  induced  his  country- 
men to  rise  against  the  Macedonian 
yoke,  250  B.  c.,  on  which  they  raised 
him  to  the  throne.  Arsaces  was  slain 
in  battle,  after  a  reign  of  38  years. 
He  was  the  first  of  a  long  line  of  mon- 
archs  of  the  same  name,  the  last  of 
whom  was  put  to  death  about  226  A.  D. 

Arsenal,  a  place  appointed  for  the 
making,  repairing,  keeping  and  issu- 
ing of  military  stores  of  all  kinds. 


Art 

The  principal  arsenals  of  the  United 
States  in  1917  were  the  Allegheny 
(Pa.)  ;  Augusta  (Ga.)  ;  Benecia 
(Cal.)  ;  Columbia  (Tenn.)  ;  Fort 
Monroe  (Va.)  ;  Frankford  (Pa.)  ;  In- 
dianapolis (Ind.)  ;  Kennebec  (Me.)  ; 
New  York  (N.  Y.)  ;  Rock  Island 
(111.)  ;  San  Antonio  (Tex.)  ;  Water- 
town  (Mass.)  ;  and  Watervliet  (N. 
Y.).  There  were  regular  powder 
dep6ts  at  St.  Louis  (Mo.),  and  Dover 
(N.  J.),  and  many  special  ones  estab- 
lished in  consequence  of  the  World 
War. 

Arsenic,  (symbol  As,  atomic  weight 
75),  a  metallic  element  of  very  com- 
mon occurrence,  being  found  in  combi- 
nation with  many  of  the  metals  in  a 
variety  of  minerals.  It  is  of  a  dark- 
gray  color,  and  readily  tarnishes  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  first  changing  to 
yellow,  and  finally"  to  black.  In  hard- 
ness it  equals  copper ;  it  is  extremely 
brittle,  and  very  volatile,  beginning  to 
sublime  before  it  melts.  It  burns  with 
a  blue  flame,  and  emits  a  smell  of  gar- 
lic. Its  specific  gravity  is  5.76.  It 
forms  alloys  with  most  of  the  metals. 
Combined  with  sulphur  it  forms  orpi- 
ment  and  realgar,  which  are  the  yel- 
low and  red  sulphides  of  arsenic.  It  is 
usually  seen  in  white,  glassy,  translu- 
cent masses,  and  is  obtained  by  sub- 
limation from  several  ores  containing 
arsenic  in  combination  with  metals, 
particularly  from  arsenical  pyrites.  Of 
all  substances  arsenic  is  that  which 
has  most  frequently  occasioned  death 
by  poisoning,  both  by  accident  and 
design.  The  remedies  are  hydrated  ses- 
quioxide  of  iron  with  copious  draughts 
of  gummy  liquids. 

Arsinoe,  a  city  of  ancient  Egypt 
on  Lake  Mccris,  said  to  have  been 
founded  about  B.  c.  2300,  but  renamed 
after  Arsinoe,  wife  and  sister  of  Ptol- 
emy II.  of  Egypt,  and  called  also 
Crocodilopolis,  from  the  sacred  croco- 
diles kept  at  it. 

Arson,  the  malicious  and  willful 
burning  of  a  dwelling-house  or  out- 
house belonging  to  another  person  by 
directly  setting  fire  to  it,  or  even  by 
igniting  some  edifice  of  one's  own  in 
its  immediate  vicinity.  It  is  a  penal 
offense,  whether  successful  or  not. 

Art,  the  power  of  doing  something 
not  taught  by  nature  or  instinct ;  as, 


Art  

to  walk  is  natural,  to  dance  is  an  art ; 
—  power  or  skill  in  the  use  of  knowl- 
edge ;  the  practical  application  of  the 
rules,  or  principles  of  science.  A  sys- 
tem of  rules  to  facilitate  the  perform- 
ance of  certain  actions ;  contrivance ; 
dexterity ;  address ;  adroitness. 

Art,  Metropolitan  Museum  of, 
a  spacious  edifice  in  Central  Park, 
New  York,  erected  by  the  city  for  the 
purpose  to  which  it  is  devoted.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1870,  and  pos- 
sesses an  art  collection  amounting  in 
value  to  over  $2,000,000. 

Artaxerxes  I.,  surnamed  Longi- 
manus,  was  the  third  son  of  Xerxes, 
King  of  Persia,  and,  having  murdered 
his  brother  Darius,  ascended  the 
throne  465  B.  c.  He  died  in  424  B.  c. 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  son, 
Xerxes.  This  prince  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  Ahasuerus  of 
Scripture,  who  married  Esther,  and 
by  whose  permission  Ezra  restored  the 
Jewish  religion  at  Jerusalem.  Some 
modern  authors,  nevertheless,  identify 
Ahasuerus  with  Xerxes. 

Artemis,  an  ancient  Greek  divin- 
ity, identified  with  the  Roman  Diana. 
She  is  variously  represented  as  a  hun- 
tress, with  bow  and  arrows ;  as  a  god- 
dess of  the  nymphs,  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  four  stags ;  and  as  the  moon 
goddess,  with  the  crescent  of  the  moon 
above  her  forehead. 

Artemisia,  wormwood ;  named  af- 
ter Artemis,  the  Greek  goddess,  cor- 
responding to  the  Roman  Diana. 
Several  species,  locally  known  as  sage 
brush,  are  found  on  the  table-lands  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  and  on  the  West- 
ern plains  of  the  United  States. 

Arteritis,  an  inflammation  occur- 
ring in  the  arteries.  It  may  be  acute 
or  chronic. 

Artery.  The  largest  arteries  which 
leave  the  heart  are  the  aorta  and  the 
pulmonary  artery ;  both  spring  from 
the  base  of  the  heart  in  front.  They 
branch  and  anastomose  to  a  large  ex- 
tent. The  contractility  of  the  arteries 
forces  the  blood  to  the  extremities 
from  the  heart,  the  valves  of  which 

Srevent  its  return.  The  prominent 
ifference  between  blood  drawn  from 
the  arteries  and  that  from  the  veins 
is  to  be  found  in  the  bright  scarlet 
color  of  the  former  and  the  dark  red, 
•Amost  black,  of  the  latter. 


Arthur 

Artesian  'Wells,  deep  wells 
bored  through  impervious  rock  strata 
to  a  porous  water  bearing  rock  strat- 
um whence  the  water  flows  to  the  sur- 
face and  is  discharged  from  the  bore. 
It  is  also  applied,  though  less  correct- 
ly, to  deep  wells  where  the  waters  rise 
to  within  a  short  distance  of  the  sur- 
face even  if  no  real  flow  is  establish- 
ed. The  principal  condition  of  an  ar- 
tesian well  is  a  pervious  stratum  pro- 
tected above  and  below  by  a  water- 
tight bed.  These  layers  come  to  the 
surface  in  some  elevated  regions  where 
they  get  their  rain  flow,  then  pitch 
downward  to  a  considerable  depth  and 
then  rise  again,  thus  forming  a  great 
basin  which  retains  the  water.  Rain 
water  and  surface  water  fill  the  porous 
stratum  to  the  brim.  If  it  be  tapped 
any,  the  water  will  rise  in  the  bore 
and  be  discharged  as  long  as  the  sup- 
ply equals  the  demand. 

Arteveld,  or  Artevelde,  the 
name  of  two  men  distinguished  in  the 
history  of  the  Low  Countries.  (1) 
JACOB  VAN,  a  brewer  of  Ghent,  born 
about  1300;  was  selected  by  his  fel- 
low townsmen  to  lead  them  in  their 
struggles  against  Count  Louis  of 
Flanders.  A  proposal  to  make  the 
Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III.  of 
England,  governor  of  Flanders,  led  to 
an  insurrection,  in  which  Arteveld  lost 
his  life  (1345).  (2)  PHILIP,  son  of 
the  former,  at  the  head  of  the  forces 
of  Ghent,  gained  a  great  victory  over 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  Louis  II.,  and 
for  a  time  assumed  the  state  of  a  sov- 
ereign prince.  His  reign  proved  short- 
lived The  Count  of  Flanders  re- 
turned with  a  large  French  force,  fully 
disciplined  and  skillfully  commanded. 
Arteveld  was  rash  enough  to  meet 
them  in  the  open  field  at  Roosebeke, 
between  Courtrai  and  Ghent,  in  1382, 
and  fell  with  25,000  Flemings. 

Arthralgia,  pain  in  a  joint  The 
term  is  more  particularly  applied  to 
articular  pain  in  the  absence  of  ob- 
jective disease. 

Arthritis,  any  inflammatory  dis- 
temper that  affects  the  joints,  particu- 
larly chronic  rheumatism  or  gout. 

Arthur,  a  prince  of  the  Silures, 
and  King  of  Britain  in  the  time  of  the 
Saxon  invasions  in  the  5th  and  6th 
centuries.  The  existence  and  exploits 
of  Arthur  and  of  his  paladins,  the 


Arthur 

Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  whether 
they  have  any  real  foundation  or  are 
but  a  mere  historical  fable,  have  been 
for  ages  the  theme  of  minstrels  and 
poets,  even  down  to  the  present  day ; 
examples  of  which  are  the  famous 
romaunt  of  the  "  Mort  d'Arthur  "  and 
the  "  Idylls  of  the  King." 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  21st 
President  of  the  United  States,  born 
in  Fairfield,  Vt.,  Oct.  15,  1830,  his 
father  being  pastor  of  Baptist  church- 
es in  Vermont  and  New  York.  He 
chose  law  as  a  profession,  and  prac- 
ticed in  New  York.  He  became  an 
active  leader  in  the  Republican  party. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  energetic 
as  quartermaster-general  of  New  York 
in  getting  troops  raised  and  equipped. 
He  was  afterward  collector  of  customs 
for  the  port  of  New  York.  In  1880  he 
was  elected  Vice-President,  succeeding 
as  President  on  the  death  of  James 
A.  Garfield,  in  1881,  and  in  this  office 
he  gave  general  satisfaction.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Nov.  18,  1886. 

Arthur,  Joseph  Charles,  an 
American  botanist,  born  in  1850 ;  was 
graduated  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural 
College  in  1872;  took  advance  courses 
at  Johns  Hopkins,  Harvard,  and  Bonn 
Universities ;  was  instructor  in  botany 
at  the  Universities  of  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin,  and  for  several  years  bo- 
tanist to  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  subsequently 
becoming  Professor  of  Vegetable  Phys- 
iology and  Pathology  at  Purdue  Uni- 
versity, and  botanist  to  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station. 

Arthur,  Timothy  Shay,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Newburg, 
N.  Y.,  in  1809.  He  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  March  6,  1885. 

Artichoke,  a  well-known  plant 
cultivated  chiefly  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  so-called  Jerusalem  arti- 
choke is  a  species  of  sunflower  which 
grows  wild  in  parts  of  South  America 
and  yields  roots  or  tubers  resembling 
those  of  the  potato  and  used  as  food. 

Article,  in  grammar,  a  part  of 
epeech  used  before  nouns  to  limit  or 
define  their  application. 

Articles  of  Confederation,  the 
title  of  the  compact  which  was  made 
by  the  13  original  States  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  It  was  adopted 
and  carried  into  force  on  March  1, 


Articles 

1781,  and  remained  as  the  supreme 
law,  until  the  first  Wednesday  of 
March,  1789. 

Articles  of  War,  a  code  of  laws 
for  the  regulation  of  the  military 
forces  of  a  country.  In  the  United 
States  the  articles  of  war  form  an 
elaborate  code,  thoroughly  revised  in 
1880,  but  subject  at  all  times  to  the 
legislation  of  Congress. 

Articles,  The  Six,  in  English  ec- 
clesiastical history,  articles  imposed 
by  a  statute  (often  called  the  Bloody 
Statute)  passed  in  1541,  the  33d  year 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  They  de- 
creed the  acknowledgment  of  trans- 
substantiation,  the  sufficiency  of  com- 
munion in  one  kind,  the  obligation  of 
vows  of  chastity,  the  propriety  of  pri- 
vate masses,  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
and  auricular  confession.  Acceptance 
of  these  doctrines  was  made  obligatory 
on  all  persons  under  the  severest  pen- 
alties ;  the  act,  however,  was  relaxed 
in  1544,  and  repealed  in  1549. 

Articles,  The  Thirty-nine,  of 
the  Church  of  England,  a  statement 
of  the  particular  points  of  doctrine,  39 
in  number,  maintained  by  the  English 
Church ;  first  promulgated  by  a  convo- 
cation held  in  London  in  1562-1563, 
and  confirmed  by  royal  authority; 
founded  on  and  superseding  an  older 
code  issued  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI.  The  five  first  articles  contain  a 
profession  of  faith  in  the  Trinity ;  the 
incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ,  His  de- 
scent to  Hell,  and  His  resurrection; 
the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
three  following  relate  to  the  canon  of 
the  Scripture.  The  eighth  article  de- 
clares a  belief  in  the  Apostles',  Ni- 
cene,  and  Athanasian  creeds.  The 
ninth  and  following  articles  contain 
the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  alone,  of  predestina- 
tion, etc.  The  19th,  20th,  and  21st  de- 
clare the  Church  to  be  the  assembly 
of  the  faithful ;  that  it  can  decide 
nothing  except  by  the  Scriptures.  The 
22d  rejects  the  doctrine  of  purgatory, 
indulgences,  the  adoration  of  images, 
and  the  invocation  of  saints.  The  23d 
decides  that  only  those  lawfully  called 
shall  preach  or  administer  the  sacra- 
ments. The  24th  requires  the  liturgy 
to  be  in  English.  The  25th  and  26th 
declare  the  sacraments  effectual  signs 
of  grace  (though  administered  by  evil 
men),  by  which  God  excites  and  con* 


Artillery 

firms  our  faith.  They  are  two :  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism, 
according  to  the  27th  article,  is  a  sign 
of  regeneration,  the  seal  of  our  adop- ! 
tion,  by  which  faith  is  confirmed  and ! 
grace  increased.  In  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, according  to  article  28th,  the 
bread  is  the  communion  of  the  Body  of 
Christ,  the  wine  the  communion  of 
His  Blood,  but  only  through  faith  (ar- 
ticle 29)  ;  and  the  communion  must  be 
administered  in  both  kinds  (article 
30).  The  28th  article  condemns  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and 
the  elevation  and  adoration  of  the 
Host ;  the  31st  rejects  the  sacrifice  of 
the  mass  as  blasphemous ;  the  32<1  per- 
mits the  marriage  of  the  clergy ;  the 
33d  maintains  the  efficacy  of  excom- 
munication. The  remaining  articles 
relate  to  the  supremacy  of  the  king, 
the  condemnation  of  Anabaptists,  etc. 
They  were  ratified  anew  in  1604  and 
1628. 

Artillery,  all  sorts  of  great  guns, 
cannon,  or  ordnance,  mortars,  howitz- 
ers, machine-guns,  etc.,  together  with 
all  the  apparatus  and  stores  thereto 
belonging,  which  are  taken  into  the 
field,  or  used  for  besieging  and  defend- 
ing fortified  places.  It  is  often  di- 
vided into  (1)  horse  artillery;  (2) 
field  artillery;  and  (3)  garrison  artil- 
lery. 

Artillery,  The  Ancient  and 
Honorable,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  was 
formed  in  1637,  and  was  the  first  reg- 
ularly organized  military  company  in 
America. 

Arandelian  Marbles,  a  series  of 
ancient  sculptured  marbles  discovered 
by  William  Petty,  who  explored  the 
ruins  of  Greece  at  the  expense  of  and 
for  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  and  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  scholarship  and  art.  After  the 
Restoration  they  were  presented  by 
the  grandson  of  the  collector  to  the 
University  of  Oxford.  Among  them  is 
the  "  Parian  Chronicle,"  a  chronolog- 
ical account  of  the  principal  events  in 
Grecian,  and  particularly  in  Athenian, 
history,  during  a  period  of  1318  years. 

Arundel  Society,  a  society  insti- 
tuted in  London  in  1848  for  promoting 
the  knowledge  of  art  by  the  publica- 
tion of  fac-similes  and  photographs. 


Aryan  Race' 

Aruspices,  or  Haruspices,  a 
class  of  priests  in  ancient  Rome,  of 
Etrurian  origin,  whose  business  was 
to  inspect  the  entrails  of  victims  killed 
in  sacrifice,  and  by  them  to  foretell 
future  events. 

Aryan  Languages,  a  great  fam- 
ily of  languages,  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  and  not  quite  accurately,  called 
Japhetic ;  more  frequently  designated 
as  the  Indo-European  or  Indo-Ger- 
manic  family  of  tongues.  They  have 
reached  a  higher  development  than 
those  of  the  second  great  family,  the 
Semitic,  better  described  as  the  Syro- 
Arabian  family,  and  are  far  in  ad- 
vance of  the  next  one  —  that  compris- 
ing the  Turanian  tongues.  Like  the 
Syro-Arabian  forms  of  speech,  they 
are  inflectional ;  while  those  of  Turan- 
ian origin  are  only  agglutinate. 

Aryan  Race,  a  designation,  since 
about  1845,  of  the  ethnological  divi- 
sion of  mankind  otherwise  called  Indo- 
European  or  Indo-Germanic.  That 
division  consists  of  two  branches  geo- 
graphically separated,  an  eastern  and 
western.  The  western  branch  compre- 
hends the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Turks,  the  Mag- 
yars of  Hungary,  the  Basques  of  the 
Pyrenees,  and  the  Finns  of  Lapland; 
the  eastern  comprehends  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Armenia,  of  Persia,  of  Af- 
ghanistan, and  of  Northern  Hindu- 
stan. The  evidence  on  which  a  family 
relation  has  been  established  among 
these  nations  is  that  of  language,  and 
from  a  multitude  of  details  it  has  been 
proven  that  the  original  mother  tongue 
of  all  these  peoples  was  the  same.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  Aryan  nations 
were  at  first  located  somewhere  in  Cen- 
tral Asia,  probably  E.  of  the  Caspian, 
and  N.  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Paro- 
pamisan  Mountains.  From  this  cen- 
ter successive  migrations  took  place 
toward  the  N.  W.  The  first  swarm 
formed  the  Celts,  who  at  one  time  oc- 
cupied a  great  part  of  Europe;  at  a 
considerably  later  epoch  came  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Italians,  the  Greeks  and 
the  Teutonic  people.  The  stream  that 
formed  the  Slavonic  nations  is  thought 
to  have  taken  the  route  by  the  N.  of 
the  Caspian.  At  a  later  period  the 
remnant  of  the  primitive  stock  would 
seem  to  have  broken  up.  Part  passed 
southward  and  became  the  dominant 
race  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  while 


Asclepiadei 


the  rest  settled  in  Persia  and  became 
the  Medes  and  Persians  of  history.  It 
is  from  these  eastern  members  that 
the  whole  family  takes  its  name.  In 
the  most  ancient  Sanskrit  writings 
(the  Veda),  the  Hindus  style  them- 
selves Aryas,  the  word  signifying  "  ex- 
cellent," "  honorable,"  originally  "lord 
of  the  soil." 

Asa,  son  of  Abijah,  and  third  King 
of  Judah,  conspicuous  for  his  earnest- 
ness in  supporting  the  worship  of  God 
and  rooting  put  idolatry,  and  for  the 
vigor  and  wisdom  of  his  government. 
He  reigned  from  955  to  914  B.  c. 

Asafetida,  Asafoetida,  or  As-* 
saf  oetida,  the  English  name  of  two, 
if  not  more,  plants  growing  in  Persia 
and  the  East  Indies.  The  extract 
is  a  useful  medicine  in  hysteria,  asth- 
ma, tympanites,  dyspnoea,  pertussis, 
and  worms ;  it  is  sometimes  given  also 
as  a  clyster. 

Asama,  an  active  volcano  of  Ja- 
pan, about  50  miles  N.  W.  of  Tokio, 
8,260  feet  high. 

Asbestos,  a  variety  of  hornblende, 
which  itself  is  classed  by  Dana  as  a 
synonym  or  subdivision  of  emphibole. 

Asbury,  Francis,  the  first  Meth- 
odist bishop  consecrated  in  America, 
born  at  Handsworth,  Staffordshire, 
Aug.  20,  1745.  When  16  years  old  he 
became  an  itinerant  Wesleyan  preach- 
er, and  in  1771  he  was  sent  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  America,  where  he  was  con- 
secrated in  1784.  During  a  long  life 
of  almost  incessant  labor  it  is  esti- 
mated by  his  biographer  that  he  trav- 
eled about  270,000  miles  (mostly  on 
horseback),  preached  about  16,500 
sermons,  and  ordained  more  than  4,000 
preachers.  He  died  in  Richmond, 
Va.,  March  31,  1816. 

Asbury  Park,  a  city  and  popular 
summer  resort  in  Monmouth  county, 
N.  J.;  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
Pennsylvania  and  Central  of  New 
Jersey  railroads;  6  miles  S.  of  Long 
Branch.  Wesley  Lake  separates  it 
•from  Ocean  Grove.  Pop.  (1910)  10,- 
150;  summer  pop.  20,000. 

Ascalon,  Ashkelon,  or  Askelon, 
one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines, on  the  Mediterranean,  W.  S. 
W.  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  main  road 
from  Egypt  through  Gaza  to  Cen- 
tral Palestine. 


Ascension  (discovered  on  Ascen- 
sion Day),  an  island  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin belonging  to  Great  Britain,  near 
the  middle  of  the  South  Atlantic 
Ocean,  lying  about  lat.  7°  55'  S. ;  long. 
15°  25'  W.;  800  miles  N.  W.  of  St. 
Helena ;  area,  about  3G  square  miles ; 
pop.  165.  It  is  retained  by  Great 
Britain  mainly  as  a  station  at  which 
ships  may  touch  for  stores. 

Ascension,  in  astronomy,  right  as- 
cension is  the  distance  of  a  heavenly 
body  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  (the 
ram),  measured  upon  the  equator. 

Ascension  Day,  the  day  on  which 
our  Saviour's  ascension  is  commemo- 
rated—  the  Thursday  but  one  before 
Whitsuntide,  sometimes  called  Holy 
Thursday. 

Asceticism,  the  condition  or  prac- 
tice of  ascetics. 

Ascetics,  a  name  given  in  ancient 
times  to  those  Christians  who  devoted 
themselves  to  severe  exercises  of  piety 
and  strove  to  distinguish  themselves 
from  the  world  by  abstinence  from 
sensual  enjoyments  and  by  voluntary 
penances. 

Ascliam.  Roger,  an  English 
scholar  and  author,  born  at  Kirby 
Wiske,  near  Northallerton,  in  1515 ; 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  and  strug- 
gled with  poverty  until  patrons  came 
to  his  relief.  He  was  famous  for  his 
general  knowledge  and  acquirements 
in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  is  classed 
with  Spenser,  Sir  Thomas  More,  and 
Sir  Philip  Sidney.  His  death,  in 
London,  Dec.  30,  1568,  was  occasioned 
by  his  too  close  application  to  the. 
composition  of  a  poem,  which  he  in- 
tended to  present  to  the  queen  on  the 
anniversary  of  her  accession. 

Asclepiad,  a  kind  of  verse  used  by 
Horace  and  other  writers. 

Asclepiades,  the  descendants  of 
the  god  of  medicine,  ^Esculapius,  by 
his  sons  Podalirius  and  Machaon, 
spread,  together  with  the  worship  of 
the  god,  through  Greece  and  Asia  Mi- 
nor. They  formed  an  order  of  priests, 
which  preserved  the  results  of  the 
medical  experience  acquired  in  the 
temples  as  an  hereditary  secret,  and 
were  thus,  at  the  same  time,  physi- 
cians, prophets,  and  priests. 

Asclepiades,  a  Greek  physician, 
born  at  Prusa,  Bithynia,  who  flour- 
ished during  the  early  part  of  the  1st 


Asclepias 

century  B.  c.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  distinguished  between 
acute  and  chronic  diseases,  and  the 
invention  of  laryngotomy  is  also  as- 
cribed to  him ;  but  his  knowledge  of 
anatomy  was  apparently  very  slight. 

Asclepias,  a  genus  of  plants.  The 
species  are  found  chiefly  along  the 
eastern  portion  of  North  America,  in 
Bermuda,  etc.  Though  all  more  ^  or 
less  poisonous,  they  are  used  medici- 
nally. 

Ascot  Heath,  a  race-course  in' 
Berkshire,  England,  29  miles  W.  S.  \ 
W.  of  London,  and  6  miles  S.  W.  of 
[Windsor. 

Asdood,  or  Asdond,  a  small  sea- 
port of  Palestine,  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 35  miles  W.  of  Jerusalem.  It 
•was  the  Ashdod  of  Scripture,  one  of 
the  five  confederate  cities  of  the  Phil- 
istines, and  one  of  the  seats  of  the 
•worship  of  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v:  5). 

Asgard,  the  Heaven  of  Scandina- 
vian mythology. 

Ash,  a  genus  of  deciduous  trees, 
having  imperfect  flowers  and  a  seed 
vessel  prolonged  into  a  thin  wing  at 
the  apex  (called  a  samara).  There 
are  a  good  many  species,  chiefly  indig- 
enous to  North  America  and  Europe. 
Ashanti,  formerly  an  independent 
Kingdom  on  the  Gold  Coast  of  West 
Africa ;  constituted  a  British  protec- 
torate Aug.  27,  1896;  definitely  an- 
nexed by  Great  Britain  Sept.  26, 
1901 ;  capital  Coomassie ;  area,  20,000 
square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  287,814.  It 
is  in  great  part  hilly,  well  watered, 
and  covered  with  dense  tropical  vege- 
tation. The  chief  town  is  Coomassie, 
which,  before  being  burned  down  in 
1874,  was  well  and  regularly  built 
with  wide  streets,  and  had  from  30,- 
000  to  50,000  inhabitants.  Horrible 
human  sacrifices  were  a  feature  of 
Ashanti  worship  when  the  country 
was  independent.  In  1896  a  British 
expedition,  from  the  Gold  Coast, 
forced  the  submission  of  the  King, 
who,  with  his  principal  chiefs,  was 
sent  to  Sierra  Leone.  A  railway  has 
been  built  from  the  modern  port  of 
Sekondi  168  m.  to  Coomassie,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  lines  installed, 
good  roads  made,  and  steamer  river 
traffic  established,  to  the  improve 
ment  of  commerce.  Modern  agricul- 
ture is  rapidly  extending. 


Ashtaroth 

Ashburton  Treaty,  a  treaty 
signed  at  Washington  in  1842,  by 
Lord  Ashburton  for  Great  Britain, 
and  Daniel  Webster  for  the  United 
States;  defined  the  boundaries  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Asheville,  city  and  capital  of 
Buncombe  county,  N.  C.;  at  junction 
of  the  Swananoa  and  French  Broad 
rivers,  and  on  the  Southern  railroad; 
275  miles  W.  of  Raleigh.  It  is  on 
the  Blue  Ridge  Mountains,  2,350  feet 
above  the  sea;  is  a  noted  winter  and 
summer  resort;  and  has  several  col- 
leges, and  normal  and  industrial 
schools,  Nearby  is  George  Vander- 
bilt's  famous  estate  of  Biltmore.  Pop. 
(1910)  18,762. 

Ashland,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Ashland  county,  Wis.;  on 
Lake  Superior  and  several  trunk  line 
railroads;  315  miles  N.  of  Milwaukee; 
has  a  magnificent  harbor  fringed  with 
enormous  ore  docks;  is  a  notable  ship- 
ping point  for  the  ore  of  the  great  Go- 
gebic  iron  range;  and  besides  iron  ore 
has  a  large  lake  traffic  in  lumber  and 
brownstone.  The  noted  Apostle  Is- 
lands are  nearby.  Pop.  (1910)  11,594. 

Ashmun,  Jehndi,  an  American 
missionary,  born  at  Champlain,  N.  Y., 
in  April,  1794;  became  a  professor  in 
the  Bangor  Theological  Seminary. 
On  June  19,  1822,  he  sailed  for  Li- 
beria, and  there  founded  a  colony, 
which,  when  he  left,  six  years  later, 
had  increased  to  1,200  inhabitants. 
He  died  Aug.  25,  1828. 

Ashtabula,  a  city  in  Ashtabula 
county,  O.;  on  the  Ashtabula  river 
and  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern  railroad;  3  miles  S.  of  Lake 
Erie,  54  miles  N.  B.  of  Cleveland; 
is  a  port  of  entry,  with  a  fine  harbor 
and  extensive  trade  in  iron  ore  and 
coal;  manufactures  leather  and  woolen 
goods,  farm  implements,  machinery, 
gas  fixtures,  and  stoves  and  fur- 
naces. Pop.  (1910)  18,266. 

Ashtaroth,  or  Astaroth,  plural 
of  Ashtoreth  and  Astarte,  a  god- 
dess worshipped  by  the  Jews  in  times 
when  idolatry  prevailed ;  the  principal 
female  divinity  of  the  Phoenicians,  as 
Baal  was  the  principal  male  divinity; 
and  the  plural  Ashtaroth  indicate 
probably  different  modifications  of  the 
divinity  herself.  Ashtoreth  is  the  As* 


Ashwanipi 

tarte  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
is  identified  by  ancient  writers  with 
the  goddess  Venus  (Aphrodite).  She 
is  probably  the  same  as  the  Isis  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  closely  connected  with 
the  Asherah  of  Scripture. 

Ashwanipi,  or  Hamilton,  the 
great  river  of  Labrador,  has  its  source 
near  the  head  waters  of  the  E.  branch 
of  the  Moisic,  and  after  a  course  of 
600  miles,  enters  the  Atlantic  through 
Esquimaux  Bay,  or  Hamilton  Inlet. 
About  100  miles  up  occur  the  falls, 
one  of  the  grandest  spectacles  in  the 
world. 

Ash.  Wednesday,  the  first  day  of 
Lent,  so  called  from  a  custom  in  the 
Western  Church  of  sprinkling  ashes 
that  day  on  the  heads  of  penitents, 
then  admitted  to  penance. 

Alia,  the  largest  of  the  land  divi- 
sions of  the  world,  occupies  the  north- 
ern portion  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere 
in  the  form  of  a  massive  continent, 
which  extends  beyond  the  Arctic  cir- 
cle, and  by  its  southern  peninsulas 
nearly  reaches  the  equator.  The  ori- 
gin of  its  name  remains  unknown. 
Europe  and  Asia  constitute  but  one 
continent,  extending  from  W.  to  E., 
and  having  the  shape  of  an  immense 
triangle,  the  angles  of  which  are 
Spain  in  the  W.,  the  peninsula  of  the 
Tchuktchis  in  the  N.  E.,  and  that  of 
Malacca  in  the  S.  E.  The  Arctic 
Ocean  in  the  N.,  the  Pacific  in  the  E., 
and  the  Indian  Ocean,  continued  by 
its  narrow  gulf,  the  Red  Sea,  which 
nearly  reaches  the  Mediterranean,  in- 
close the  continent  of  Asia.  The  area 
covered  by  Asia  and  its  islands  is  17,- 
255,890  square  miles ;  that  is,  almost 
exactly  one-third  of  the  land  surface 
of  the  globe  (32  per  cent).  It  is  one- 
seventh  larger  than  the  surface  of 
both  Americas  together,  by  one-half 
larger  than  that  of  Africa,  and  more 
than  four  times  larger  than  Europe. 
Geographically  speaking,  Europe  is  a 
mere  appendix  to  Asia,  and  no  exact 
geographical  delimitation  of  the  two 
continents  is  possible.  The  line  of  sep- 
aration from  Africa  is  better  defined 
by  the  narrow  Red  Sea;  but  Arabia 
participates  so  largely  in  the  physical 
features  of  Africa  that  it  is  in  a  sense 
intermediate  between  the  two  conti- 
nents. 

Only  four  rivers,  the  Mississippi, 
Amazon,  Kongo,  and  Nile,  surpass  the 


Asia 

largest  rivers  of  Asia,  the  Yenisei  and 
the  Yang-tse-kiang,  both  as  to  length 
and  drainage  areas ;  but  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  rain  over  large  parts  of 
Asia,  the  amount  of  water  carried 
down  by  the  largest  rivers  is,  as  a 
rule,  disproportionately  small  as  com- 
pared with  American  or  European 
rivers.  The  predominant  feature  of 
Asia's  hydrography  is  the  existence  of 
very  wide  areas  having  no  outlet  to 
the  sea.  On  the  great  plateau  of 
Eastern  Asia,  the  region  which  has 
no  outlet  from  the  plateau,  and  whose 
water  does  not  reach  even  Lake  Aral 
or  the  Caspian,  covers  a  surface  larger 
than  that  of  Spain,  France,  and  Ger- 
many together.  It  is  watered  only  by 
the  Tarim,  which  supplies  some  irri- 
gation works  in  its  upper  parts,  and 
enters  the  rapidly  drying  marshes  of 
Lob-nor.  This  area  is  steadily  in- 
creasing, and  since  1862  we  have  had 
to  add  to  it  the  drainage  area  (as 
large  as  England  and  Wales)  of  the 
Keruleu,  which  empties  into  Dalai- 
nor,  but  no  longer  reaches  the  ArguS, 
a  tributary  of  the  Amur.  The  Ulyasu- 
tai  River  and  the  Tchagantogoi  now 
no  longer  reach  Lake  Balkash ;  and 
the  Urungu,  which  obviously  joined 
the  Upper  Irtysh  at  no  very  remote 
date,  empties  into  a  lake  separated 
from  the  Black  Irtysh  by  a  low  isth- 
mus not  5  miles  wide.  If  we  add  to 
this  the  drainage  basins  of  Lake  Bal- 
kash with  its  tributaries,  the  Hi  and 
other  smaller  rivers ;  the  great  Lake 
Aral,  with  the  Syr-daria  (Jaxartes) 
and  Amudaria  (Oxus),  as  also  the 
numerous  rivers  which  flow  toward  it 
or  its  tributaries,  but  are  desiccated 
by  evaporation  before  reaching  them, 
and  finally  the  Caspian  with  its  tribu- 
taries, the  Volga,  Ural,  Kura,  and 
Terek,  we  find  an  immense  surface  of 
more  than  4,000,000  square  miles ; 
that  is,  much  larger  than  Europe, 
which  has  no  outlet  to  the  ocean.  The 
plateaus  of  Iran  and  Armenia,  two 
separate  areas  in  Arabia,  and  one  in 
Asia  Minor,  represent  a  surface  of  5,- 
567,000  square  miles. 

A  succession  of  great  lakes  or  in- 
land seas  are  situated  all  along  the 
northern  slope  of  the  high  plateaus  of 
Western  and  Eastern  Asia,  their  lev- 
els becoming  higher  as  we  advance 
farther  E.  The  Caspian,  800  miles 
long  and  270  wide,  is  an  immense  sea, 


A*ia 


Aria 


even  larger  than  the  Black  Sea,  but 
its  level  is  now  85  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  ocean ;  Lake  Aral,  nearly  as 
wide  as  the  ^Egean  Sea,  has  its  level 
157  feet  above  the  ocean ;  farther  E. 
•we  have  Lake  Balkash  ( 780  feet ) , 
Zaison  (1,200  feet),  and  Lake  Baikal 
(1,550  feet).  Many  large  lakes  ap- 
pear on  the  plateaus  of  Tibet  (Tengri- 
nor,  Bakha),  and  on  the  high  plateau 
of  the  Selenga  and  Vitim  (Ubsa-nor, 
Ikhe-aral,  Kosogol,  Oron)  ;  and  small- 
er lakes  and  ponds  are  numerous  also 
in  the  plateau  of  the  Deccan,  Ar- 
monia,  and  Asia  Minor.  Three  large 
lakes,  Urmia,  Van,  and  Goktcha,  and 
many  smaller  ones,  lie  on  the  highest 
part  of  the  Armenian  plateau.  On 
the  Pacific  slope  of  the  great  plateau, 
the  great  rivers  of  China  and  the 
Amur,  with  its  tributaries,  have  along 
their  lower  courses  some  large  and 
very  many  small  lakes. 

More  than  120  active  volcanoes  are 
known  in  Asia,  chiefly  in  the  islands 
of  the  S.  E.,  the  Philippines,  Japan, 
the  Kurile,  and  Kamchatka,  and  also 
in  a  few  islands  of  the  Seas  of  Bengal 
and  Arabia,  and  in  Western  Asia. 
Numerous  traces  of  volcanic  eruptions 
are  found  in  Eastern  Tian-shan  in  the 
northwestern  border  ridges  of  the  high 
Siberian  plateau,  and  in  the  S.  W.  of 
Aigun,  in  Manchuria.  Earthquakes 
are  frequent,  especially  in  Armenia, 
Turkestan,  and  around  Lake  Baikal. 

There  are  gold  mines  of  great  wealth 
in  the  Urals,  the  Altai,  and  Eastern 
Siberia ;  and  auriferous  sands  are 
found  in  Korea,  Sumatra,  Japan,  and 
in  the  Caucasus  Mountains.  Silver  is 
extracted  in  Siberia ;  platina,  in  the 
Urals;  copper,  in  Japan,  India,  and 
Siberia ;  tin,  in  Banca ;  mercury,  in 
Japan.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  nearly 
all  of  the  mountainous  regions,  espe- 
cially in  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Turke- 
stan, India,  China,  Japan,  and  Si- 
beria; but  iron  mining  is  still  at  a 
rudimentary  st^ge.  Immense  coal-beds 
are  spread  over  China  and  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  (Hainan,  Japanese 
Archipelago,  Sakhalin),  Eastern  Si- 
beria, Turkestan,  India,  Persia,  and 
Asia  Minor.  They  cover  no  less  than 
500,000  square  miles  in  China  alone ; 
but  the  extraction  of  coal  is  as  yet 
very  limited.  Graphite  of  very  high 
quality  is  found  in  the  Sayans  and 
Northern  Siberia.  The  diamonds  of 


India,  the  sapphires  of  Ceylon,  the' 
rubies  of  Burma  and  Turkestan,  the 
topazes,  beryls,  etc.,  of  the  Urals  and 
Nertchinsk,  have  a  wide  repute.  Lay- 
ers of  rock-salt  are  widely  spread,  and 
still  more  so  the  salt  lakes  and  springs. 
The  petroleum  wells  of  the  Caspian 
shores  already  rival  those  of  the 
United  States.  A  variety  of  mineral 
springs,  some  of  them  equal  to  the 
best  waters  of  Western  Europe,  art 
widely  spread  over  Asia. 

The  aggregate  population  of  Asia  is 
estimated  at  865,000,000,  being  thus 
more  than  one-half  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  globe.  This  population, 
however,  is  small,  giving  only  an  aver- 
age of  49  inhabitants  per  square  mile. 
It  is  unequally  distributed,  and  reach- 
es 557  per  square  mile  in  some  prov- 
inces of  China,  denser  than  in  Bel- 
gium (539  per  square  mile),  and  520 
in  some  parts  of  Northwestern  India. 
It  is  greatest  in  those  parts  of  Asia 
which  are  most  favored  by  rains. 
Seven-tenths  have  scarcely  more  than 
from  3  to  20  inhabitants  per  square 
mile;  and  nearly  one-tenth  is  quite 
uninhabited.  The  inhabitants  of  Asia 
belong  to  five  different  groups ;  the 
so-called  Caucasian  (fair  type)  in 
Western  Asia  and  India ;  the  Mongo- 
lian in  Central  and  Eastern  Asia,  as 
also  in  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula ; 
the  Malay  in  Malacca  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago ;  the  Dravidas  in  South- 
eastern India  and  Ceylon ;  and  the  Ne- 
gritos and  Papuas  in  the  virgin  forests 
of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Celebes ; 
also  a  sixth  great  division  comprising 
the  stems  which  inhabit  Northeastern 
Asia,  the  Hyperboreans,  whose  affini- 
ties are  not  yet  well  known.  The 
Mongolian  race  alone  embraces  nearly 
seven-tenths  of  the  population  of  Asia ; 
the  Malay,  about  two-tenths,  and  the 
Caucasian  about  one-tenth.  The  Eu- 
ropeans reckon  about  6,000,000  (Rus- 
sians) in  Caucasus,  Turkestan  and 
Siberia;  some  150,000  (English)  in 
India;  and  45,000  in  the  Dutch  Indies. 

Asia  has  been  the  birthplace  of  re- 
ligions; the  Jewish,  Buddhist,  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammedan  having  their 
origin  in  Asia,  where  they  grow  up 
under  the  influence  of  still  older  re- 
ligions, the  Babylonian  and  that  of 
Zoroaster,  both  also  of  Asiatic  origin. 
At  present  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  be- 
long chiefly  to  the  Buddhist  religion. 


Asia  Minor 


Aspasia 


which  has  530,000,000  to  560,000,000 
of  followers,  i.  e.,  nearly  one-third  of 
mankind.  The  old  faith  of  Hinduism 
has  187,000,000  of  followers  in  India. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Western 
Asia,  as  also  of  part  of  Central  Asia, 
follow  the  religion  of  Islam ;  they  may 
number  about  90,000,000.  The  Chris- 
tians number  about  20,900,000  in  Ar- 
menia, Caucasus,  Siberia  and  Turke- 
stan. Jews  are  scattered  mostly  in 
Western  and  Central  Asia.  A  few 
fire-worshippers,  Guebres  or  Parsi  of 
India  and  Persia,  are  the  sole  rem- 
nant of  the  religion  of  Zoroaster ; 
while  vestiges  of  Sabseism  are  found 
amidst  the  Gesides  and  Sabians  on  the 
Tigris. 

Asia  Minor  (Asia  the  Less,  as 
distinguished  from  Asia  in  the  widest 
extent),  is  the  name  usually  given  to 
the  western  peninsular  projection  of 
Asia,  forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia. 

The  inhabitants,  some  7,000,000  in 
number,  consist  of  the  most  various 
races.  The  dominant  race  are  the  Os- 
manli  Turks,  who  number  about  1,200,- 
000,  and  are  spread  over  the  whole 
country;  allied  to  these  are  the  Turk- 
omans and  Yuruks,  speaking  a  dialect 
of  the  same  language.  The  latter  are 
found  chiefly  on  the  tableland,  leading 
a  nomadic  life ;  there  are  also  hordes 
of  nomadic  Kurds.  Among  the  moun- 
tains E.  of  Trebizond  are  the  robber 
tribes  of  the  Lazes. 

The  Greeks  and  Armenians  are  the 
most  progressive  elements  in  the  popu- 
lation, and  have  most  of  the  trade. 

Ask,  in  Scandinavian  mythology, 
the  name  of  the  first  man  created.  Ac- 
cording to  the  legend,  one  day  three 
gods,  Odin,  Haener  and  Loder,  found 
two  trees  by  the  seaside,  an  ash  and 
an  elm.  From  these  trees  they  created 
the  first  man  and  first  woman,  Ask 
and  Embla,  and  gave  them  the  earth 
as  their  dwelling  place. 

Askew,  Anne,  a  victim  of  reli- 
gious persecution,  born  in  1521 ;  was 
a  daughter  of  Sir  William  Askew  of 
Lincolnshire,  and  was  married  to  a 
wealthy  neighbor  named  Kyme,  who, 
irritated  by  her  Protestantism,  drove 
her  from  his  house.  In  London,  whith- 
er she  went,  probably  to  procure  a  di- 
vorce, she  spoke  against  the  dogmas 
of  the  old  faith,  and,  being  tried,  was 
condemned  to  death  as  a  heretic.  Being 


put  to  the  rack  to  extort  a  confession 
concerning  those  with  whom  she  cor- 
responded, she  continued  firm,  and 
was  then  taken  to  Smithtield,  chained 
to  a  stake,  and  burned,  in  1546. 

Askja,  a  volcano  near  the  center 
of  Iceland,  first  brought  into  notice  by 
an  eruption  in  1875.  Its  crater  is  17 
miles  in  circumference,  surrounded 
by  a  mountain-ring  from  500  to  1,000 
feet  high,  the  height  of  the  mountain 
itself  being  between  4,000  and  5,000 
feet 

Asmodai,  or  Asmodeus,  an  evil 
spirit,  who,  as  related  in  the  book  of 
Tobit,  slew  seven  husbands  of  Sara, 
daughter  of  Raguel,  but  was  driven 
j  away  into  the  uttermost  parts  of 
I  Egypt  by  the  young  Tobias  under  the 
direction  of  the  angel  Raphael.  As- 
modai signifies  a  desolator,  a  destroy- 
ing angel.  He  is  represented  in  the 
Talmud  as  the  prince  of  demons  who 
drove  King  Solomon  from  his  king» 
dom. 

Asp,  a  species  of  viper  found  in 
Egypt,  resembling  the  cobra  da  capello, 
and  having  a  very  venomous  bite. 
When  approached  or  disturbed  it  ele- 
vates its  head  and  body,  swells  out  its 
neck,  and  appears  to  stand  erect  to 
attack  the  aggressor.  Hence  the  an- 
cient Egyptians  believed  that  the  asps 
were  guardians  of  the  spots  they  in- 
habited, and  the  figure  of  this  reptile 
was  adopted  as  an  emblem  of  the  pro- 
tecting genius  of  the  world.  Cleopatra 
is  said  to  have  committed  suicide  by 
means  of  an  asp's  bite,  but  the  inci- 
dent is  generally  associated  with  the 
horned  viper. 

Asparagus,  a  plant  of  the  order 
liliaceae,  the  young  shoots  of  which,  cut 
as  they  are  emerging  from  the  ground, 
are  a  favorite  culinary  vegetable. 

Aspasia,  a  celebrated  Grecian,  be- 
longing to  a  family  of  some  note  in 
Miletus,  and  was  early  distinguished 
for  her  graces  of  mind  and  person. 
She  went  to  Athens  after  the  Persian 
War,  and,  by  her  beauty  and  accom- 
plishments soon  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  leading  men  ef  that  city. 
She  engaged  the  affections  of  Pericles, 
who  is  said  to  have  divorced  his  for- 
mer wife  in  order  to  marry  her.  Their 
union  was  harmonious  throughout; 
he  preserved  for  her  to  the  end  of  his 
life  the  same  tenderness;  she  re- 


Aspen, 

mained  the  confidant  of  the  states- 
man's schemes,  and  the  sharer  of  his 
etruggles.  She  survived  Pericles  some 
years,  and  is  reported  to  have  married 
an  obscure  Athenian,  Lysicles,  whom 
she  raised  by  her  example  and  pre- 
cept to  be  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
republic. 

Aspen,  a  tree,  the  trembling  pop- 
lar. The  tremulous  movement  of  the 
leaves  which  exists  in  all  the  poplars, 
but  culminates  in  the  aspen,  mainly 
arises  from  the  length  and  slender 
character  of  the  petiole  or  leaf-stalk, 
and  from  its  being  much  and  laterally 
compressed. 

Aspern,  a  small  village  of  Austria, 
on  the  Danube,  about  2  miles  from 
Vienna.  Here,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
ing village  of  Esslingen,  were  fought 
the  tremendous  battles  of  the  21st  and 
22d  of  May,  1809,  between  the  French 
grand  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  Austrians  under  the  Archduke 
Charles.  The  French,  after  this  con- 
tinuous fighting,  with  vast  loss  to  both 
sides,  were  obliged  to  retreat,  and  oc- 
cupy the  island  of  Lobau. 

Asphalt,  or  Asphaltum,  the 
most  common  variety  of  bitumen ;  also 
called  mineral  pitch.  Asphalt  is  a 
compact,  glassy,  brittle,  black  or 
brown  mineral,  which  breaks  with  a 
polished  fracture,  melts  easily  with  a 
strong  pitchy  odor  when  heated,  and 
when  pure  burns  without  leaving  any 
ashes.  It  is  found  in  the  earth  in 
many  parts  of  Asia,  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  and  in  a  soft  or  liquid 
state  on  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
which,  from  its  circumference,  was 
called  Asphaltites.  It  is  of  organic 
origin,  the  asphalt  of  the  great  Pitch 
Lake  of  Trinidad  being  derived  from 
bituminous  shales,  containing  vegeta- 
ble remains  in  the  process  of  trans- 
formation. Asphalt  is  produced  arti- 
ficially in  making  coal  gas.  During 
the  process,  much  tarry  matter  is 
evolved  and  collected  in  retorts.  If 
this  be  di«MHed.  naphtha  and  other 
volatile  matters  escape,  and  asphalt 
is  left  behind. 

What  is  known  as  asphalt  rock  is  a 
limestone  impregnated  with  bitumen, 
found  in  large  quantities  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Switzerland, 
France,  Alsace,  Hanover,  Holstein, 
Sicil>,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  the 


Aspinwall 

purest  forms  taking  the  names  of  elat- 
erite,  gilsonite,  albertite,  maltha,  brea, 
etc.  In  the  trade  there  is  wide  dis- 
tinction between  these  and  the  sand- 
stones, and  limestones  impregnated 
with  bitumen,  which  are  known  as  bi- 
tuminous or  asphaltic  limestone,  sand- 
stone, etc.  The  latter  are  usually 
shipped  without  being  previously 
treated  or  refined,  and  are  used  prin- 
cipally in  street  paving.  This  class 
is  known  as  bituminous  rock.  The 
production  of  all  kinds  of  asphalt  in 
the  United  States  in  1915  was  740,254 
short  tons,  valued  at  $5.242,073;  im- 
ports for  consumption,  $680,357;  ex- 
ports, $1,174,637. 

Asphodel,  (Asphodel us),  a  genus 
of  plants,  order  Liliacesp.  consisting  of 
perennials,  with  fasciculated  fleshy 
roots,  flowers  arranged  in  racemes,  six 
stamens  inserted  at  the  base  of  the 
perianth,  a  sessile  almost  spherical 
ovary  with  two  cells,  each  containing 
two  ovules ;  fruit  a  capsule  with  three 
cells,  in  each  of  which  there  are,  as  a 
rule,  two  seeds.  They  are  fine  garden- 
plants,  native  of  Southern  Europe. 
The  king's  spear,  A.  luteus,  has  yellow 
flowers  blossoming  in  June.  Asphodel- 
us  ramosus,  which  attains  a  height  of 
5  feet,  is  cultivated  in  Algeria  and  else- 
where, its  tubercles  yielding  a  very 
pure  a'cohol,  and  the  residue,  together 
with  t^e  stalks  and  leaves,  are  used 
in  mak'ng  pasteboard  and  paper.  The 
asphodel  was  a  favorite  plant  among 
the  ancients,  who  were  in  the  habit  ox 
planting  it  round  their  tombs. 

Asphyxia,  suspended  animation ; 
an  interruption  of  the  arterialization 
of  the  blood,  causing  the  suspension  of 
sensation  and  voluntary  motion.  It 
may  be  produced  by  breathing  some 
gas  incapable  of  furnishing  oxygen,  by 
submersion  under  water,  by  suffoca- 
tion, from  an  impediment  to  breathing 
applied  to  the  mouth  and  nostrils,  by 
strangulation,  or  by  great  pressure, 
external  or  internal,  upon  the  lungs. 
If  asphyxia  continues  unrelieved  for  a 
short  period,  it  is  necessarily  followed 
by  death. 

Aspinwall.     (See  COLON). 

Aspinwall,  William,  an  Ameri- 
can physician,  born  in  Brookline, 
Mass.,  May  23,  1743;  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  University  in  1764;  stud- 
ied medicine  in  Philadelphia;  was  ft 


Aspinwall 

volunteer  in  the  fight  at  Lexington ; 
and  afterward  became  surgeon  in  the 
Revolutionary  army,  having  partial 
charge  of  the  military  hospital  at  Ja- 
maica Plains.  After  the  war,  he  be- 
came deeply  interested  in  the  subject 
of  vaccination,  and,  building  a  small- 
pox hospital  at  Brookline,  established 
that  remedy  in  American  practice. 
He  died  April  16, 1823. 

Aspinwall,  William  H.,  an 
American  merchant,  born  in  New 
York  city,  Dec.  16,  1807 ;  was  trained 
to  commercial  business  by  his  uncles, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Howland  &  Aspinwall  in  1837.  He 
is  best  remembered  as  the  chief  pro- 
moter of  the  Panama  railroad,  and  of 
the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company. 
The  eastern  terminus  of  the  railroad 
was  named  in  his  honor,  but  has  since 
officially  been  given  the  name  of  Co- 
lon. He  died  in  New  York  city,  Jan. 
18,  1875. 

Asquith,  Herbert  Henry,  an 
English  lawyer,  born  in  Morley,  Sept. 
12,  1852 ;  was  educated  at  Oxford 
University,  became  a  barrister  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  in  1876;  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  De- 
partment ;  Ecclesiastical  Commis- 
sioner in  1882-1885 ;  became  Q.  C.  in 
1890,  and  P.  C.  in  1892 ;  was  elected 
to  Parliament  from  East  Fife  in 
1896  on  the  Liberal  ticket;  and  be- 
came Prime  Minister  and  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury  in  1908. 

Ass  (asinus),  a  genus  closely  re- 
lated to  the  horse.  It  differs  from  the 
latter  in  having  short  hair  at  the  root 
of  the  tail  and  a  long  tuft  at  the  end, 
in  the  absence  of  warts  on  the  hind 
legs,  and  in  the  persistence  of  stripes, 
except  in  albinos.  The  upright  mane, 
the  long  ears,  the  cross  stripe  on  the 
shoulders,  and  the  dark  bands  on  the 
back,  are  also  characteristic.  The 
stupidity  for  which  the  animal  has 
for  long  b*en  proverbially  reproached 
seems  largely  the  result  of  human  in- 
fluence. The  female  carries  her  foal 
11  months.  The  mule  is  a  hybrid  bred 
between  mare  and  male  ass ;  while  the 
hinny  is  the  rare  result  of  hybridism 
between  horse  and  female  ass. 

Assam,  a  province  at  the  N.  E. 
extremity  of  British  India,  with  an 
area  of  53,015  square  miles.  In  1874 
it  was  formed  into  a  separate  adminis- 


Assassination 

tration  (including  Cachar)  under  a 
chief  commissioner ;  in  1905  it  was 
united  with  Eastern  Bengal  to  form 
a  lieutenant-governorship ;  and  in 
1912  it  was  again  made  a  separate 
province ;  capital,  Shillong ;  pop. 
(1911)  6,713,635. 

Assassination,  the  act  of  taking 
the  life  of  anyone  by  surprise  or 
treacherous  violence,  either  by  a  hired 
emissary,  by  one  devoted  to  the  deed, 
or  by  one  who  has  taken  the  task 
upon  himself.  Generally,  the  term 
is  applied  to  the  murder  of  a  public 
personage. 

History  abounds  in  records  of  po- 
litical assassinations  from  that  of 
Julius  Caesar  on  March  15,  B.  c.  44. 
The  following  are  the  most  notable 
ones  since  1800,  including  the  many 
royal  victims : 

Czar  Paul,  Russia March  24, 1801 

Due  de  Berri,  France Feb.  14, 1820 

*  Duke  Charles  III.,  Parma. March  27, 1854 

*  President    Lincoln April  15, 1865 

Prince  Michael,  Servia Tune  10,  1868 

»  Marshal  Prim,  Spain Dec.  28, 1870 

Archbishop  Darboy,  France. May  24, 1871 

Earl  Mayo.  India Feb.  8, 1872 

Sultan  Abdul  Aziz,  Turkey.  June  4, 1876 
Czar  Alexander,  Russia  . .  March  13, 1881 

*  President  Garneld    Sept.  19,  1881 

Lord  Cavendish,  Ireland May  6, 1882 

President  Carnot,  France. .  .June  24, 1894 

*  Premier  Stambouloff, 

Bulgaria  July  18, 1895 

Shah  Nasr-ed-Din,  Persia May  1, 1896 

Premier  Canovas  del  Castillo, 

Spain April  22, 1897 

President  Borda,  Uruguay.  .Aug.  25, 1897 
President  Barrios, 

Guatemala  Feb.  18, 1898 

Empress  Elizabeth,  Austria.Sept.  10,  1898 
President  Heureuax,  Santo 

Domingo July  26, 1899 

Governor  Goebel,  Kentucky. Jan.  30, 1900 
King  Humbert,  Italy July  29, 1900 

*  President  McKinley Sept.  14, 1901 

King  and  Queen,  Servia. . .  June  11, 1903 
Gov.-Gen.  Bobrikoff, 

Finland June  16,  1904 

Von  Plehve,  Russia July  28,  1904 

Premier  Delyannis,  Greece. Tune  13, 1905 
Gr.  Duke  Sergius,  Russia. .  .Feb.  17, 1905 
King  and  Crown  Prince, 

Portugal  Feb.  1,1908 

Prince  Ito,  Japan Oct.  26, 1909 

Premier  Stolypin,  Russia..  .Sept.  14, 1911 
President  Caceres,  Santo 

Domingo  Nov.  11, 1911 

Premier  Canaleias,  Spain..  .Nov.  12,  1912 

Nazin  Pasha,  Turkey Jan.  23,  1913 

Premier  Araujo,  Salvador Feb.  4, 1913 

President  Madero,  Mexico.. Feb.  23, 1913 


*  Date  of  death. 


Assassins 

Vice-Pres.  Suarez,  Mexico.  .Feb.  23, 1913 

King  George,  Greece .  March  18, 1913 

Archduke  Francis  and  wife, 

Austria-Hungary  June  28, 1914 

Jean  L.  Jaures,  Fr. 

Socialist  July  31, 1914 

President  Sam,  Haiti July  28, 1915 

Assassins,  or  Ismail!,  a  sect  of 
religious  fanatics  who  existed  in  the 
llth  and  12  centuries.  They  derived 
their  name  of  assassins  originally  from 
their  immoderate  use  of  hasheesh, 
which  produces  an  intense  cerebral  ex- 
citement, often  amounting  to  fury. 
Their  founder  and  law  giver  was  Has- 
san-ben-Sabah,  to  whom  the  Orientals 
gave  the  name  of  Sheikh-el- Jobelz,  but 
who  was  better  known  in  Europe  as 
the  "Old  Man  of  the  Mountain." 
They  believed  assassination  to  be  meri- 
torious when  sanctioned  by  his  com- 
mand, and  courted  danger  and  death 
in  the  execution  of  his  orders.  In  the 
time  of  the  crusades,  they  mustered  to 
the  number  of  50,000. 

Assay  Offices,  in  the  United 
States,  government  establishments  in 
which  citizens  may  deposit  gold  and 
silver  bullion,  receiving  in  return  its 
value,  less  charges.  The  offices  are  in 
New  York  city;  Boise  City,  Ida.; 
Helena,  Mont. ;  Denver,  Col. ;  Seattle, 
Wash.;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  Char- 
lotte, N.  C. ;  Deadwood,  S.  D. ;  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah ;  Carson  City,  Nev. ; 
and  New  Orleans,  La. 

Assembly,  General,  official  name 
of  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  court  of 
the  Established  Church  of  Scotland, 
of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland, 
and  of  the  two  Presbyterian  Churches 
in  the  United  States.  The  term  is 
also  used  in  the  United  States  to  des- 
ignate the  dual  legislative  body  of  the 
several  States,  the  branches  being  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  the  Senate  and  the 
House  (of  Representatives). 

Assembly,  National,  a  body  set 
up  in  France  on  the  eve  of  the  Revo- 
lution. The  members  bound  themselves 
by  oath  not  to  separate  until  they  had 
furnished  France  with  a  constitution, 
and  the  court  was  compelled  to  give 
its  assent.  In  the  3,250  decrees  passed 
by  the  Assembly  were  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  a  new  epoch,  a_nd  having 
accomplished  this  task,  it  dissolved  it- 
self, Sept.  30,  1791.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  a  joint  meeting  of  the  Sen- 


Assiniboia 

ate  and  Corps  Legislatif,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  electing  a  chief  magistrate  or 
the  transaction  of  other  extraordinary 
business. 

Assets  (French,  assez,  enough), 
property  or  goods  available  for  the 
payment  of  a  bankrupt  or  deceased 
person's  obligations.  Assets  are  per- 
sonal or  real,  the  former  comprising 
all  goods,  chattels,  etc.,  devolving  upon 
the  executor  as  salable  to  discharge 
debts  and  legacies.  In  commerce  and 
bankruptcy  the  term  is  often  used  as 
the  antithesis  of  liabilities,  to  desig- 
nate the  stock  _  in  trade  and  entire 
property  of  an  individual  or  an  asso- 
ciation. 

Assideans,  Chasideans,  or  Cha- 
sidim, one  of  the  two  great  sects 
into  which,  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, the  Jews  were  divided  with  re- 
gard to  the  observance  of  the  law — 
the  Chasidim  accepting  it  in  its  later 
developments,  the  Zadikim  professing 
adherence  only  to  the  law  as  given  by 
Moses.  From  the  Chasidim  sprang 
the  Pharisees,' Talmudists,  Rabbinists, 
Cabbalists,  etc. 

Assignates,  the  name  of  the  na- 
tional paper  currency  in  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution. 

Assignee,  a  person  appointed  by 
another  to  transact  some  business,  or 
exercise  some  particular  privilege  or 
power.  Formerly  the  persons  ap- 
pointed under  a  commission  of  bank- 
ruptcy, to  manage  the  estate  of  the 
bankrupt  on  behalf  of  the  creditors, 
were  so  called,  but  now  trustees,  or 
receivers. 

Assignment,  in  law  and  com- 
merce, the  act  of  signing  over  to  an- 
other, rights  or  property  which  have 
hitherto  belonged  to  one's  self.  An 
assignment  of  estate  is  a  transfer,  or 
making  over  to  another,  of  the  right  a 
person  has  in  any  estate.  In  general, 
assignments  should  be  recorded  in  the 
office  prescribed  by  law,  or  are  void  as 
against  those  claiming  under  subse- 
quent assignments. 

Assiniboia,  the  smallest  of  the 
four  districts  into  which  a  portion  of 
the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada 
was  divided  in  1881  and  Sept.  1,  1905, 
merged  into  the  provinces  of  Alberta 
and  Saskatchewan.  Its  area  was  89,- 
535  square  miles  and  pop.  67,385. 
Coal  mines  are  worked  and  irrigation 
is  improving  the  district. 


Assouan 

Assouan  (also  ESWAN;  the  an- 
cient Syene),  is  the  southernmost  city 
of  Egypt  proper,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Nile,  and  beside  the  first  or  low- 
est cataract.  Near  are  the  islands  of 
Philse  and  Elephantine,  recently  sub- 
merged almost  completely  by  the  great 
Nile  dam.  On  the  left  bank  are  cata- 
combs. There  are  some  remains  of 
the  ancient  city,  as  granite  columns 
and  part  of  a  temple.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  the  famous  granite  quar- 
ries from  which  so  many  of  the  huge 
obelisks  and  colossal  statues  were  cut 
to  adorn  the  temples  and  palaces  of 
ancient  Egypt.  From  Syene,  this 
kind  of  granite  came  to  be  known  as 
syenite.  Pop.  about  4,000. 

Assnmpsit,  a  verbal  promise  made 
by  anyone,  or  which  he  may  in  justice 
be  held  to  have  more  or  less  directly 
made. 

Assyria,  an  ancient  Semitic  king- 
dom of  Asia,  the  native  name  of  which 
was  Ashur  or  Asshur,  and  thus  also 
called  by  the  Hebrews.  The  area  was 
fluctuating  —  at  first  small,  but, 
though  it  gradually  increased,  it 
probably  never  exceeded  about  200,000 
square  miles. 

The  Assyrians  were  far  advanced 
in  art  and  industry,  and  in  civiliza- 
tion. They  constructed  large  build- 
ings, especially  palaces,  of  an  impos- 
ing character,  the  materials  being 
burned  or  sun-dried  brick,  stone,  ala- 
baster, slabs  for  lining  and  adorning 
the  walls  internally  and  externally, 
and  timber  for  pillars  and  roof. 
The  Assyrians  understood  and  applied 
the  arch ;  constructed  tunnels,  aque- 
ducts, and  drains ;  used  the  pulley,  the 
lever,  and  the  roller ;  engraved  gems  in 
a  highly  artistic  way;  understood  the 
arts  of  inlaying,  enameling,  and  over- 
laying with  metals ;  manufactured 
porcelain,  transparent  and  colored 
glass,  and  were  acquainted  ^with  the 
lens ;  and  possessed  vases,  jars,  and 
other  dishes,  bronze  and  ivory  orna- 
ments, bells,  gold  earrings  and  brace- 
lets of  excellent  design  and  workman- 
ship. They  had  also  silver  ornament- 
al work.  Their  household  furniture 
gives  a  high  idea  of  their  skill. 

Asten,  Friedrich  Emil  von,  a 
German  astronomer,  born  at  Koln, 
1842.  His  investigations  have  related 
mostly  to  comets. 


Astor 

Aster,  a  genus  of  plants,  so  called 
because  the  expanded  flowers  resemble 
stars.  In  the  United  States  these  as- 
ters grow  wild  in  the  meadows  and  on 
the  prairies. 

Aster,  Ernst  Ludwig  von,  a 
German  military  engineer,  born  in 
Dresden,  Oct.  5,  1778.  He  died  in 
Berlin,  Feb.  10,  1855. 

Asthma,  a  chronic  shortness  of 
breath,  from  whatever  cause  it  may 
arise.  Till  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod good  medical  writers  used  the 
term  in  this  wide  sense,  and  non-pro- 
fessional writers  and  the  public  do  so 
still.  Asthma,  or  spasmodic  asthma, 
is  "  a  difficulty  of  breathing,  recur- 
ring in  paroxysms,  after  intervals  of 
comparatively  good  health,  and  usual- 
ly accompanied  by  fever."  It  is  most 
common  in  persons  possessing  the 
nervous  temperament. 

Aston,  William  George,  an 
English  author,  born  near  London- 
derry, in  1841  r  is  a  standard  author- 
ity on  Japanese  subjects. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  an  American 
i  merchant,  born  in  Waldorf,  Germany, 
July  17,  1763.  In  1783  he  came  to 
the  United  States  intending  to  engage 
in  the  selling  of  musical  instruments ; 
but  while  on  the  voyage  was  induced 
by  a  fellow  passenger  to  engage  in 
buying  furs  from  the  Indians  and  sell- 
ing them  to  dealers.  On  reaching 
New  York  he  entered  the  employ  of  a 
Quaker  furrier,  with  whom  he  learned 
the  details  of  the  trade,  and  then  be- 
gan business  on  his  own  account.  Soon 
afterward  he  became  American  agent 
for  a  London  fur  house,  and,  while  ar- 
ranging for  his  supplies,  he  opened 
the  first  wareroom  for  the  sale  of  mu- 
sical instruments  in  the  United  States. 
His  success  in  the  fur  business  led  him 
to  become  the  owner  of  a  number  of 
vessels,  in  which  he  shipped  furs  to 
London  and  brought  merchandise 
therefrom.  In  furtherance  of  a  scheme 
for  becoming  independent  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company  and  establishing  a 
thoroughly  American  system  of  fur 
trading,  he  sent  out  expeditions  to 
open  up  intercourse  with  the  Indians 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  by  which  the 
present  city  of  Astoria  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  river  in  Oregon  was 
planted  in  1811.  An  interesting  out- 
1  line  of  his  projects  in  this  connection 


Astor 

is  given  in  Washington  Irving's  "  As- 
toria."    Mr.     Astor     acquired     large ; 
wealth,  invested  heavily  in  real  estate  : 
in  New  York  city ;  and  at  his  death 
left  a  fortune  estimated  at  $20,000,- 
000,  and  the  sum  of  $400,000,  with, 
which   to   found  a  public   library   in  \ 
New  York  city.     He  died  March  29, 
1848.    See   NEW   YOBK   PUBLIC    Li- 
BBABY. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  an  Ameri- 
can capitalist,  born  in  Rhinebeck,  N. 
Y.,  July  13,  1864;  son  of  William, 
grandson  of  John  Jacob,  and  cousin  of 
William  Waldorf  Astor;  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1888 ; 
spent  three  years  in  European  travel ;  '• 
and  then  became  manager  of  the  fam- 
ily estate.  He  was  appointed  Col- 
onel on  the  staff  of  Gov.  Morton; 
was  commissioned  a  Lieutenant-Col- 
onel of  Volunteers  in  May,  1898,  and 
served  on  inspection  and  staff  duty  in 
the  United  States  and  Cuba  till  the  , 
surrender  of  Santiago.  He  presented : 
the  United  States  Government  with 
a  completely  equipped  mountain  bat- 
tery which  cost  over  $75,000,  and 
which  rendered  the  government  valu-1 
able  services  during  the  war  with  Spain. 
He  published  "A  Journey  to  Other 
Worlds;  a  Romance  of  the  Future" 
(1894).  He  was  lost  on  the  "Titanic," 
April  15,  1912. 

Astor,  William  Backhouse,  an 
American  capitalist,  born  in  New  York 
city,  Sept  19,  1792;  eldest  son  of 
John  Jacob  Astor ;  was  associated 
with  his  father  in  business ;  increased 
the  family  fortune  to  $45,000,000; 
gave  $550,000  to  Astor  Library.  Died 
in  New  York,  Nov.  24,  1875. 

Astor,  William  Vincent,  head  of 
the  Astor  family  in  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  15, 
1891 ;  educated  at  Harvard  ;  succeeded 
to  a  vast  estate  in  money  and  prop- 
erty at  the  drowning  of  his  father, 
John  Jacob  Astor,  in  the  "Titanic" 
disaster ;  married  Helen  D.  Hunting- 
ton,  April  30,  1914;  and  with  his 
wife  engaged  in  patriotic  relief  work 
in  France  in  1917. 

Astor,  William  Waldorf,  capi- 
talist, born  in  New  York  city,  March 
31,  1848;  admitted  to  the  bar  1875. 
He  was  elected  to  the  New  York  As- 
sembly in  1871.  and  to  the  Senate  in 
1879 ;  and  was  United  States  Minister 


Astrology 

to  Italy  in  1882-1885.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  John  Jacob  Astor,  he 
became  head  of  the  Astor  family,  and 
inherited  a  fortune  of  $100,000,000. 
He  removed  to  England  in  1890 ;  be- 
came the  owner  of  the  "  Pall  Mall  Ga- 
zette "  and  "  Pall  Mall  Magazine ;  " 
was  naturalized  a  British  subject  on 
July  1,  1899 ;  and  was  created  a  baron 
Dec.  31,  1915.  He  published  "  Valen- 
tino "  (1885)  and  "  Sforza  "  (1889), 
both  romances. 

Astrakhan,  a  Russian  city,  capi- 
tal of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  an  elevated  island  in  the 
Volga,  about  30  miles  above  its  mouth 
in  the  Caspian,  communicating  with 
opposite  banks  of  the  river  by  numer- 
ous bridges.  It  is  the  chief  port 
of  the  Caspian,  and  has  regular  steam 
communication  with  the  principal 
towns  on  its  shores.  Pop.  (1897) 
113,001,  composed  of  various  races. 

Astrakhan,  a  name  given  to 
sheep-skins  with  a  curled  woolly  sur- 
face obtained  from  a  variety  of  sheep 
found  in  Bokhara,  Persia,  and  Syria ; 
also  a  rough  fabric  with  a  pile  in  im- 
itation of  this. 

Astral  Spirits,  in  the  demonology 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  spirits  dwelling  in 
the  heavenly  bodies.  As  the  belief  in 
spirits  and  witchcraft  reached  its 
height  in  the  15th  century,  the  demon- 
ologist,  or  special  students  of  this  sub- 
ject, systematized  the  strange  fancies 
of  that  wild  period ;  and  astral  spirits 
were  made  to  occupy  the  first  rank 
among  evil  or  demoniacal  spirits. 

Astringents,  substances  which 
produce  contraction  and  condensation 
of  the  muscular  fiber :  for  instance, 
when  applied  to  a  bleeding  wound 
they  so  contract  the  tissues  as  to  stop 
the  hemorrhage.  Astringents  are  use- 
ful in  various  diseases. 

Astrolabe,  in  its  etymological 
sense,  any  instrument  for  taking  the 
altitude  of  a  star  or  other  heavenly 
body,  a  definition  which  would  include 
not  merely  the  astrolabe  properly  so 
called,  but  also  the  sextant,  the  quad- 
rant, the  equatorial,  the  altitude  and 
the  azimuth  circle,  the  theodolite,  or 
any  similar  instrument. 

Astrology,  originally  a  discourse 
concerning  the  stars ;  subsequently  the 
true  science  of  astronomy;  now  the 


Astronomy 

pseudo  science  which  pretends  to  fore- 
tell future  events  by  studying  the  po- 
sition of  the  stars,  and  ascertaining 
their  alleged  influence  upon  human 
destiny. 

Astronomy,  the  science  that  treats 
of  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  including 
the  earth,  as  related  to  them.  It  is 
the  oldest  of  the  sciences,  and  .the 
mother  of  those  generally  called  exact 
as  mathematics,  geodesy  and  physics. 

Asymptote,  in  geometry,  a  line 
which  is  continually  approaching  a 
curve,  but  never  meets  it,  however  far 
either  of  them  may  be  prolonged.  This 
may  be  conceived  as  a  tangent  to  a 
curve  at  an  infinite  distance. 

Atacama,  the  name  formerly,  of 
two  provinces,  (1)  Chilian  and  (2) 
Bolivian ;  most  of  the  latter  was  trans- 
ferred to  Chile  in  1884.  (1)  A  north- 
ern Province  of  Chile,  with  an  area 
of  30,720  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion (1895)  of  59,713  About  1,000 
silver  and  250  copper  mines  are  work- 
ed, and  gold  is  also  found  in  consider- 
able quantities. 

Atahualpa,  the  last  of  the  Incas, 
succeeded  his  father  in  1529  on  the 
throne  of  Quito,  whilst  his  brother 
Huascar  obtained  the  Kingdom  of 
Peru.  They  soon  made  war  against 
each  other,  when  the  latter  was  de- 
feated, and  his  kingdom  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Atahualpa.  The  Spaniards, 
taking  advantage  of  these  internal  dis- 
turbances, with  Pizarro  at  their  head, 
invaded  Peru,  and  advanced  to  Atahu- 
alpa's  camp.  Here,  while  Pizarro's 
priest  was  telling  the  Incas  how  the 
Pope  had  given  Peru  to  the  Spaniards, 
fire  was  opened  on  the  unsuspecting 
Peruvians,  Atahualpa  was  captured, 
and,  despite  the  payment  of  a  vast 
ransom  in  gold,  was  executed  (1533). 

Atalanta,  in  the  Greek  mythology, 
a  famous  huntress  of  Arcadia.  She 
was  to  be  obtained  in  marriage  only  by 
him  who  could  outstrip  her  in  a  race, 
the  consequence  of  failure  being  death. 
One  of  her  suitors  obtained  from  Aph- 
rodite (Venus)  three  golden  apples, 
which  he  threw  behind  him,  one  after 
another,  as  he  ran.  Atalanta  stopped 
to  pick  them  up,  and  was  not  unwill- 
ingly defeated.  There  was  another  At- 
alanta belonging  to  Bceotia,  who  can- 
not very  well  be  distinguished,  the 
same  stories  being  told  about  both. 


Atelier 

Atavism,  in  biology,  the  tendency 
to  reproduce  the  ancestral  type  in  ani- 
mals or  plants  which  hare  become  con- 
siderably modified  by  breeding  or  cul- 
tivation ;  the  reversion  of  a  descendant 
to  some  peculiarity  of  a  more  or  less 
remote  ancestor. 

Ataxy,  Ataxia,  in  medicine,  irreg- 
ularity in  the  animal  functions,  or  in 
the  symptoms  of  a  disease.  (See  Lo- 

COMOTOB  ATA.XY). 

Atcheen  (also  A  CHIN  or  ATCHIN  ; 
called  by  the  Dutch  ATJEH),  until 
1873  an  independent  State  in  the  N. 
W.  part  of  Sumatra,  now  a  Province 
of  the  Dutch  Indies,  with  an  area  of 
20,471  square  miles,  and  a  population 
estimated  on  Dec.  31, 1905,  at  582,175. 

During  the  earlier  half  of  the  17th 
century  Atcheen  was  a  powerful  sul- 
tanate, but  under  the  Dutcn  nati»e 
resistance  lasted  till  1906,  200  years. 

Atchison,  city  and  capital  of  At- 
chison county,  Kan.;  on  the  Missouri 
river  and  several  railroads;  50  miles 
N.  of  Kansas  City;  has  an  immense 
trade  in  livestock  and  grains;  con- 
tains large  grain  elevators,  flour  mills, 
and  many  factories;  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  State  Soldiers'  Orphans'  Home 
and  Midland  (Luth.)  and  St.  Bene- 
dict's colleges.  Pop.  (1910)  16,429. 

Atchison,  David  Rice,  an  Amer- 
ican legislator,  born  in  Frogtown,  Ky., 
Aug.  11,  1807 ;  was  educated  for  the 
bar,  and  began  practicing  in  Missouri, 
in  1830.  In  1843,  while  Judge  of  Cir- 
cuit Court,  he  was  appointed  United 
States  Senator  to  fill  a  vacancy.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  the  last  office, 
and  during  several  sessions  was  Presi- 
dent pro  tern,  of  the  Senate.  During 
Sunday,  March  4,  1849,  he  was  the 
legal  President  of  the  United  States, 
as  Gen.  Taylor,  the  President-elect, 
was  not  sworn  into  office  until  the  fol- 
lowing day.  The  city  of  Atchison, 
Kan.,  was  named  after  him.  He  died 
in  Clinton  county,  Mo.,  June  26,  1886. 

Ate,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god- 
dess of  hate,  injustice,  crime  and  ret- 
ribution. Ate  is  seldom  personified. 

Ateles,  a  genus  of  South  Ameri- 
can monkeys,  of  the  division  with  long 
prehensile  tails,  to  which  the  name 
Sapajou  is  sometimes  applied. 

Atelier,  in  French,  a  workshop;  a 
studio ;  more  especially  applied  to  an 
artist's  work-room.  Ateliers  Nation- 


AtkaVasca 


Athanasian  Creed 


aux,  or  National  Workshops.  Since 
1845,  it  has  been  the  custom  in  France, 
daring  severe  winters,  or  in  times  of 
distress  caused  by  stagnation  of  trade, 
to  open  temporary  workshops,  in  or- 
der to  give  employment  to  mechanics 
who  were  out  of  work.  These  work- 
shops were  called  Ateliers  de  Charite, 
until  1848,  when  the  Provisional  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Republic  reopened  a 
.vast  number  of  these  establishments 
under  the  name  of  Ateliers  Nation- 
aux.  They  were  under  the  control  of 
a  department  called  "The  Committee 
of  the  Government  for  the  Workmen ;" 
they  were  all,  however,  badly  organ- 
ized, and  failed  calamitously.  The 
principle  on  which  they  were  conduct- 
ed was,  that  every  workman  should 
have  a  living  provided  for  him  on  a 
fixed  scale.  The  result  was,  that 
workmen  soon  left  private  employers, 
and  entered  the  national  work-shops. 
The  numbers  who  flocked  in  soon  be- 
came alarming.  More  than  100,000 
men  enrolled  themselves,  and  insubor- 
dination soon  began  to  show  itself. 
Danger  was  imminent,  and  the  Na- 
tional Assembly  ordered  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  ateliers  nationaux,  an  act 
which  became  the  pretext  for  the  terri- 
ble insurrection  which  ensanguined 
Paris  in  June,  1848. 

Athabasca,  a  river,  lake  and  dis- 
trict of  Canada.  The  Athabasca 
river  rises  on  the  E.  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  in  the  district  of 
Alberta,  flows  in  a  N.  E.  direction 
through  the  district  of  the  same  name, 
and  falls  into  Lake  Athabasca  after  a 
course  of  about  600  miles.  Lake  Ath- 
abasca, or  Lake  of  the  Hills,  is  about 
190  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  the  Great  Slave 
Lake,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
means  of  the  Slave  river,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Peace.  It  is  about  200 
miles  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,  and 
about  35  miles  wide  at  the  broadest 
part,  but  gradually  narrows  to  a  point 
at  either  extremity.  The  district  of 
Athabasca,  formed  1882,  on  Sept.  1, 
1905,  was  merged  in  the  provinces  of 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Athabasca  and  Peace 
.rivers  and,  as  yet,  has  a  scanty  popu- 
lation. The  name  is  also  given  to  a 
family  of  Indians.  The  area  of  the 
district  was  about  251,300  sq.  m. 

Athabascan  Indiana,  a  linguistic 
stock  of  North  American  Indians,  ex- 


tending from  British  North  America 
and  Alaska  to  Mexico,  who  derive 
their  name  from  Lake  Athabasca  in 
British  North  America. 

Athaliah.,  daughter  of  Ahab, 
King  of  Israel,  and  wife  of  Jehoram, 
King  of  Judah,  was  born  about  927, 
and  died  about  878  B.  c.  She  was  a 
woman  of  abandoned  character,  and 
fond  of  power ;  who,  after  the  death  of 
her  son  Ahaziah,  opened  her  way  to 
the  throne  by  the  murder  of  every 
prince  of  the  royal  blood.  She  reign- 
ed six  years;  in  the  seventh,  the  high- 
priest  Jehoiada  placed  Joash,  the 
young  son  of  Ahaziah,  on  the  throne 
of  his  father,  and  Athaliah  was  put  to 
death. 

Athanasian  Creed,  a  formulary 
or  confession  of  faith,  said  to  have 
been  drawn  up  by  Athanasius,  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  in  the  4th  century,  to 
justify  himself  against  the  calumnies 
of  his  Arian  enemies.  That  it  was 
really  composed  by  this  father  seems 
more  than  doubtful;  and  modern  ^di- 
vines  generally  concur  in  the  opinion 
of  Dr.  Waterland,  that  it  was  written 
by  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries,  in  the  5th 
century.  It  is  certainly  very  ancient ; 
for  it  had  become  so  famous  in  the 
6th  century  as  to  be  commented  upon, 
together  with  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
Apostles'  Creed,  by  Venantius  Fortu- 
natus,  Bishop  of  Poitiers.  It  was  not, 
however,  then  styled  the  Athanasian 
Creed,  but  simply  the  Catholic  Faith. 
It  is  supposed  to  have .  received  the 
name  of  Athanasius  on  account  of  its 
agreeing  with  his  doctrines,  and  being 
an  excellent  summary  of  the  subjects 
of  controversy  between  him  and  the 
Arians.  The  true  key  to  the  Athana- 
sian Creed  lies  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  errors  to  which  it  was  opposed. 
The  Sabellians  considered  the  Father, 
Son  and  Holy  Spirit  as  one  in  per- 
son; this  was  "confounding  the  per- 
sons :  "  the  Arians  considered  them  as 
differing  in  essence ;  this  was  "  divid- 
ing the  substance ;  "  and  against  these 
two  errors  was  the  creed  originally 
framed.  This  creed  was  used  in 
France  about  the  year  850;  was  re- 
ceived in  Spain  about  100  years  later, 
and  in  Germany  about  the  same  time. 
It  was  both  said  and  sung  in  Eng- 
land in  the  10th  century ;  was  com- 
monly used  in  Italy  at  the  expiration 
of  that  century,  and  at  Rome  a  little 


Athanasins 


Athletes 


later.  This  creed  is  appointed  to  be 
read  in  the  Church  of  England. 

Athanasius,  St.,  one  of  the  fa- 
thers of  the  Christian  Church,  born 
at  Alexandria  about  296  A.  D.  He 
became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  in 
328,  being  afterward  deposed  and  re- 
instated five  times.  He  died  in  Alex- 
andria, May  2,  373. 

Atheism,  literally,  disbelief  in  a 
God,  if  such  an  attainment  is  possi- 
ble; or,  more  loosely,  doubt  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  God;  practically,  a  denial 
that  anything  can  be  known  about  the 
supernatural,  supposing  it  to  exist. 

Athel,  or  .aJthel,  an  Old  English 
word  meaning  noble  in  blood,  descent, 
or  mind;  frequently  a  part  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  proper  names. 

Athenaeum,  or  Atheneum,  a 
public  place  frequented  by  professors 
of  the  liberal  arts,  and  where  rhetori- 
cians declaimed,  and  the  poets  read 
aloud  their  works.  At  Athens  these 
assemblies  first  took  place  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Minerva,  whence  the  name. 

Athens,  city  and  capital  of  Clarke 
county,  Ga.;  on  the  Oconee  river  and 
several  railroads;  67  miles  E.  of  At- 
lanta; is  principally  engaged  in  cot- 
ton-growing, trade,  and  manufactur- 
ing; and  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity, State  College  of  Agriculture, 
State  Normal  School,  and  Lucy  Cobb 
and  Knox  institutes.  Pop.  (1910) 
14,913. 

Athens,  anciently  the  capital  of 
Attica  and  center  of  Greek  culture, 
now  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Greece.  It  is  situated  in  the  central 
plain  of  Attica,  about  4  miles  from 
the  Saronic  Gulf  or  Gulf  of  Mgina., 
an  arm  of  the  ^3gean  Sea  running  in 
between  the  mainland  and  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. It  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  about  1550  B.  c.  by  Cecrops, 
the  mythical  Pelasgian  hero,  and  to 
have  borne  the  name  Cecropia  until 
under  Erechtheus  it  received  the  name 
of  Athens  in  honor  of  Athene. 
It  disputed  with  Sparta  the  su- 
premacy of  Greece,  which  was  then 
virtually  the  civilized  world,  and  was 
beaten  in  the  struggle.  It  remained, 
however,  the  centre  of  art  and  culture 
until  long  after  the  rise  of  Rome,  to 
which  with  the  rest  of  Greece  it  be- 
came subject 

The  modern  city  mostly  lies  north- 


ward and  eastward  from  the  Acropo- 
lis, and  consists  mainly  of  straight 
and  well  built  streets.  Among  the 
principal  buildings  are  the  royal  pal- 
ace, a  stately  building  with  a  facade 
of  Pentelic  marble  (completed  in 
1843),  the  university,  the  academy, 
public  library,  theater,  and  observa- 
tory. The  university  was  opened  in 
1836,  and  has  1,400  students.  There 
are  valuable  museums,  in  particular 
the  National  Museum,  and  that  in  the 
Polytechnic  School,  which  embraces 
the  Schliemann  collection,  etc.  These 
are  constantly  being  added  to  by  exca- 
vations. There  are  four  foreign  ar- 
chaeological schools  or  institutes,  the 
French,  German,  American,  and  Brit- 
ish. Tramways  have  been  made  in  the 
principal  streets,  and  the  city  is  con- 
nected by  railway  with  its  port,  the 
Piraeus.  From  tie  beginning  of  the 
World  War  the  city  was  almost  con- 
stantly in  a  state  of  turmoil  because 
of  revolutionary  demonstrations  or 
the  actions  of  the  Allies,  as  King 
Constantine,  though  professing  strict 
neutrality  was  popularly  believed  to 
be  leaning  toward  the  side  of  his 
wife's  brother,  the  German  emperor. 
Pop.  (1907)  167,479.  See  APPENDIX: 
World  War. 

Atherton,  George  William,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Boxford, 
Mass.,  June  20,  1837;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Political  Economy  and  Con- 
stitutional Law  in  Rutgers  College,  N. 
J.,  in  1869-1882;  and  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College 
in  1882.  He  died  July  24,  1906. 

Atherton,  Gertrude  Franklin, 
an  American  author,  born  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal. ;  daughter  of  Thomas 
L.  Horn  and  Gertrude  Franklin,  and 
great-grandniece  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin ;  was  educated  in  California  and 
Kentucky,  and  married  the  late  George 
H.  B.  Atherton.  She  began  her  liter- 
ary work  while  living  in  San  Fran- 
cisco, in  1878,  and  has  made  a 
specialty  of  describing  Spanish  life  in 
California  as  it  was  previous  to  1846. 

Athletes,  combatants  who  took 
part  in  the  public  games  of  Greece. 
The  profession  was  an  honorable  one; 
tests  of  birth,  position,  and  character 
were  imposed,  and  crowns,  statues, 
special  privileges,  and  pensions  were 
( among  the  rewards  of  success.  ID 


Athos 


Atlantic  Ocean 


1896,  the  ancient  Olympic  games 
were  revived  at  Athens  (the  776th 
Olympiad)  under  the  personal  patron- 
age of  the  King  of  Greece;  in  1900 
they  were  held  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion; in  1904  at  the  St.  Louis  Expo- 
sition; in  1906  at  Athens;  in  1908  at 
London. 

Athos,  Mount,  or  Hagion-Oros, 
or  Monte-Santo,  a  famous  moun- 
tain of  Turkey  in  Europe,  on  a  pen- 
insula projecting  into  the  JEgean  Sea, 
between  the  Gulfs  of  Contesa  and 
Monte-Santo.  In  modern  times, 
Athos  has  been  occupied  for  an 
extended  period  by  a  number  of 
mpnks  of  the  Greek  Church,  who  live 
in  a  sort  of  fortified  monasteries-,  in 
number  about  20,  of  different  degrees 
of  magnitude  and  importance.  These, 
with  the  farms  or  metochis  attached 
to  them,  occupy  the  whole  peninsula ; 
hence  it  has  derived  its  modern  name 
of  Monte-Santo. 

Atkinson,  Edward,  an  American 
political  economist,  born  in  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  Feb.  10,  1827;  was  .edu- 
cated in  private  schools  and  at  Dart- 
mouth College.  He  has  become  widely 
known  by  his  papers  and  pamphlets  on 
trade  competition,  banking,  railroad- 
ing, fire  prevention,  the  money  ques- 
tion, etc.  He  died  Dec.  11,  1905. 

Atkinson,  George  Francis,  an 
American  botanist,  born  in  Raisin- 
ville,  Mich.,  Jan.  26,  1854;  was  grad- 
uated at  Cornell  University  in  1885 ; 
Associate  Professor  of  Entomology 
and  General  Zoology  in  the  University 
of  North  Carolina,  in  1886-1888 ;  Pro- 
fessor of  Zoology  and  Botany  in  the 
University  of  South  Carolina;  and 
Botanist  of  the  State  Experiment 
Station  in  1888-1889;  Professor  of 
Biology  in  the  Alabama  Polytechnic 
Institute,  and  Biologist  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  in  1889-1892;  became 
Professor  of  Botany  in  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, and  Botanist  of  the  Experi- 
ment Station  there  in  1896.  He  is  a 
member  of  numerous  scientific  socie- 
ties, and  author  of  "Biology  of  Ferns," 
"Elementary  Botany,"  and  many  tech- 
nical papers. 

Atlanta,  city  and  capital  of  the 
State  of  Georgia  and  of  Fulton  coun- 
ty ;  on  the  Atlanta  and  West  Point, 
the  Central  of  Georgia,  the  Georgia, 
the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  the  Southern, 


and  the  Western  and  Atlantic  rail- 
roads ;  171  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Augusta. 
The  city  is  not  only  the  largest  in  the 
State,  but,  commercially  and  histor- 
icallv,  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  South.  In  1914  it  became  the  cen- 
tral reserve  city  of  the  Sixth  Federal 
Reserve  Banking  District  under  the 
act  of  Congress  of  1913. 

After  being  besieged  by  the  Federal 
army,  under  General  Sherman,  and 
bombarded  for  40  days,  it  was  cap- 
tured Sept.  2,  1864.  General  Sherman, 
before  starting  on  his  march  to  the 
sea,  burned  the  city.  After  the  war, 
the  city  recuperated  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  in  the  South.  In  1881  an 
exposition  of  the  Cotton  States  and  in 
1895  a  great  Cotton  States  and  Inter- 
national Exposition  were  held  here,  the 
last  in  Piedmont  Park,  in  which*  the 
United  States  and  many  of  the  North- 
ern States,  besides  European  and 
South  American  countries,  took  part. 
Pop.  (1900)  89,872;  (1910)  154,839. 

Atlantic  City,  a  city  and  widely 
noted  health  and  pleasure  resort,  in 
Atlantic  county,  N.  J. ;  on  Absecon 
Beach  island;  60  miles  S.  E.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  a  city  of  hotels, 
shops,  and  cottages,  with  superior 
railroad  facilities,  and  has  the  largest 
patronage  of  any  seaside  resort  in 
the  country.  Its  famous  board-walk 
is  over  5  miles  long  and  20-60  feet 
wide.  Permanent  pop.  (1910)  44,461. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  the  name  given 
to  the  vast  expanse  of  sea  lying  be- 
tween the  W.  coasts  of  Europe  and 
Africa,  and  the  E.  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America,  and  extending  from 
the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic  Seas.  Its 
greatest  breadth  is  between  the  W. 
coast  of  Northern  Africa  and  the  E. 
coast  of  Florida,  4,150  miles.  Its 
least  breadth,  between  Norway  and 
Greenland,  is  about  930  miles. 

'iue  great  currents  of  the  Atlantic 
are  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  equatorial 
current  —  which  may  be  divided  into 
the  main  equatorial  current,  the  N. 
equatorial  current,  and  the  S.  equa- 
torial currents,  the  North  African  and 
Guinea  current,  the  South  connecting 
current,  the  Southern  Atlantic  cur- 
rent, Cape  Horn  current,  Rennel 
current,  and  the  Arctic  current. 

The  Gulf  Stream  is  a  continuation 
of  the  main  equatorial  current,  and 
partly  of  the  N.  equatorial  current, 


Atlantic  Telegraph 


Atlee 


both  W.  drift  currents  produced  by  the 
trade  winds.  The  former  passes  across 
the  Atlantic  to  the  American  coast, 
upon  which  it  strikes  from  Cape  St. 
Roque  to  the  Antilles.  On  being 
turned  by  the  coast  it  runs  along  it  at 
a  rate  of  30  to  50  miles  per  day,  and 
sometimes  at  a  higher  speed,  till  it 
enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  from  which 
having  previously  received  part  of  the 
waters  of  the  N.  equatorial  current, 
it  issues  between  Florida  and  Cuba 
under  the  name  of  the  Gulf  stream. 
It  afterward  flows  nearly  parallel  to 
the  coast  of  the  United  States,  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  a  belt  of  cold  water. 
Off  Cape  Hatteras  it  spreads  into  an 
expanding  channel,  reaching  a  breadth 
of  167  miles,  and  consisting  of  three 
warm  sections  with  two  cold  belts  in- 
terposed. On  passing  Sandy  Hook 
it  turns  E.  and  continues  to  be  recog- 
nizable, partly  by  a  blue  color  derived 
from  the  silt  of  the  Mississippi,  till 
about  Ion.  30°  W.,  where,  with  a 
greatly  diminished  temperature,  it  is 
found  flowing  nearly  due  E. 

Atlantic  Telegraph,  lines  laid  on 
the  bed  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
union  of  the  Old  and  New  Worlds  by 
means  of  the  electric  telegraph,  prob- 
ably the  boldest  feat  of  electric  engi- 
neering ever  projected,  was  first  sug- 
gested by  Prof.  Morse  in  1843.  When 
Lieut.  Maury  of  the  United  States 
navy  discovered  that  between  Ireland 
and  Newfoundland  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
was  nearly  level  and  covered  with 
soft  ooze,  and  Cyrus  W.  Field  and 
others  had  thoroughly  discussed  the 
practical  methods,  a  company  was 
formed  for  the  purpose,  in  1856,  to 
which  the  Governments  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States  gave  liberal 
guarantees.  This  company,  after  a 
fruitless  attempt  to  lay  an  electric  ca- 
ble in  1857,  finally  succeeded  in  1858. 

The  result  was  not  encouraging. 
The  current  obtained  through  the  wire 
was  so  weak  that  a  congratulatory 
message  from  the  Queen  to  the  Presi- 
rent,  consisting  of  90  words,  took  67 
minutes  to  transmit.  After  a  few 
more  messages,  the  cable  became  use- 
less. In  consequence  of  this  failure,  it 
was  not  until  1865  that  capital  was 
found  to  make  another  attempt. 
The  paying-out  journey  was  com- 
menced at  Valentia,  but  when  the  ves- 
sel was  1,064  miles  from  that  port, 


the  cable  broke  from  an  accidental 
strain.  After  a  fruitless  effort  to  fish 
up  the  broken  cable  from  the  bottom, 
it  was  abandoned  for  the  season.  In 
1866  another  line,  so  modified  in  con- 
struction as  to  be  both  lighter  and 
stronger  than  the  previous  one,  was 
successfully  laid  by  the  "  Great  East- 
ern." The  1865  cable  was  then,  by 
means  of  the  same  vessel,  grappled  for, 
and  brought  up  from  a  depth  of  two 
miles,  spliced,  and  completed  to  Trin- 
ity Bay. 

_The  practicability  of  laying  an  elec- 
tric wire  across  the  Atlantic  being 
thus  demonstrated,  many  lines  have 
been  projected,  and  several  of  them 
carried  out.  Marconi's  wireless  tele- 
graph system  has  introduced  a  new 
era  in  transatlantic  telegraphy,  but 
has  not,  so  far,  been  developed  suffi- 
ciently to  interfere  with  the  business 
of  the  cable  companies. 

Atlantides,  a  name  given  to  the 
Pleiades,  which  were  fabled  to  be  the 
seven  daughters  of  Atlas  or  of  his 
brother  Hesperus. 

Atlantis,  or  Atlantica,  an  island, 
said  by  Plato  and  others  to  have  once 
existed  in  the  ocean  immediately  be- 
yond the  Straits  of  Gades;  that  is, 
in  what  is  now  called  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  a  short  distance  W.  of  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Atlantis  is  rep- 
resented as  having  ultimately  sunk 
beneath  the  waves,  leaving  only  iso- 
lated rocks  and  shoals  in  its  place. 
Geologists  have  discovered  that  the 
coast-line  of  Western  Europe  did  once 
run  farther  in  the  direction  of  Amer- 
ica than  now;  but  its  submergence 
seems  to  have  taken  place  long  before 
historic  times. 

Atlas,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  a  Titan  whom  Zeus  con- 
demned to  bear  the  vault  of  heaven. 
The  same  name  is  given  to  a  collection 
of  maps  and  charts,  and  was  first  used 
by  Gerard  Mercator  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, the  figure  of  Atlas  bearing  the 
globe  being  given  on  the  title-pages 
of  such  works. 

Atlee,  Washington  Lemuel,  an 
American  surgeon,  born  in  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  Feb.  22,  1808;  became  noted  as  a 
pioneer  in  ovariotomy  and  the  removal 
of  uterine  fibroid  tumors.  He  died 
Sept  6.  1878. 


Atxnometer 


Atmometer,  an  instrument  invent- 
ed by  Sir  John  Leslie  for  iiieasuring 
the  quantity  of  moisture  exhaled  in 
a  given  time  from  any  humid  sur- 
face. 

Atmosphere,  literally,  the  air  sur- 
rounding our  planet,  and  which,  as  the 
etymology  implies,  is,  speaking  broad- 
ly, a  "sphere"  (not,  of  course,  a 
solid,  but  a  hollow  one).  With  strict 
accuracy,  it  is  a  hollow  spheroid.  Its 
exact  height  is  unknown.  At  2.7  miles 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  half 
its  density  is  gone,  and  the  remainder 
is  again  halved  for  every  further  rise 
of  2.7  miles.  Some  small  density 
would  remain  at  45  miles  high.  At  80 
miles,  this  would  have  all  but  disap- 
peared. But  from  sundry  observa- 
tions, made  at  Rio  Janeiro  and  else- 
where, on  the  twilight  arc,  M.  Liais 
infers  that  the  extreme  limit  of  the 
atmosphere  is  between  198  and  212 
miles.  In  the  lower  strata  of  the  at- 
mosphere, the  temperature  falls  at 
least  a  degree  for  every  352  feet  of 
ascent ;  hence,  even  in  the  tropics, 
mountains  of  any  considerable  eleva- 
tion are  snow-capped.  The  atmosphere 
appears  to  us  blue,  because,  absorbing 
the  red  and  yellow  solar  rays,  it  re- 
flects the  blue  ones.  It  revolves  with 
the  earth,  but  being  extremely  mobile, 
winds  are  generated  in  it,  so  that  it  is 
rarely  long  at  rest.  Evaporation,  con- 
tinually at  work,  sends  into  it  quanti- 
ties of  water  m  a  gaseous  state ;  clouds 
are  formed,  and  in  due  time  descend  in 
ram.  The  atmosphere  always  con- 
tains free  electricity,  sometimes  posi- 
tive and  sometimes  negative.  There 
appears  to  be  no  atmosphere  around 
the  moon ;  but  the  case  seems  different 
•with  the  sun,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn. 

Atmospheric  Pressure,  the  pres- 
sure exerted  by  the  atmosphere,  not 
merely  downward,  but  in  every  direc- 
tion. It  amounts  to  14.7  pounds  of 
weight  on  each  square  inch,  which  is 
often  called  in  round  numbers  15.  On 
a  square  foot  it  is  =2,160  pounds,  or 
nearly  a  ton.  It  would  act  upon  our 
bodies  with  crushing  effect  were  it  not 
that  the  pressure,  operating  in  all  di- 
rections, produces  an  equilibrium.  If 
any  gas  or  liquid  press  upon  a  surface 
with  a  force  of  15  pounds  on  a  square 
inch,  it  is  generally  described  as  hav- 
ing a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere;  if 


60  pounds,  of  four  atmospheres ;  if  120 
pounds,  of  eight  atmospheres,  and 
so  on. 

Atmospheric  Railway.  ( See 
PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH). 

Atomic  Theory,  a  theory  as  to  the 
existence  and  properties  of  atoms ;  es- 
pecially, in  chemistry,  the  theory  ac- 
counting for  the  fact  that  in  compound 
bodies  the  elements  combine  in  certain 
constant  proportions,  by  assuming  that 
all  bodies  are  composed  of  ultimate 
atoms,  the  weight  of  which  is  different 
in  different  kinds  of  matter.  It  is  as- 
sociated with  the  name  of  Dalton,  who 
systematized  and  extended  the  imper- 
fect results  of  his  predecessors.  On 
its  practical  side  the  atomic  theory 
asserts  three  Laws  of  Combining  Pro- 
portions :  ( 1 )  The  Law  of  Constant 
or  Definite  Proportions,  teaching  that 
in  every  chemical  compound  the  na- 
ture and  proportion  of  the  constituent 
elements  are  definite  and  invariable ; 
(2)  The  Law  of  Combination  in  Mul- 
tiple Proportions,  according  to  which 
the  several  proportions  in  which  one 
element  unites  with  another,  invariably 
bear  towards  each  other  a  simple  rela- 
tion ;  (3)  The  Law  of  Combination  in 
Reciprocal  Proportions,  that  the  pro- 
portions in  which  two  elements  com- 
bine with  a  third  also  represent  the 
proportions  in  which,  or  in  some  sim- 
ple multiple  of  which,  they  will  them- 
selves combine.  Without  expressly 
adopting  the  atomic  theory,  chemists 
have  followed  Dalton  in  the  use  of  the 
terms  atom  and  atomic  weight,  yet  in 
using  the  word  atom  it  should  be  held 
in  mind  that  it  merely  denotes  the  pro- 
portions in  which  elements  unite. 

Atonement,  in  theology,  the  sac- 
rificial offering  made  by  Christ  I'M  ex- 
piation of  the  sins,  according  to  the 
Calvinists,  of  the  elect  only ;  according 
to  the  Arminians,  of  the  whole  human 
race. 

Atrato,  a  river  of  Colombia,  inter- 
esting because  it  has  repeatedly  been 
made  to  bear  a  part  in  schemes  for  a 
ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Pana- 
ma. Rising  on  the  Western  Cordillera 
at  an  altitude  of  10,560  feet,  above 
sea-level,  it  runs  305  miles  northward 
through  low,  swampy  country,  and 
falls  by  several  mouths,  interrupted 
by  bars,  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  It 
is  navigable  by  steamers  for  fully  250 


Attock 


miles,  being  750  to  1,000  feet  wide, 
and  8  to  70  feet  deep.  A  route,  sur- 
veyed by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment in  1871,  proposed  to  connect  the 
Atrato  and  the  Jurador,  flowing  into 
the  Pacific,  by  a  canal  48  miles  long. 
At  the  Paris  International  Congress 
(1879),  for  deciding  the  best  route  for 
the  interoceanic  canal,  that  route  was, 
with  various  others,  discussed  and  re- 
jected in  favor  of  De  Lesseps'  line 
from  Limon  to  Panama.  Gold-dust  is 
found  in  and  about  the  Atrato. 

Atrium,  in  ancient  times,  the  hall 
or  principal  room  in  an  ancient  Ro- 
man house.  In  a  large  house  ^  the 
rooms  opened  into  it  from  all  sides, 
and  were  lighted  from  it. 

Atrophy,  a  wasting  of  the  flesh 
due  to  some  interference  with  the  nu- 
tritive processes.  It  may  arise  from 
a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  perma- 
nent, oppressive  and  exhausting  pas- 
sions, organic  disease,  a  want  of  prop- 
er food  or  of  pure  air,  suppurations  in 
important  organs,  copious  evacuations 
of  blood,  saliva,  semen,  etc.,  and  it  is 
also  sometimes  produced  by  poisons, 
for  example,  arsenic,  mercury,  lead,  in 
miners,  painters,  gilders,  etc. 

Atropin,  or  Atropine,  a  crystal- 
line alkaloid  obtained  from  the  deadly 
nightshade  (atropa  belladonna).  It  is 
very  poisonous  and  produces  persist- 
ent dilation  of  the  pupil. 

Attache,  a  military,  naval  or  sub- 
ordinate member  of  the  diplomatic  ser- 
vice attached  to  an  embassy  or  lega- 
tion. 

Attachment,  in  law,  the  taking 
into  the  custody  of  the  law  the  person 
or  property  of  one  already  before  the 
court,  or  of  one  whom  it  is  sought  to 
bring  before  it 

Attack,  the  opening  act  of  hostil- 
ity by  a  force  seeking  to  dislodge  an 
enemy  from  its  position. 

Attainder,  the  legal  consequences 
of  a  sentence  of  death  or  outlawry 
pronounced  against  a  person  for  trea- 
son or  felony,  the  person  being  said 
to  be  attainted. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Federal 
Constitution  declares  that  "  No  bill  of 
attainder  shall  be  passed,  and  no  at- 
tainder of  treason,  in  consequence  of  a 
judicial  sentence,  shall  work  corrup- 
tion of  blood  or  forfeiture  except  dur- 
ing the  life  of  the  person  attainted." 


Attar,  Ferid  eddin,  a  celebrated 
Persian  poet,  born  near  Nishapur  in 
1119;  died  about  1229  (?). 

Attar,  or  Otto,  of  Roses  (oil  of 
roses),  an  essential  oil  obtained  from 
the  petals  of  three  species  of  roses, 
viz. :  rosa  centifolia,  moschata  and 
damascena. 

Atterbury,  Francis,  an  English 
prelate,  born  March  G,  1662,  and  ed- 
ucated at  Westminster  and  Oxford. 
He  died  Feb.  15,  1732,  and  his  body 
was  interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Attic,  pertaining  to  Attica  or  to 
Athens.  Pure ;  elegant ;  classical ; 
poignant ;  characterized  by  keenness 
of  intellect,  delicacy  of  wit,  purity  of 
elegance,  soundness  of  judgment  and 
most  expressive  brevity;  as,  the  Attic 
Muse.  Attic  dialect  is  that  dialect  of 
the  Greek  language  which  was  spoken 
hi  Attica.  It  was  the  most  refined 
and  polished  of  all  the  dialects  of  an- 
cient Greece. 

Attica,  a  State  of  ancient  Greece, 
the  capital  of  which,  Athens,  was 
once  the  first  city  in  the  world. 

Atticns,  Titns  Pomponins,  a 
noble  Roman,  the  contemporary  of 
Cicero  and  Caesar. 

Attila,  the  famous  leader  of  the 
Huns,  was  the  son  of  Mundzuk,  and 
the  successor,  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother  Bleda,  of  his  uncle  Rhuas. 
The  rule  of  the  two  leaders  extended 
over  a  great  part  of  Northern  Asia 
and  Europe,  and  they  threatened  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  twice  compelled 
the  weak  Theodosius  II.  to  purchase 
an  inglorious  peace.  Attila  caused  his 
brother  Bleda  to  be  murdered  (444), 
and  in  a  short  time  extended  his  do- 
minion over  all  the  peoples  of  Ger- 
many and  exacted  tribute  from  the 
Eastern  and  Western  emperors.  He 
invaded  Italy  and  conquered  and  de- 
stroyed Aquileia,  Padua,  Vicenza,  Ve- 
rona, and  Bergamo,  laid  waste  the 
plains  of  Lombardy,  and  was  march- 
ing on  Rome  when  Pope  Leo  I.  went 
with  the  Roman  ambassadors  to  his 
camp  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  a 
peace.  Attila  went  back  to  Hungary, 
and  died  on  the  night  of  his  marriage 
with  Hilda  or  Ildico  (453),  either 
from  the  bursting  of  a  blood  vessel  or 
by  her  hand. 

Attock,  a  town  and  fort  of  the 
Punjab,  on  the  left  or  E.  bank  of  the 


Attorney 


Aublet 


Indus.  The  great  railway  bridge 
across  the  Indus  here  was  opened  in 
1883.  It  has  five  arches  130  feet  high, 
and  renders  continuous  the  railway 
connection  between  Calcutta  and  Pesh- 
awur  (1,600  miles). 

Attorney,  a  person  appointed  to 
do  something  for  and  in  the  stead  and 
name  of  another.  An  attorney  at  law 
is  a  person  qualified  to  appear  for  an- 
other before  a  court  of  law  to  prose- 
cute or  defend  any  action  on  behalf  of 
his  client. 

Attorney-General.    In  the  United  j 
States   the   Department  of  Justice   is 
presided  over  by  the  Attorney-General, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  furnish  all  legal  I 
advice  needed  by  Federal  authorities, 
and  conduct  all  litigation  in  which  the 
United     States     is     concerned.     The ! 
States  have  similar  officers. 

Attraction,  in  natural  philosophy, 
a  force  in  virtue  of  which  the  material 
particles  of  all  bodies  tend  necessarily 
to  approach  each  other. 

Capillary  attraction,  meaning  the 
attraction  excited  by  a  hair-like  tube 
on  a  liquid  within  it,  is,  properly 
speaking,  a  variety  of  adhesion. 

In  magnetism,  the  power  excited  by 
a  magnet  or  loadstone  of  drawing  and 
attaching  iron  to  itself. 

In  electricity,  the  power  possessed 
by  an  electrified  body  of  drawing  cer- 
tain other  bodies  to  itself. 

Atwater,  Lyman  Hotchkiss,  an 
American  theologian,  born  in  Hamp- 
den,  Conn.,  Feb.  23,  1813;  died  in 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Feb,  17,  1883. 

Atwater,  Wilber  Olin,  an  Amer-  I 
ican   chemist,   born  in  Johnsburg,   N. 
Y.,  May  3,   1844;   was  graduated  at 
Wesleyan  University  in  1865 ;  made  a  i 
special  study  of  chemistry  in  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale  and  the 
Universities    of    Leipsic    and    Berlin ; 
became    Professor    of    Chemistry    in 
East   Tennessee   University   in   1873 ; 
was  director  of  the  Connecticut  Agri-  i 
cultural  Experiment  Station  in  1875-  i 
1877,  and  was  appointed  director  of 
the  Storrs    (Conn.)    Experiment  Sta- 
tion in  1887.     He  was  connected  for 
several  years  with  the  United  States 
Depa  rtment  of  Agriculture ;    published 
many  papers  on  chemical  and  allied 
subjects;  and,  after  1894,  gave  much 
attention   to   nutrition   investigations. 
He  died  in  1907. 


Atwill,     Edward     Robert,     an 

American  clergyman,  born  in  Red 
Hook,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  18,  1840 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  in  1862, 
and  at  the  General  Theological  Sem- 
inary 1864 ;  consecrated  the  first  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  bishop  of  West  Mis- 
souri, Oct.  14, 1890.  D.  Jan.  24,  1011. 

Atwood,  Isaac  Morgan,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Pembroke, 
N.  Y.,  March  24,  1838;  was  ordained 
in  the  Universalist  Church  in  1861 ; 
held  several  pastorates ;  edited  "  The 
Christian  Leader  "  1867-1873 ;  became 
an  associate  editor  of  the  "  Universal- 
ist Leader ;  "  and  was  chosen  president 
of  the  Canton  (N.  Y.)  Theological 
Seminary  in  1879. 

Atwood,  Melville,  an  Anglo- 
American  geologist,  born  in  Prescott 
Hall,  England,  July  31,  1812 ;  studied 
lithology,  microscopy,  and  geology 
early  in  life,  and  engaged  in  gold  and 
diamond  mining  in  Brazil.  In  1843 
he  made  a  discovery  that  greatly  en- 
hanced the  value  of  zinc  ore.  After 
coming  to  the  United  States,  in  1852, 
he  invented  the  blanket  system  of 
amalgamation.  He  also  established 
the  value  of  the  famous  Comstock  sil- 
ver lode,  by  an  assay  of  minerals  in 
that  region.  He  died  in  Berkeley, 
Cal.,  April  25,  1898. 

Anber,  Daniel  Francois  Es- 
prit, a  French  operatic  composer, 
born  Jan.  29,  1782,  at  Caen,  in  Nor- 
mandy ;  was  originally  intended  for  a 
mercantile  career,  but  devoted  him- 
self to  music,  studying  under  Cheru- 
bini.  He  died  in  Paris,  May  13,  187L 

Anberlen,  Karl  August,  a  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian,  born  at 
Fellbach,  Wiirtemberg,  Nov.  19,  1824 ; 
died  at  Basel,  May  2,  1864. 

Anbert,  Joachim  Marie  Jean 
Jacques  Alexandra  Jules,  a 
French  general  and  military  writer; 
born  in  1804 ;  prominent  in  several 
campaigns,  and  was  made  commander 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1860.  He 
is  best  known  to  the  public  as  a  jour- 
nalist and  historical  writer.  He  died 
in  1890. 

Aubertin,  Charles,  a  French 
scholar,  born  in  St.  Didier,  Dec.  24, 
1825. 

Aublet,  Albert,  a  French  paint- 
er, born  in  Paris ;  studied  historical 
painting  under  Gerome ;  won  a  first- 


Aubry  

class  medal  in  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1889,  and  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1890. 

Aubry  de  Montdidier,  a  French 
soldier,  supposed  to  have  been  mur- 
dered by  his  comrade,  Richard  de 
Macaire,  in  1371.  His  dog  peristed 
in  pursuing  and  harassing  Macaire, 
and  this  coming  to  the  ears  of  King 
Charles  V.,  he  ordered  a  fight  be- 
tween them.  The  dog  was  victori- 1 
ous,  and  has  since  been  famous  in 
story  as  the  "Dog  of  Montargis;" ; 
from  the  place  of  the  fight. 

Auburn,  city  and  capital  of  An- ; 
droscoggin  county,  Me.;  on  the  An-  : 
droscoggin  river  and  the  Maine  Cen- 
tral  railroad;   35  miles   N.   of   Port- 
land; is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boots,  shoes,  cotton  goods, 
furniture,  and  farm  implements;  has 
many  points  of  local  interest,  includ- 
ing a  60-foot  fall  of  the  river.     Pop. 
(1910)  15,064. 

Auburn,  city  and  capital  of  Cay- 
uga  county,  N.  Y.;  on  Central  & 
Hudson  River  and  the  Lehigh  Val- 
ley railroads.  It  contains  a  State  ar- 
mory, Auburn  Theological  Seminary 
(Presb.),  a  State  prison  on  the 
"  silent  "  system,  a  State  Insane  asy- 
lum, a  statue  of  William  H.  Sew- 
ard,  and  important  industrial  plants. 
Pop.  (1910)  34,668. 

Auclimuty,  Richard  Tylden,  an 
American  philanthropist,  born  In 
New  York  city  in  1831;  practiced 
architecture  for  many  years;  with  his 
wife  founded  the  New  York  Trade 
Schools,  at  a  cost  of  $250,000.  J. 
Pierpont  Morgan,  in  1892,  gave  it  an 
endowment  of  $500,000.  Died  1893. 

Auckland,  a  town  in  New  Zealand, 
in  the  North  Island,  founded  in  1840, 
and  situated  on  Waitemata  harbor, 
one  of  the  finest  harbors  of  New  Zea- 
land, where  the  island  is  only  6  miles 
across,  there  being  another  harbor 
(Manukau)  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  isthmus.  It  was  formerly  the  cap- 
ital of  tue  colony.  Pop.  (1911),  in- 
cluding suburbs,  102,676. 

Auckland  Islands,  a  group  lying 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  S.  of  New 
Zealand.  The  largest  of  these  islands 
is  about  30  miles  long  by  15  broad, 
and  is  covered  with  dense  vegetation. 
They  are  almost  entirely  uninhabited, 
belong  to  the  British  and  are  a  sta- 
tion for  whaling  ships. 


Auersperg 

Auction,  the  public  disposal  of 
goods  to  the  highest  bidder. 

Audiometer,  or  Audimeter,  an 
instrument  devised  by  Prof.  Hughes, 
the  inventor  of  the  microphone.  Orig- 
inally its  object  was  to  measure  with 
precision  the  sense  of  hearing. 

Audiphone,  an  invention  to  assist 
the  hearing  of  deaf  persons  in  whom 
the  auditory  nerve  is  not  entirely  de- 
stroyed. 

Audit,  an  examination  into  ac- 
counts or  dealings  with  money  or 
property,  along  with  vouchers  or  other 
documents  connected  therewith,  espe- 
cially by  proper  officers,  or  persons  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose. 

Andsley,  George  A  slid  own,  a 
Scottish-American  architect,  born  in 
Elgin,  Scotland,  Sept  6,  1838;  estab- 
lished himself  in  the  United  States  in 
1892,  and  subsequently  became  promi- 
nent both  as  an  architect  and  author. 

Audubon,  John  James,  an 
American  naturalist  of  French  extrac- 
tion, born  near  New  Orleans,  May  4, 
1780;  was  educated  in  France,  and 
studied  painting  under  David.  In  1798 
he  settled  in  Pennsylvania,  but,  hav- 
ing a  great  love  for  ornithology,  he 
set  out  in  1810  with  his  wife  and 
child,  descended  the  Ohio,  and  for 
many  years  roamed  the  forests  in  every 
direction,  drawing  the  birds  which  he 
shot.  In  1826  he  went  to  England, 
exhibited  his  drawings  in  Liverpool, 
Manchester  and  Edinburgh,  and  final- 
ly published  them  hi  an  unrivaled 
work  of  double-folio  size,  with  435 
colored  plates  of  birds  the  size  of  life 
("The  Birds  of  America,"  4  vols., 
1827-1839),  with  an  accompanying 
text  ( "  Ornithological  Biography,"  5 
vols.,  8  vo.,  partly  written  by  Prof. 
Macgillivray).  On  his  final  return  to 
the  United  States  he  labored  with  Dr. 
Bachman  on  an  illustrated  work  en- 
titled "  The  Quadrupeds  of  America  " 
(1843-1850,  3  vols.).  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  June  27.  1851. 

Anerbacn>  Berthold,  a  German 
novelist,  born  at  Nordstetten,  Wtir- 
temberg,  Feb.  28,  1812.  He  died  at 
Cannes,  France,  Feb.  8,  1882. 

Auersperg,  Anton  Alexander, 
Graf  von,  a  German  poet,  born  at 
Laibach,  April  11,  1806.  He  died  at 
Gratz,  Sept.  12,  1876.  His  poems  are 
very  popular  in  Germany. 


Auerstadt 

Auerstadt,  a  village  in  the  Prus-  j 
sian  Province  of  Saxony,  10  miles  W.  j 
of  Naumburg.  It  is  famous  for  the 
great  battle  which  took  place  there 
Oct.  14,  1806,  between  the  French  un- 
der Davoust,  and  the  Prussian  army 
under  Duke  Charles  of  Brunswick, 
which  ended  in  a  great  victory  for  the 
former.  The  Prussians,  who  num- 
bered fully  48,000,  left  nearly  half  of 
their  men  dead  or  wounded  on  the 
ground,  while  the  French  (30,000)  es- 
caped with  a  loss  of  only  7,000.  Na- 
poleon, who  had,  on  the  same  day, 
defeated  the  main  army  of  Frederick 
William  III.  at  Jena,  made  Davoust 
Duke  of  Auerstadt. 

Augeas,  a  fabulous  king  of  Elis, 
in  Greece,  whose  stable  contained 
3,000  oxen,  and  had  not  been  cleaned 
for  30  years.  Hercules  undertook  to 
clear  away  the  filth  in  one  day  in  re- 
turn for  a  10th  part  of  the  cattle,  and 
executed  the  task  by  turning  the  river 
Alpheus  through  it  Augeas,  having 
broken  the  bargain,  was  deposed  and 
slain  by  Hercules. 

Augsburg,  Confession  of,  name 
given  to  the  celebrated  declaration  of 
faith,  compiled  by  Melanchthon,  re- 
vised by  Luther  and  other  reformers, 
and  read  before  the  Diet  of  Augsburg, 
June  25,  1530.  It  consisted  of  28  arti- 
cles, seven  of  which  refuted  Roman 
Catholic  errors,  and  the  remaining  21 
set  forth  the  Lutheran  creed.  Soon 
after  its  promulgation,  the  last  hope 
of  reforming  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  was  abandoned,  and  complete 
severance  followed.  An  answer  by  the 
Roman  Catholics  was  read  Aug.  3, 
1530;  when  the  Diet  declared  that  it 
had  been  refuted.  Melanchthon  then 
drew  up  another  confession.  The  first 
is  called  the  unaltered,  and  the  sec- 
ond, the  altered  form. 

Augsburg,  Diet  of,  the  most  cel- 
ebrated of  the  numerous  diets  held  at 
Augsburg.  Pope  Clement  VII.  refus- 
ing to  call  a  general  council  for  the 
settlement  of  all  religious  disputes, 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  summoned 
one  to  meet  at  Augsburg,  June  20, 
1530.  On  the  25th  the  famous  "  Con- 
fession "  was  read ;  later  an  answer 
was  made  by  the  Catholics,  whereupon 
the  Protestants  were  ordered  to  con- 
form in  all  points  to  the  Church  of 
Rome,  Charles  V.  giving  them  till 


August 

April  15,  1531,  to  reunite  with  the 
Mother  Church.  On  Nov.  22,  the  em- 
peror announced  his  intention  to  ex- 
ecute the  edict  of  Worms,  made  severe 
enactments  against  the  Protestants, 
and  reconstituted  the  Imperial  Cham- 
ber. The  Protestants  put  in  a  counter 
declaration,  and  the  Diet  closed. 

Augsburg,  League  of,  a  league 
concluded  at  Augsburg,  July  9,  1686, 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  treaties  of 
Miinster  and  Nimeguen,  and  the  truce 
of  Ratisbon,  and  to  resist  the  en- 
croachments of  France.  The  contract- 
ing parties  were  the  Emperor  Leopold 
I.,  the  Kings  of  Spain  and  Sweden, 
the  Electors  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria, 
and  the  circles  of  Suabia.  Franconla, 
Upper  Saxony  and  Bavaria. 

Augur,  Christopher  Colon,  an 
American  military  officer;  born  in 
New  York,  July  10,  1821 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1843 ;  became  Major  of 
the  13th  United  States  Infantry  in 
1861;  Colonel  of  the  12th  Infantry 
in  1866;  Brigadier-General,  United 
States  army,  March  4,  1869;  Major- 
General  in  the  volunteer  service  in 
1862;  mustered  out  of  that  service  in 
1866;  and  was  retired  in  the  regular 
army,  July  16,  1885.  He  commanded 
a  division  in  the  battle  of  Cedar 
Mountain,  being  severely  wounded. 
He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,,  Jan. 
16,  1898. 

Augur*,  a  college  of  diviners  in 
ancient  Rome,  who  predicted  future 
events  and  read  the  will  of  the  gods 
from  the  occurrence  of  certain  signs, 
connected  with  thunder  and  light- 
ning ;  the  flight  and  cries  of  birds ;  the 
feeding  of  the  sacred  chickens ;  the  ac- 
tion of  certain  quadrupeds  or  serpents ; 
accidents,  such  as  spilling  the  salt,  etc. 
The  answers  of  the  augurs  and  the 
signs  were  called  auguries ;  bird-pre- 
dictions were  auspices.  Nothing  was 
undertaken  without  the  augurs,  and 
by  the  words  "  alio  die  "  ( "  meet  on 
another  day  "),  they  could  dissolve  the 
assembly  of  the  people  and  annul  de- 
crees passed  at  the  meeting. 

August,  the  eighth  month  of  our 
year,  named  by  the  Roman  Emperor 
Augustus,  after  himself,  being  asso- 
ciated with  several  of  his  victories  and 
other  fortunate  events.  Before  this  it 
was  called  Sextilis  or  the  sixth  month 


Augusta 

(counting  from  March).  July  had 
been  named  for  Julius  Caesar  and  the 
Senate  to  please  Augustus  decreed  that 
August  should  have  equal  length,  tak- 
ing a  day  from  February. 

Augusta,  city  and  capital  of  Rich- 
mond county,  Ga.,  on  the  Savannah 
river  and  the  Southern  and  other  rail- 
roads; 120  miles  N.  W.  of  Savannah. 
The  city  is  noted  for  its  diversified 
manufactures,  which  had  in  1914  a 
value  of  over  $12,000,000,  and  its 
large  trade  in  cotton,  lumber,  fruit, 
and  vegetables.  Pop.  (1910)  41,040. 

Augusta,  city  and  capital  of  the 
State  of  Maine  and  of  Kennebec 
county;  on  the  Kennebec  river  and 
the  Maine  Central  railroad;  63  miles 
N.  E.  of  Portland.  The  city  has 
abundant  water  power  for  numerous 
factories,  and  besides  several  State 
buildings,  has*  a  National  Arsenal  and 
(4  miles  out)  a  National  Soldiers' 
Home.  Pop.  (1910)  13,211. 

Augusta,  Victoria,  Duchess  of 
Schleswig  -  Holstein  -  Sonderburg-Au- 
gustenburg,  born  Oct.  22,  1858; 
daughter  of  the  late  Duke  Friedrich; 
married  Prince  Friedrich  Wilhelm, 
afterward  Wilhelm  II.,  Feb.  27,  1881; 
became  Empress  of  Germany  and 
Queen  of  Prussia  on  the  accession  of 
her  husband  to  the  throne  in  1888. 

Augnstiue,  or  Austin,  St.,  the 
Apostle  of  the  English,  flourished  at 
the  close  of  the  6th  century. 

Augrnstulus,  Romulus,  the  last 
of  the  Western  Roman  emperors ; 
reigned  for  one  year  (475-476),  when 
he  was  overthrown  by  Odoacer  and 
banished. 

Augustus,  Cains  Julius  Caesar 
Octavianus,  originally  called  CAIUS 
OCTAVIUS,  the  celebrated  Roman  em- 
peror, was  the  son  of  Caius  Octavius 
and  Atia,  a  daughter  of  Julia,  the  sis- 
ter of  Julius  Caesar.  He  was  born 
63  B.  c.,  and  died  A.  D.  14.  He  was 
the  first  emperor  of  Rome  in  the  full 
sense  of  exercising  imperial  power  as 
a  recognized  monarch,  and  he  was 
also  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not  the 
greatest  of  the  emperors,  a  liberal  pa- 
tron of  art,  and  broad  and  sagacious 
in  the  exercise  of  his  authority.  He 
is  said  to  have  "  found  Rome  of  brick 
and  left  it  of  marble." 

Auk,  the  name  given  to  several  sea 
birds,  especially  the  great  and  the  lit- 


Aurifaber 

tie  auk.  The  great  auk  is  from  two 
to  two  and  a  half  feet  high,  with 
short  wings  almost  useless  for  flight. 
In  the  water,  however,  it  makes  way 
with  astonishing  rapidity.  It  is  es- 
sentially a  northern  bird.  It  seems  to 
be  rapidly  verging  to  extinction. 

Aulic,  an  epithet  given  to  a  coun- 
cil (the  Reichshofrath)  in  the  old 
German  Empire,  one  of  the  two  su- 
preme courts  of  the  German  Empire, 
the  other  being  the  court  of  the  im- 
perial chamber  ( Reichskamrmrge- 
richt).  It  had  not  only  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  latter  court,  but 
in  many  cases  exclusive  jurisdiction, 
in  all  feudal  processes,  and  in  crim- 
inal affairs,  over  the  immediate  feuda- 
tories of  the  emperor  and  in  affairs 
which  concerned  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment. The  title  is  now  applied  in 
Germany  in  a  general  sense  to  the 
chief  council  of  any  department,  po- 
litical, administrative,  judicial  or  mili- 
tary. 

Aurelian,  Lucius  Domitius 
Aurelianus,  an  Emperor  of  Rome, 
distinguished  for  his  military  abilities 
and  stern  severity  of  character ;  was 
the  son  of  a  peasant  of  Illyricum.  He 
was  born  about  212  A.  D.,  and  lost  his 
life,  A.  D.  275,  by  assassination,  the 
result  of  a  conspiracy  excited  by  a 
secretary  whom  he  intended  to  call  to 
account  for  peculation. 

Aureola,  or  Aureole,  in  paint- 
ings, an  illumination  surrounding  a 
holy  person,  as  Christ,  a  saint,  or  a 
martyr,  intended  to  represent  a  lu- 
minous cloud  or  haze  emanating  from 
him. 

Aureus,  the  first  gold  coin  which 
was  coined  at  Rome,  207  B.  C.  Its 
value  varied  at  different  times,  from 
about  $3  to  $6. 

Auricles  of  the  Heart,  those  two 
of  the  four  cavities  of  the  heart  which 
are  much  smaller  than  the  others,  and 
each  of  which,  moreover,  has  falling 
down  upon  its  external  face  a  flattened 
appendage,  like  the  ear  of  a  dog,  from 
which  the  name  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture is  derived. 

Auricula,  a  beautiful  garden  flow- 
er.  It  is  a  native  of  the  Alpine  dis- 
tricts of  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Ger- 
many, and  occurs  also  in  Astrakhan. 

Aurifaber,  the  Latinized  name  of 

JOHANN     GOLDSCHMIDT,     one     Of     Lu- 


Auriga 

ther's  companions,  born  in  1519,  be- 
came pastor  at  Erfurt  in  1566;  died 
there  in  1579.  He  collected  the  un- 
published manuscripts  of  Luther. 

Auriga,  in  astronomy,  the  Wag- 
oner, a  constellation  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  containing  68  stare,  in- 
cluding Capella  of  the  first  magnitude. 

Auringer,  Obadiah  Cyrus,  an 
American  poet,  born  at  Glens  Falls, 
N.  Y.,  June  4,  1849. 

Aurora,  a  city  in  Kane  county, 
111.;  on  the  Fox  river  and  the  Chi- 
cago &  Northwestern  and  other  rail- 
roads; 38  miles  W.  of  Chicago;  is 
the  farming  and  manufacturing  cen- 
ter of  Kane  and  adjoining  counties; 
has  large  cotton  and  woollen  mills 
and  locomotive  and  car  works;  and 
claims  the  first  electric  lighting  sys- 
tem in  the  United  States.  Pop. 
(1910)  29,807. 

Aurora  Borealis,  a  luminous  me- 
teoric phenomenon  appearing  in  the 
N.  most  frequently  in  high  latitudes, 
the  corresponding  phenomenon  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  being  called  au- 
rora austral  is,  and  both  being  also 
called  polar  light,  streamers,  etc. 

Aurungzebe,  known  as  the  Great 
Mogul,  or  Emperor  of  Hindustan, 
born  Oct:  22,  1618.  He  was  the  son 
of  Shah  of  Jehan,  and  properly  named 
Mohammed,  but  received  from  his 
grandfather  that  of  Aurungzebe  (Or- 
nament of  the  Throne),  by  which  he 
is  known  to  history.  Aurungzebe  died 
at  Ahmednagar,  in  the  Deccan,  Feb. 
21,  1707,  master  of  21  provinces,  and 
of  a  revenue  of  about  $200,000,000. 

Auscultation,  the  art  of  discov- 
ering diseases  within  the  body  by 
means  of  the  sense  of  hearing.  Being 
carried  out  most  efficiently  by  means 
of  an  instrument  called  a  stethoscope, 
it  is  often  called  mediate  auscultation. 

Auspices,  among  the  Romans, 
omens,  especially  those  drawn  from 
the  flight  or  other  movements  of  birds, 
or,  less  properly,  from  the  occurrence 
of  lightning  or  thunder  in  particular 
parts  of  the  sky.  These  were  sup- 
posed to  be  indications  of  the  will  of 
heaven,  and  to  reveal  futurity. 

Austen,  Jaue,  an  English  novelist, 
born  at  Steventon,  Hampshire,  of 
which  parish  her  father  was  the  rec- 
tor, Dec.  16,  1775 ;  died,  July  18.  1817. 


Austin 

Austerlitz,  a  small  town  of  Mo- 
ravia, on  the  Littawa,  13  miles  S.  EL 
of  Briinn.  In  the  vicinity,  on  Dec.  2, 
1805,  was  fought  the  famous  battle 
that  bears  its  name,  between  the 
French  army  of  80,000  men,  com- 
manded by  Napoleon,  and  the  com- 
bined Russian  and  Austrian  armies, 
numbering  84,000,  under  their  respec- 
tive Emperors ;  in  which  the  former 
achieved  a  signal  victory. 

Austin,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Texas,  and  county-seat  of  Travis  co. ; 
on  the  Colorado  river;  230  miles  N. 
W.  of  Galveston.  It  derives  large 
power  for  manufacturing  from  the  riv- 
er. Besides  the  State  Capitol,  the  city 
contains  the  main  building  of  the  State 
University,  four  State  asylums,  the 
State  Confederate  Home.  The  Capi- 
tol, which  cost  $3,000,000,  is  in  a 
square  of  10  acres.  The  recent  con- 
struction of  a  dam  in  the  river  has 
given  the  city  a  large  and  beautiful 
stretch  of  water,  known  as  Lake  Mc- 
Donald. The  city  was  originally 
known  as  Waterloo ;  was  named  after 
Stephen  F.  Austin ;  became  the  capital 
of  the  Republic  of  Texas  in  1839 ;  and 
the  capital  of  the  State  in  1872.  Pop. 
(1900)  22,258;  (1910)  29,860. 

Austin,  Alfred,  an  English  poet, 
critic,  and  journalist,  born  at  Head- 
ingly,  near  Leeds,  May  30,  1835.  He 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Lon- 
don in  1853,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1857,  and  was  editor  of  the  "  National 
Review,"  1883-1893.  He  was  ap- 
pointed poet  laureate  of  England  in 
1896.  He  died  June  2,  1913. 

Austin,  George  Lowell,  an 
American  physician  and  writer,  born 
in  Massachusetts  in  1849 ;  died  in 
1893. 

Austin,  Henry,  an  American  law- 
yer and  legal  writer,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  Dec.  21,  1858;  wrote  several 
valuable  law  books. 

Austin,  Jane  Goodwin,  an  Amer- 
ican novelist,  born  in  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Feb.  25,  1831 ;  was  educated 
and  thenceforth  lived  in  Boston.  She 
died  in  Boston,  March  30,  1894. 

Austin,  John,  an  English  writer 

on    jurisprudence,    born    fn    Creeling 

Mill,  Suffolk,  March  3,  1790.     From 

1826  to   1835   he  filled   the  chair  of 

,  Jurisprudence  at  London  University. 

I  Died  in  Weybridge,  Surrey,  in  Decem- 


Austin 


Australia 


her,  1859.  His  wife,  SARAH,  one  of 
the  Taylors  of  Norwich,  born  in  1793, 
produced  translations  of  German 
works,  and  other  books  bearing  on 
Germany  or  its  literature.  She  died 
in  Weybridge,  Surrey,  Aug.  8,  1867. 
Her  daughter,  LADY  DUFF  GOBDON, 
translated  several  German  works. 

Austin,     Stephen     Fuller,     an 

American  pioneer,  born  in  Austinville, 
Va.,  Nov.  31,  1793;  a  son  of  Moses 
Austin,  the  real  founder  of  the  State 
of  Texas,  who,  about  1820,  obtained 
permission  from  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment to  establish  an  American  colony 
in  Texas,  but  died  before  his  plans 
were  accomplished.  Stephen  took  up 
the  work  unfinished  by  his  father,  and 
located  a  thrifty  colony  on  the  site 
of  the  present  city  of  Austin,  in  1821. 
Subsequently  he  was  a  commissioner 
to  urge  the  admission  of  Texas  into 
the  Mexican  Union ;  was  imprisoned 
there  for  several  months;  and,  in 
1835  was  a  commissioner  to  the 
United  States  Government  to  secure 
the  recognition  of  Texas  as  an  inde- 
pendent State.  He  died  in  Columbia, 
Tex.,  Dec.  25,  1836. 

Australasia,  a  division  of  tbe 
globe  usually  regarded  as  comprehend- 
ing the  islands  of  Australia,  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  New  Caledonia,  the 
New  Hebrides,  the  Solomon  Islands, 
New  Ireland,  New  Britain,  the  Ad- 
miralty Islands,  New  Guinea,  and  the 
Arru  Islands,  besides  numerous  other 
islands  and  island  groups ;  area,  3,2d9- 
199  square  miles,  pop.  about  five  mil- 
lions. It  forms  one  of  three  portions 
into  which  some  geographers  have  di- 
vided Oceania,  the  other  two  being 
Malaysia  and  Polynesia. 

Australia,  Commonwealth  of, 
a  British  possession  which  includes 
the  island  continent  of  Australia  prop- 
er (the  largest  island  in  the  world) 
and  the  island  of  Tasmania,  is  situ- 
ated in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and 
comprises  in  all  an  area  of  about 
2,974,581  square  miles,  the  mainland 
alone  containing  about  2,948,366 
square  miles. 

It  k  bounded  on  the  W.  and  E.  by 
the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans  respec- 
tively: lies  between  long.  113°  9'  E. 
and  153°  39'  E.,  while  its  northern 
and  southern  limits  are  the  parallels 
of  lat.  10°  41'  S.  and  39°  8*  S.,  or, 


including  Tasmania,  43°  39'  S.  On 
its  north  are  the  Timor  and  Arafura 
seas  and  Torres  Strait ;  on  its  south 
the  Southern  Ocean  and  Bass  Strait. 
The  continent  is  a  large  plateau, 
fringed  by  a  low-lying,  well-watered 
coast,  particularly  on  the  eastern  side. 
No  less  than  1,149,320  square  miles 
belong  to  the  tropical  zone,  and  1,020,- 
720  to  the  temperate  zone. 

The  area  and  population  (exclusive 
of  aborigines)  of  the  different  states 
composing  the  Commonwealth  were 
reported  as  follows  on  Dec.  31,  1915 : 

Area 

States  and  Territories  Sq.  M.  Pop. 

New  South  Wales 309,460  1,869,084 

Victoria    87,884  1,417,803 

gueensland    670,500  680,446 

outh  Australia 380,070  439,222 

Western    Australia 975,920  318,016 

Tasmania    26,215  201,025 

Northern   Territory 523,620  4,563 

Federal  Territory 912  1,829 

Total  4,455,005    4,931,988 

The  government  is  based  on  the 
Constitution  Act  of  1900.  A  gover- 
nor-general represents  the  Crown. 
The  Senate  consists  of  thirty-six  mem- 
bers, six  for  each  Original  State,  di- 
rectly chosen  by  the  people  of  the 
State  for  a  term  of  six  years.  The 
House  of  Representatives  consists  of 
seventy-five  members,  directly  elected 
for  three  years.  A  Referendum  is  pro- 
vided. State  governors  are  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  and  State  Parliaments 
retain  legislative  authority  in  regard 
to  all  matters  not  transferred  to  the 
Federal  Parliament. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
governor-general,  with  an  Executive 
Council  of  seven  Ministers ;  the  judi- 
cial in  Federal  Supreme  Court,  called 
the  High  Court  of  Australia,  and 
other  courts  vested  with  Federal  ju- 
risdiction. Trade,  commerce,  and  in- 
tercourse among  the  States  is  abso- 
lutely free.  The  Commonwealth  makes 
uniform  customs  and  excise  duties. 

The  estimated  revenue  of  the  Com- 
monwealth for  the  fiscal  year  1915-16 
was  $142,453.000;  estimated  expen- 
diture, $315,420,455 ;  contributions  to 
the  States,  $31,734,975.  During  the 
year  the  revenue  was  augmented  by 
loans  aggregating  $303,007,800.  The 
largest  expenditure  was  for  defence, 
$248,649,875.  The  total  debt  of  the 


Australia 


Australian 


Commonwealth  on  March  1, 1916,  was 
$446,806,750,  of  which  $175,225,100 
was  a  4^%  war  loan  and  $149,892,- 
080  a  war  loan  from  the  British  Gov- 
ernment. The  total  net  debt  of  the 
States  on  June  30,  1915,  was  $1,672,- 
876,170,  or  about  $340  per  capita. 

Production  and  industry  in  the  cal- 
endar year  1913  yielded  the  following 
values. 

Agricultural  ?  231,300,000 

Pastoral 289,330,000 

Dairying,  Poultry,  etc 101,705,000 

Forestry  and  Fisheries 31,690,000 

Mining     129,040,000 

Manufacturing    307,930,000 


Total    $1,090,995,000 

The  leading  farm  crops  in  1914—15 
were  wheat,  24,892,402  bushels ;  oats. 
4,341,104;  maize,  8,455,561;  hay,  1,- 
733,944  tons ;  and  sugar-cane,  2,104,- 
239  tons.  The  live-stock  comprised 
78,600,334  sheep,  11,051,573  cattle,  2,- 
521,272  horses,  and  862,447  swine. 
The  value  of  all  minerals  produced  in 
1914  was  $111,322,945,  gold  leading 
with  $43,649,735.  Coal  yielded  $23,- 
098,445. 

Commercial  relations  in  1914-15 
showed :  imports  of  merchandise,  spe- 
cie, and  bullion,  $322,159,185;  ex- 
ports, $302,962,880.  The  principal  ex- 
ports were  wool,  wheat,  skins,  hides, 
butter,  copper  and  zinc,  mutton  and 
lamb,  flour,  coal,  and  beef.  During 
the  World  War  the  government  con- 
trolled the  export  of  the  principal 
food-stuffs.  The  Commonwealth  gov- 
ernment owns  a  line  of  steamships, 
operated  in  trade  only. 

Internal  communication  is  afforded 
by  20,062  miles  of  railway,  besides  2,- 
055  miles  of  private  lines ;  8,409  post- 
ing and  receiving  offices  which  in  1914 
handled  520,518,000  letters  and  post- 
cards, 136,200,000  newspapers,  etc., 
and  4,286,000  parcels ;  and  4,624  tele- 
graph offices,  with  108,931  miles  of 
wire,  dealing  with  17,000,000  cable- 
grams and  telegrams. 

Invalid  and  old-age  pensions  are 
granted  to  a  maximum  annual  amount 
of  $260  per  capita,  totalling  in  1916, 
$14,432,080  to  114,380  persons,  and 
maternity  allowances  of  $25  on  the 
birtn  of  each  child  are  granted,  33,- 
250  claims  being  passed  in  1915-16. 

In  1917  the  seat  of  the  Parliament 
was  at  Melbourne  and  a  made-to-order 


Federal  Capital  was  under  construc- 
tion at  Canberra,  in  New  South 
Wales  on  plans  drafted  by  an  Ameri- 
can engineer. 

The  principal  cities  and  towns,  with 
their  population,  1911,  are  Sydney  (N. 
S.  W.),  725,400;  Melbourne  (Vic.), 
651,000;  Adelaide  (S.  A.),  196,567; 
Brisbane  (A.),  154,000;  Perth  (W. 
A.),  106,792;  Newcastle  (N.  S.  W.), 
65,500;  Ballarat  (Vic.),  44,000;  Ben- 
digo  (Vic.),  42,000;  Hobart  (Tas.), 
39,107;  Broken  Hill  (N.  S.  W.),  30,- 
972;  Geelong  (Vic.)  28,900;  and 
Charters  Towers  (A.),  26,000. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
Australia  responded  promptly  and  ef- 
fectively to  the  call  of  the  mother 
country.  The  Commonwealth  has  a 
considerable  naval  fleet.  That  and  a 
strong  military  force  were  quickly 
mobilized  for  service  at  home  and 
wherever  needed.  See  APPENDIX  : 
World  War. 

Australia,  South,  one  of  the  orig- 
inal States  in  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia ;  occupies  the  middle  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  stretches  from  sea  to  sea. 
At  first  as  the  colony  of  South  Aus- 
tralia it  extended  between  Ion.  132° 
and  141°  E.,  and  from  the  Southern 
Ocean  to  lat.  26°  N.  It  now  has  an  area 
of  about  903,690.  Pop.  (1911)  418,172. 

Australia,  Western,  one  of  the 
original  States  in  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia ;  embraces  all  that  por- 
tion of  Australia  W.  of  Ion.  129°  E., 
bounded  E.  by  South  Australia,  and 
N.,  W.,  and  S.  by  the  Indian  Ocean ; 
area,  975,920  square  miles;  capital, 
Perth.  The  coast-line  measures  about 
3,000  miles,  and,  except  on  the  S.,  is 
indented  by  numerous  bays,  creeks,  and 
estuaries.  From  1850  to  1868  it  was  a 
place  for  the  transportation  of  con- 
victs. In  1890  the  State  received  au- 
tonomous government.  On  Oct.  16, 
1906,  the  Legislature  adopted  a  motion 
to  secede  from  the  commonwealth,  the 
union  being  detrimental  to  the  devel- 
oping interests  of  the  State.  Pop. 
(1911)  294,181. 

Australian  Federation,  a  poli- 
tical union  of  all  the  Australian  colo- 
nies, the  agitation  for  which  began  in 
1852.  Feb.,  1899,  a  unanimous  agree- 
ment was  reached  by  the  colonial  pre- 
miers in  conference  at  Melbourne,  re- 
garding the  unsettled  questions  re- 


Austria 

ferred  to  them  by  the  colonial  Legisla- 
tures, thus  insuring  the  success  of  the 
federation  project.  In  1900,  a  bill 
making  Federation  effective  was  intro- 
duced into  Parliament,  at  London,  and 
passed,  the  only  amendment  offered 
having  reference  to  the  royal  preroga- 
tive. Later  in  that  year  the  Earl  of 
Hopetoun  was  appointed  by  the  Queen 
first  Governor-General.  He  resigned 
in  May,  1902. 

Austria,  or  Austria-Hungary , 
an  extensive  monarchy  in  Central  Eu- 
rope, inhabited  by  several  distinct 
nationalities,  and  consisting  of  two 
semi-independent  countries,  each  with 
its  own  parliament  and  government, 
but  with  one  common  sovereign,  army, 
and  system  of  diplomacy,  and  also 
with  a  parliament  common  to  both. 
The  Austrian  empire  extends  from 
about  lat.  42°  to  51°  N.,  or,  exclusive 
of  Dalmatia  and  the  narrower  part  of 
Croatia,  from  about  lat.  44°  30'  to 
51°  N.,  and  from  Ion.  8°  30'  to  26° 
30'  E.,  the  total  area  in  round  num- 
bers is  240,000  square  miles.  Its 
Greatest  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  about 
60  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth  from 
N.  to  S.,  with  the  exclusion  above 
stated,  is  about  400  miles ;  bounded  S. 
by  Turkey,  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Italy ;  W.  by  Switzerland, 
Bavaria,  and  Saxony ;  N.  by  Prussia 
and  Russian  Poland ;  and  E.  by  Rus- 
sia and  Rumania.  On  the  shores  of 
the  Adriatic,  along  the  coasts  of  Dal- 
matia, Croatia,  Istria,  etc.,  lies  its 
only  sea  frontage. 

Besides  being  divided  into  the  two 
great  divisions  above  mentioned,  the 
Austrq-Hungarian  monarchy  is  fur- 
ther divided  into  a  number  of  govern- 
ments or  provinces.  The  following 
table  gives  their  name,  area,  and  pop- 
ulation : 

Area  in  Pop.  Dec. 

_  Divisions                   sq.  m.  31,1910 
Austrian  Provinces — 

Lower  Austria 7,658  3,531,814 

Upper  Austria    4,268  853,006 

Salzburg   2,763  214,737 

Styria     8,662  1,444,157 

Carinthia   3,989  396,200 

Carniola    ..'. 3,845  525,995 

Coast  land   3,079  893,797 

Tyrol      and      Vorarl- 

berg    11,312  1,092,021 

Bohemia    20,065  6,769,548 

Moravia  8,583  2,622,271 

Silesia    1,988  756,949 

Galicia    30,321  8,025,675 


Austria 

Area  in  Pop.  Dec. 

Divisions                    sq.  m.  31, 1910 
Austrian    Provinces — 

Bukowina    4,033  800,098 

Dalmatia   4,956  645,666 

115,882  28,571,934 
Hungarian  Provinces — 

Hungary    Proper 108,977  18,142,200 

Croatia   and   Slayonia  16,418  2,602,544 

In  military  service. . .  141,743 

Total  Hungary   125,395    20,886,487 

Total  Empire 241,277    49,458,421 

None  of  the  European  States,  with 
the  exception  of  Russia,  exhibits  such 
a  diversity  of  race  and  language  as 
does  this  dual  Empire.  In  Austria 
alone  the  following  ethical  elements 
on  the  basis  of  language  were  devel- 
oped in  the  census  of  1910 :  German, 
9,950,266;  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and 
Slovak,  6,435,983;  Polish,  4,967,984; 
Ruthenian,  3,518,854 ;  Slovene,  1,252,- 
940;  Servian  and  Croatian,  783,334; 
Italian  and  Ladin,  768,422;  Ruma- 
nian, 275,115;  and  Magyar,  10,974. 
In  Hungary  the  corresponding  ele- 
ments were :  Magyar,  10,050,575  ; 
German,  2,037,435;  Slovak,  1,967,- 
970;  Rumanian,  2,949,032;  Rutheni- 
an, 472,587;  Croatian,  1,883,162; 
Servian,  1,106,471;  all  others,  469,- 
255.  Hence  in  the  entire  Empire  the 
linguistic  elements  were :  German, 
11,987,701 ;  Bohemian,  Moravian,  and 
Slovak,  9,656,893;  Polish,  4,967,984; 
Ruthenian,  3,991,441 ;  Servian  and 
Croatian,  3,772,967;  Italian  and  La- 
din,  768,422;  Rumanian,  3,224,147; 
Magyar,  10.061,549;  all  others,  469,- 
255.  The  Slavs,  who  amount  to  above 
19,000,000,  or  45  per  cent,  of  the  total 
population,  are  the  chief  of  the  com- 
ponent nationalities  of  the  monarchy 
in  point  of  numbers,  forming  the  great 
mass  of  the  population  of  Bohemia, 
Moravia,  Carniola,  Galicia,  Dalmatia, 
Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and  Northern 
Hungary,  and  half  the  population  of 
Silesia  and  Bukowina.  This  prepon- 
derance, however,  is  only  apparent,  as 
none  of  the  other  races  are  split  up 
into  so  many  branches  differing  so 
greatly  from  each  other  in  language, 
religion,  civilization,  manners,  and 
customs.  These  branches  are  the 
North  Slavic  Czechs,  Moravians,  and 
Slovaks,  the  Ruthenians  and  Poles, 
and  the  South  Slavic  Slovenians, 


MODERN 


1 — Seven-passenger  eight-cylinder  touring  car. 
2 — Six-cylinder  touring  car — 66  H.P. 
3 — Twin-six  brougham,  six-passenger. 


DMOBILES 


4 — Half-ton  Light  Delivery  Wagon.     5 — One-and-a-half-ton  Delivery  Truck. 
6 — Five-ton  Heavy  Service  Truck. 


Austria 


Automobile* 


Croats,  Serbs,  and  Bulgarians.  The 
Germans  are  scattered  over  the  whole 
monarchy,  and  form  almost  the  sole 
population  of  the  archduchy  of  Aus- 
tria, Salzburg,  the  greatest  portion  of 
Styria  and  Carinthia,  almost  the 
whole  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  con- 
siderable portions  of  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia, the  whole  of  the  W.  of  Silesia, 
etc. ;  and  they  are  also  numerous  in 
Hungary  and  Transylvania.  The  Mag- 
yars or  Hungarians  form  the  great 
bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of  Hungary 
and  of  the  E.  portion  of  Transylvania. 
To  the  Italic  or  Western  Romanic 
stock  belong  the  inhabitants  of  South 
Tyrol  and  parts  of  the  coast  lands  and 
Dalmatia.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  S.  E.  of  the  empire  is  occupied  by 
members  of  the  Rumanian  (or  East- 
ern Romanic)  stock,  who  form  more 
than  half  the  population  of  Transyl- 
vania, besides  being  spread  over  the 
S.  E.  parts  of  Hungary,  Bukowina, 
and  part  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 
The  number  of  Jews  is  also  very  con- 
siderable, especially  in  Galicia,  Hun- 
gary, Bohemia,  and  Moravia.  There 
are  also  several  other  races  whose 
numbers  are  small,  such  as  the  Gyp- 
sies, who  are  most  numerous  in  Hun-, 
gary  and  Transylvania,  and  the  Al- 
banians in  Dalmatia  and  neighboring 
regions.  The  population  is  thickest 
in  Lower  Austria,  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
and  Moravia ;  thinnest  in  Salzburg 

The  State  religion  of  Austria  is  the 
Roman  Catholic,  and  next  in  numbers 
is  the  Greek  Church.  Calvinism  and 
Lutheranism  are  also  professed  by  a 
large  body  of  the  people ;  the  former 
mostly  in  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
the  latter  in  the  German  provinces  and 
in  Galicia.  The  civil  power  exercises 
supreme  control  in  all  ecclesiastical 
matters,  the  emperor  being,  in  every- 
thing but  the  name,  head  of  the 
Church. 

Military  service  is  obligatory  on  all 
citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms  who 
have  attained  the  age  of  20,  and  lasts 
up  to  the  age  of  42,  either  in  the  ac- 
tive army,  in  the  landwehr,  or  the 
landsturm.  The  period  of  service  in 
the  active  army  is  12  years,  of  which 
three  are  passed  in  the  line,  seven  in 
the  reserve,  and  two  in  the  landwehr. 

The  history  of  Austria-Hungary  in 
the  last  few  years  has  been  most 
eventful.  On  Oct.  7,  1909,  without 


any  previous  hint,  the  annexation  of 
the  Turkish  provinces  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  and  the  sanjak  of  Novi 
Bazar  was  proclaimed.  Turkey  vain- 
ly protested  against  the  act,  as  a  viola- 
tion of  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin.  On  June  28,  1914,  the 
Austrian  Archduke  Francis  Ferdi- 
nand, heir  to  the  throne,  and  his  wife, 
the  Duchess  of  Hohenberg,  were  as- 
sassinated while  on  a  visit  to  Sara- 
jevo, ^Bosnia,  by  an  alleged  Servian. 
This  incident  was  made  the  immediate 
pretext  for  the  greatest  war  in  his- 
tory. The  venerable  Emperor,  Francis 
Joseph,  died  Nov.  21,  1916,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  grand  nephew,  the 
Archduke  Charles  Francis  Joseph,  as 
Charles  I.  For  a  summary  of  the 
participation  of  Austria-Hungary  in 
the  war  see  APPENDIX:  World  War. 

Author's  Guild,  American,  an 
organization  founded  in  New  York 
city,  in  1892,  and  incorporated,  in 
1895,  has  for  its  objects  the  promo- 
tion of  a  professional  spirit  among 
authors  and  a  better  understanding 
between  authors  and  their  publishers, 
and,  in  general,  the  protection  of  lite- 
rary^ property  and  the  advancement  of 
the  interests  of  American  authors  and 
literature.  The  guild  has  a  pension 
fund  for  members  who  become  needy. 

Autocracy,  a  word  signifying  that 
form  of  government  in  which  the  sov- 
ereign unites  in  himself  the  legislative 
and  the  executive  powers  of  the  State, 
and  thus  rules  uncontrolled.  Such  a 
sovereign  is,  therefore,  called  an  auto- 
crat. Nearly  all  Eastern  governments 
are  of  this  form.  Among  European 
rulers,  the  Emperor  of  Russia  alone 
bears  the  title  of  Autocrat,  the  name 
indicating  his  freedom  from  constitu- 
tional restraint  of  every  kind. 

Automobiles,  a  term  under  which 
are  comprised  horseless  carriages,  mo- 
tor vans,  motor  omnibus,  and  all  the 
motor  traction  vehicles  adapted  for 
use  on  ordinary  roads  having  no  rails. 
Electricity,  steam  and  gasoline  or 
naphtha  are  the  three  main  sources  of 
power  that  do  the  bidding  of  the  man 
behind  the  lever.  Other  sources  of 
power,  such  as  compressed  air,  liquid 
air,  carbonic  acid  gas  and  alcohol, 
have  been  experimented  with  ;  but  are 
regarded  as  impracticable  by  experts. 
The  modern  automobile,  which  was 
led  up  to  by  the  bicycle  with  its  rub- 


Autonomy 

her  tires,  found  its  first  great  devel- 
opment in  France,  encouraged  by  the 
perfection  of  the  highways  in  that 
country.  The  United  States  census  of 
1914  on  manufactures  credited  the  au- 
tomobile industry  with  having  300  es- 
tablishments for  producing  complete 
cars,  which  employed  $312,870,000 
capital,  paid  wage  earners  $79,307,- 
000,  used  materials  costing  $292,598,- 
000,  and  had  an  output  valued  at 
$503.230,000.  The  manufacture  of  au- 
tomobile bodies  and  parts  had  971  es-  | 
tablishments,  $94,854.000  capital,  and 
an  output  valued  at  $129,601,000.  The 
total  registration  of  cars  in  the  United 
States  was  1.127,940,  an  increase  in 
three  years  of  605,001.  A  tremendous 
increase  of  motors  for  trucking,  ambu- 
lance, and  artillery  use  developed  dur- 
ing the  World  War.  In  the  calendar 
year  1916  the  exports  of  American 
made  automobiles  and  parts  aggre- 
gated 80.850,  valued  at  $96,595,861, 
the  largest  number  going  to  Europe. 

Autonomy,  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  citizens  of  a  State  manage 
their  own  legislation  and  government; 
and  this  evidently  may,  with  certain 
restrictions,  be  the  case  also  within 
limited  bodies  of  the  same  people,  such 
as  corporations,  religious  sects,  etc. 

Autopsy,  eye-witnessing,  a  direct 
observation ;  generally  applied  to  a 
post  mortem  examination,  or  the  dis- 
section of  a  dead  body. 

Autumn,   the  season   of  the   year 
which    follows   summer    and    precedes 
winter.     Astronomically,  it  is  consid-  j 
ered  to  extend  from  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox, Sept.  23,  in  which  the  sun  enters 
Libra,  to  the  winter  solstice,  Dec.  22, ! 
in  which  he  enters  Capricorn.     Pop- 
ularly, it  is  believed  to  embrace  the 
months    of    September,    October    and 
November. 

Auvergne,  a  province  of  Central 
France,  now  merged  into  the  Depart- 
ments of  Cantal  and  Puy-de-Dome, 
and  an  arrondissement  of  Haute- 
Loire.  It  contains  the  Auvergne  Moun- 
tains, the  highest  in  France. 

Anxetophone,  a  device  which 
greatly  increases  the  sound  produced 
by  the  graphophone  (q.  v.). 

Auzout,  Adrian,  a  French  math- 
ematician ;  inventor  of  the  micrometer, 
^ which  is  still  in  use  among  astron- 


Avebury 

omers  to  measure  the  apparent  diam- 
eter of  celestial  bodies.  He  was  the 
first  who  thought  of  applying  the  tel- 
escope to  the  astronomical  quadrant. 
He  died  in  1691. 

Ava,  Arva,  Yava,  or  Kava,  a 
plant  possessing  narcotic  proprieties. 
Until  recently  it  was  ranked  in  the 
genus  piper  (pepper).  It  is  a  native 
of  many  of  the  South  Sea  islands, 
where  the  inhabitants  intoxicate  them- 
selves with  a  fermented  liquor  pre- 
pared from  the  upper  portion  of  the 
root  and  the  base  of  the  stem. 

Avalanches,  masses  of  snow  or 
ice  that  slide  or  roll  down  the  decliv- 
ities of  high  mountains,  and  often 
occasion  great  devastation.  They 
are  most  common  in  July,  •  August 
and  September.  Sudden  avalanches, 
larger  or  smaller,  constitute  one  of 
the  special  dangers  of  Alpine  climbing. 

Avars,  a  people,  probably  of  Tu- 
ranian origin,  who  at  an  early  period 
may  have  migrated  from  the  region  E. 
of  the  Tobol  in  Siberia  to  that  about 
the  Don,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the 
Volga.  A  part  advanced  to  the  Dan- 
ube in  555  A.  D.,  and  settled  in  Dacia. 
They  served  in  Justinian's  army,  aid- 
ed the  Lombards  in  destroying  the 
kingdom  of  the  Gepidae,  and  in  the 
6th  century  conquered  under  their 
khan,  Bajan,  the  region  of  Pannonia. 
They  then  won  Dalmatia,  pressed  into 
Thuringia  and  Italy  against  the 
Franks  and  Lombards,  and  subdued 
the  Slavs  dwelling  on  the  Danube,  as 
well  as  the  Bulgarians  on  the  Black 
Sea.  But  they  were  ultimately  lim- 
ited to  Pannonia,  where  they  were 
overcome  by  Charlemagne,  and  nearly 
extirpated  by  the  Slavs  of  Moravia. 
After  827  they  disappear  from  history. 
Traces  of  their  fortified  settlements 
are  found,  and  known  as  Avarian 
rings. 

Avatar,  more  properly  Avatara, 
in  Hindu  mythology,  an  incarnation 
of  the  Deity.  Of  the  innumerable 
avatars  the  chief  are  the  10  incarna- 
tions of  Vishnu,  who  appeared  succes- 
sively as  a  fish,  a  tortoise,  a  boar. 

Avdyeyev,  Michael  Vassilye- 
vich,  a  Russian  novelist  (1821-1876). 

Avebnry,  a  village  of  England,  in 
Wiltshire,  occupying  the  site  of  a  so- 
called  Druidical  temple,  which  origi- 
nally consisted  of  a  large  outer  circle 


Avebnry 

of  100  stones,  from  15  to  17  feet  in 
height,  and  about  40  feet  in  circum- 
ference, surrounded  by  a  broad  ditch 
and  lofty  rampart,  and  inclosing  two 
smaller  circles. 

Avebnry,  Lord.     See  LUBBOCK. 

Avellaneda,  Nicholas,  an  Ar- 
gentine statesman,  born  in  Tucuman, 
Oct.  1,  183G;  Minister  of  Public  in- 
struction in  1868-1874,  and  President 
of  the  Republic  in  1874-1886;  pub- 
lished several  historical  and  economi- 
cal works.  He  died  Dec.  26,  1885. 

Avellaneda  y  Arteaga,  Ger- 
trudis  Gomez  de,  a  distinguished 
Spanish  poet,  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  Puerto  Principe,  Cuba,  March 
23,  1814.  She  died  in  Madrid,  Feb. 
2,  1873. 

Ave  Maria  ("Hail,  Mary"),  the 
first  two  words  of  the  angel  Gabriel's 
salutation  (Luke  i:  28),  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  very  common  Latin 
prayer  to  the  Virgin  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

Average,  formerly  the  apportion- 
ment of  losses  by  sea  or  elsewhere  in 
just  proportions  among  different  indi- 
viduals; now  the  medium  or  mean 
proportion  between  certain  given 
quantities.  It  is  ascertained  by  ad- 
ding all  the  quantities  together  and 
dividing  their  sum  by  the  number  of 
them. 

Averell,  William  Woods,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Cameron,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  5,  1832;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  in  1855 ;  served  on  the 
frontier  and  in*  several  Indian  cam- 
paigns till  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  when  he  was  appointed  Colonel 
of  the  3d  Pennsylvania  Cavalry,  and 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the  caval- 
ry defenses  of  Washington.  During 
the  war  he  distinguished  himself  on 
numerous  occasions  as  a  cavalry  raid- 
er and  commander,  and  at  its  close 
was  brevetted  Major-General  of  volun- 
teers. He  was  retired  in  1888. 
He  was  United  States  Consul-general 
at  Montreal  in  1866-1869.  He  died  in 
Bath,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3,  1900. 

Avernus,  or  Averno,  a  lake  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Naples,  about  2% 
miles  N.  W.  of  Puzzuoli,  and  near  the 
coast  of  Baiae,  the  waters  of  which 
were  so  unwholesome  and  putrid  that 
DO  birds  ever  visited  its  banks.  The 


Avignon 

ancients  made  it  the  entrance  of  hell, 
by  which  Ulysses  and  .<Eneas  descend- 
ed into  the  lower  regions. 

Averrhoa,  a  genus  of  plants.  It 
consists  of  two  species,  both  of  which 
form  small  trees  in  the  East  Indies. 
One  has  fruit  resembling  a  small 
cucumber.  The  latter  is  intensely 
acid  and  cannot  be  eaten  raw.  It 
is  pickled  or  candied,  or  a  syrup  is 
obtained  from  it  by  boiling  with  sugar, 
and  its  juice  is  found  an  excellent 
agent  for  removing  iron  mold  or  other 
spots  from  linen.  To  the  Malays  it 
answers  the  same  purposes  as  the  cit- 
ron, the  gooseberry,  the  caper  and  the 
cucumber  of  Europe. 

Avery,  Benjamin  Parke,  an 
American  journalist  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  New  York  city  in  1829.  From 
1874  to  1875  he  was  United  States 
Minister  to  China.  He  died  in  Pekin, 
China,  Nov.  8,  1875. 

Avery,  Samuel  Putnam,  an 
American  merchant,  born  in  New 
York  city,  March  17,  1822;  became  a 
copper-plate  and  wood  engraver,  and 
subsequently  an  art  publisher  and 
dealer,  and  retired  from  business  in 
1888.  In  1891,  with  his  wife,  he  cre- 
ated and  endowed  the  Avery  Architec- 
tural Library,  in  Columbia  University, 
as  a  memorial  of  his  deceased  son; 
and  in  May,  1900,  he  presented  to  the 
trustees  of  the  New  York  Public  Li- 
brary a  collection  of  etchings,  litho- 
graphs and  photographs,  numbering 
more  than  17,500  pieces,  with  many 
volumes  similarly  illustrated.  Died 
Aug.  12,  1904. 

Aviary,    a    building    for   birds. 

Aviation.     See  AEBO^ATJTICS. 

Avicennia,  or  White  Man- 
grove, a  genus  which  consists  of 
trees  or  large  shrubs  resembling  man- 
groves, and,  like  them,  growing  in 
tidal  estuaries  and  salt  marshes. 

Ayienns,  Bnfns  Festus,  a  Latin 
descriptive  poet,  who  flourished  about 
the  end  of  the  4th  century  after 
Christ,  and  wrote  "  Descriptio  Orbis 
Terra,"  a  general  description  of  the 
earth ;  "  Ora  Maritima,"  an  account 
of  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  etc. 

Avignon  (ancient  Avenio),  a  city 
of  France,  capital  of  the  Department 
of  Vaucluse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhone,  76  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Mar- 
seilles, on  the  railway  to  Paris.  In 


Avlona ^^ 

1309,  Clement  V.  transferred  thither 
the  abode  of  the  Popes,  who  continued 
to  reside  here  till  1377,  when  they  re- 
turned to  Rome ;  but  two  schismatical 
Popes,  or  Popes  elected  by  the  French 
cardinals,  resided  at  Avignon  till 
1409.  Avignon  and  its  territory  re- 
mained the  property  of  the  Holy  See 
until  1797,  when  it  was  incorporated 
with  France. 

Avlona,  the  principal  seaport  on 
the  coast  of  Albania,  on  the  gulf  of 
the  same  name,  supposed  to  be  the 
ancient  Avion  of  the  Greeks,  fifty- 
eight  miles  across  the  Strait  of  Otran- 
to  from  Italy.  For  its  share  in  the 
great  war,  see  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Avocado,  a  West  Indian  fruit, 
called  also  avocado  pear,  alligator 
pear,  avigato,  and  sabacca. 

Avoirdupois,  a  system  of  weights 
used  for  all  goods  except  precious  met- 
als, gems,  and  medicines,  and  in  which 
a  pound  contains  16  ounces,  or  7,000 
grains,  while  a  pound  troy  contains  12 
ounces,  or  5,760  grains.  A  hundred- 
weight contains  112  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois. 

Avon,  the  name  of  several  Eng- 
lish and  Scottish  rivers,  the  best 
known  of  which  is  that  Avon  which 
rises  in  Northamptonshire,  and  flows 
into  the  Severn  a't  Tewkesbury,  after 
a  course  of  100  miles.  On  its  banks 
is  Stratford-on-Avon,  the  birthplace 
and  abode  of  Shakespeare,  who  has 
hence  been  styled  the  Bard  of  Avon. 

Axayacat,  or  Axayacatl,  a  Mex- 
ican fly,  the  eggs  of  which,  deposited 
abundantly  on  rushes  and  flags,  are 
collected  and  sold  as  a  species  of  cavi- 
are. 

Axim,  an  important  station  and 
port  on  the  African  Gold  Coast,  a*  lit- 
tle to  the  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Anco- 
brah  river.  Inland  from  Axim,  in  the 
basin  of  that  river,  and  in  the  district 
between  it  and  the  Prah,  gold  mining 
operations  have  been  carried  on  on  a 
large  scale. 

Axinomancy,  a  mode  of  divina- 
tion much  practiced  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  particularly  with  the  view  of 
discovering  the  perpetrators  of  great 
crimes.  An  ax  was  poised  upon  a 
stake,  and  was  supposed  to  move  so 
as  to  indicate  the  guilty  person ;  or  the 
names  of  suspected  persons  being  pro- 


Ayeshah 

nounced,  the  motion  of  the  ax  at  a 
particular  name  was  accepted  as  a  sign 
of  guilt. 

Axiom,  a  Greek  word  meaning  a 
decision  or  assumption,  is  commonly 
used  to  signify  a  general  proposition 
which  the  understanding  recognizes  as 
true,  as  soon  as  the  import  of  the 
words  conveying  it  is  apprehended. 

Axis,  a  straight  line,  real  or  im- 
aginary, passing  through  a  body,  and 
around  which  that  body  revolves,  or 
at  least  may  revolve ;  also,  the  imag- 
inary line  connecting  the  poles  of  a 
planet,  and  around  which  the  planet 
rotates. 

Axis,  a  species  of  deer  found  in 
India,  called  by  Anglo-Indian  sports- 
men hog  deer. 

Axminster,  a  market  town  in 
England,  in  the  county  Devon,  on  the 
Axe,  at  one  time  celebrated  for  its 
woolen  cloth  and  carpet  manufactures, 
and  giving  name  to  an  expensive  va- 
riety of  carpet  having  a  thick,  soft 
pile,  and  also  to  a  cheaper  variety. 

Axolotl,  a  curious  Mexican  am- 
phibian, not  unlike  a  newt,  from  8  to 
10  inches  in  length,  with  gills  formed 
of  three  long,  ramified  or  branch-like 
processes  floating  on  each  side  of  the 
neck.  It  reproduces  by  laying  eggs, 
and  was  for  some  time  regarded  as  a 
perfect  animal  with  permanent  gills. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  they  frequent- 
ly lose  their  gills  like  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  genus,  though  some  au- 
thorities maintain  that  the  true  ax- 
olotl  never  loses  its  gills.  The  axolotl 
is  esteemed  a  luxury  by  the  Mexicans. 
There  are  a  number  of  species  in 
North  America. 

Ayacucho,  formerly  Huamanga  or 
Guamanga,  a  town  in  the  Peruvian 
department  of  the  same  name,  220 
miles  E.  S.  E.  of  Lima.  Here,  on  Dec. 
9,  1824,  the  combined  forces  of  Peru 
and  Colombia  —  the  latter  then  com- 
prising Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and 
Venezuela  —  totally  defeated  the  last 
Spanish  army  that  ever  set  foot  on 
the  continent. 

Aye-aye,  an  animal  of  Madagas- 
car, so  called  from  its  cry,  now  re- 
ferred to  the  lemur  family.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  hare,  has  large,  flat  ears 
and  a  bushy  tail. 

Ayeshah,  also  Aysha,  or  Aisha, 
the  favorite  wife  of  Mohammed,  and 


Aylmer 


Azores 


daughter  of  Abu-Bekr,  was  born  at 
Medina  about  610  A.  D. ;  and  was  only 
nine  years  of  age  when  the  Prophet 
married  her.  She  was  the  only  one  of 
Mohammed's  wives  who  accompanied 
him  in  his  campaigns.  Although  Aye- 
shah  bore  no  children  to  Mohammed, 
she  was  tenderly  beloved  by  him.  She 
died  at  Medina  (677  A.  D.),  highly 
venerated  by  all  true  Mussulmans,  and 
named  the  Prophetess  and  the  Mother 
of  Believers. 

Aylmer,  Matthew,  a  Canadian 
military  officer,  born  in  Melbourne,  P. 
Q.,  March  28,  1842 ;  became  Adjutant- 
General  of  the  Dominion  militia,  the 
highest  military  office  in  Canada  next 
to  that  of  the  Major-General  com- 
manding, in  1896 ;  baron  in  1901. 


AYE-AYE. 

Ayr,  a  town  of  Scotland,  a  royal 
and  parliamentary  borough  and  capi- 
tal of  Ayrshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Ayr.  The  house  in  which  the 
poet  Burns  was  born  stands  with- 
in 1^  miles  of  the  town,  between  it 
and  the  Church  of  Alloway  ("Allo- 
way's  auld  haunted  kirk"),  and  a 
monument  to  him  stands  on  a  height 
between  the  kirk  and  the  bridge  over 
the  Doon. 

Ayrer,  Jacob,  a  German  dramat- 
ist ;  next  to  Hans  Sachs  the  most  pro- 
lific dramatist  of  Germany  in  the  16th 
century.  He  died  in  Nuremberg, 
March  26,  1605. 

Ayres,    Anne,    an    American    au- 


thor, born  in  England  in  1816;  was 
the  first  member  of  an  American  sis- 
terhood in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  She  died  in  February,  1896. 

Ayrton,  William  Edward,  an 
English  electrician  and  inventor,  born 
in  London,  in  1847 ;  was  graduated  at 
University  College,  London,  in  1867; 
entered  the  Indian  telegraph  service, 
having  studied  electrical  engineering 
with  Prof.  William  Thomson ;  became 
electrical  superintendent  and  intro- 
duced throughout  India  the  system  of 
determining  the  position  of  a  fault  by 
electrically  testing  one  end  of  a  line. 
He  has  been  a  voluminous  writer  and 
is  widely  known  for  his  "  Practical 
Electricity."  He  died  Nov.  8,  1908. 

Aytonn,  Sir  Robert,  poet,  born 
in  Fifeshire,  Scotland,  in  1570;  died 
in  1638. 

Aytonn,  William  Edmond- 
•toune,  poet  and  prose  writer,  born 
at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1813.  In 
1848  he  published  a  collection  "of  bal- 
lads entitled  "  Lays  of  the  Scottish 
Cavaliers,"  which  has  proved  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  works.  He  died  at 
Blackhills,  Elgin,  1865. 

Aynntamiento,  the  name  given  in 
Spain  to  the  councils  or  governing 
bodies  of  towns. 

Aynthia,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Siam,  on  the  Menam,  50  miles  N.  of 
Bangkok.  Some  magnificent  buildings 
still  remain,  now  crumbling  into  ruins 
and  overgrown  with  luxuriant  vege- 
tation; notable  among  them  are  Bud- 
dhist temples,  especially  the  Golden 
Mount,  400  feet  high. 

Azalea,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  heathworts.  Several  for- 
eign azaleas  are  cultivated  in  gardens 
and  greenhouses  on  account  of  the 
abundance  of  their  fine  flowers,  and, 
in  some  cases,  their  fragrant  smell. 

Azeglio,  Massimo  Taparelli; 
Marquis  d',  an  Italian  author,  irt- 
ist,  diplomatist,  and  statesman,  born 
at  Turin,  in  1801.  He  died  Jan.  15, 
1866. 

Azores,  or  Western  Islands,  a 
Portuguese  archipelago,  in  the  mid- 
Atlantic,  between  36°  55'  and  39°  55* 
N.  lat.  and  between  25°  10'  and  31° 
16'  W.  long.,  stretching  over  a  dis- 
tance of  400  miles. 

The  total  area  of  the  group  is  922 


Azov 


Arnrine 


square  miles,  and  the  pop.  (1911) 
242,613.  The  coast  is  generally  steep 
and  rugged ;  the  interior  abounds  in 
ravines  and  mountains.  Perhaps  the 
greatest  want  of  the  group  is  a  good 
harbor.  The  Azores  are  regarded  as 
a  province,  not  a  colony,  of  Portugal. 

Azov,  Sea  of,  is  a  large  gulf  of 
the  Black  Sea,  formed  by  the  Crimean 
peninsula,  or  rather  an  inland  lake 
connected  with  the  Black  Sea  by  the 
Strait  of  Yenikale  or  Kertch  (an- 
cient Bosporus  Cimmerius),  28  miles 
long,  and  barely  4  wide  a,t  the  narrow- 
est The  whole  sea  is  shallow,  from  3 
to  52  feet  deep ;  and  measuring  235  by 
110  miles,  it  occupies  an  area  of  14,- 
500  square  miles. 

Azrael,  the  name  given  to  the 
angel  of  death  by  the  Mohammedans. 

Aztecs,  a  race  of  people  who  set- 
tled in  Mexico  early  in  the  14th  cen- 


Itury,  ultimately  extended  their  domin- 
|  ion  over  a  large  territory,  and  were 
;  still  extending  their  supremacy  at  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards, 
I  by  whom  they  were  speedily  subju- 
j  gated.  See  MEXICO. 

Azuline,  or  Aznrine,  blue  dyes 
belonging  to  the  coal-tar  class. 

Aznni.  Domenicp  Alberto,  an 
Italian  jurist,  born  in  Sassari,  Sar- 
dinia, in  1749.  He  became  judge  of 
the  Tribunal  of  Commerce  at  Nice, 
and  in  1795  published  a  work  in  which 
he  endeavored  to  reduce  maritime 
laws  to  fixed  principles.  He  died  Jan. 
1  23,  1827. 

Azure,  the  heraldic  term  for  the 
color  blue,  represented  in  engraving  by 
horizontal  lines. 

Aznrine,  a  fresh  water  fish  of  the 
same  genus  as  the  roach,  chub  and 
minnow ;  called  also  blue  r»acb. 


b,  the  second  letter  in  all  i 
European  alphabets,  in  He- 
brew, and  most  other  Ian- 1 
guages.  It  belongs  to  the ! 
mutes  and  labials,  and  as  all  j 
labials  are  easy  to  be  pronounced,  b 
is  one  of  the  first  letters  which  chil- 
dren learn  to  speak,  after  a,  ba  or  pa 
generally  being  the  first  syllable. 

Baal,  the  chief  male  divinity  among 
the  Phoenicians,  as  Ashtoreth  was  the 
leading  female  one.  The  Carthagin- 
ians, who  sprang  from  the  Phoenicians, 
carried  with  them  his  worship  to  their 
new  settlements,  as  is  proved,  among 
other  evidence,  by  the  names  of  some 
of  their  world-renowned  heroes;  thus 
Hannibal,  written  in  Punic  inscrip- 
tions, Hannibaal,  signifies  the  grace  of 
Baal ;  and  Hasdrubal,  or  Asdrubal, 
Azrubaal  =  ""Help  of  Baal."  The 
worship  of  Baal  early  existed  among 
the  Canaanites  and  the  Moabites, 
whence  it  spread  to  the  Israelites,  be- 
coming at  last  for  a  time  completely 
dominant  among  the  10  tribes,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  even  among  the  two. 
Perhaps  the  Babylonian  Bel  was  only 
Baal  with  a  dialectic  difference  of 
spelling,  though  Prof.  Rawlinson 
thinks  differently  (Isa.  xlvi:  1).  There 
was  an  affinity  between  Baal  and  Mo- 
loch. The  Beltein  or  Beltane  fires,  lit 
in  early  summer  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, seem  to  be  a  survival  of  Baal's 
worship. 

Baalbek  (ancient  HEIJOPOIJS,  city 
of  the  sun),  a  place  in  Syria,  in  a 
fertile  valley  at  the  foot  of  Antili- 
banus,  40  miles  from  Damascus,  fa- 
mous for  its  magnificent  ruins.  Of 
these,  the  chief  is  the  temple  of  the 
Sun,  built  either  by  Antoninus  Pius 
or  by  Septimius  Severus.  Some  of  the 
blocks  used  in  its  construction  are  60 
feet  long  by  12  thick ;  and  its  54  col- 


umns, of  which  6  are  still  standing, 
were  72  feet  high  and  22  in  circum- 
ference. Near  it  is  a  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter, of  smaller  size,  though  still  larger 
than  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and 
there  are  other  structures  of  an  elab- 
orately ornate  type.  Originally  a 
center  of  the  sun-worship,  it  became 
a  Roman  colony  under  Julius  Caesar, 
was  garrisoned  by  Augustus,  and  ac- 
quired increasing  renown  under  Tra- 
jan as  the  seat  of  an  oracle.  Un- 
der Constantine  its  temples  became 
churches,  but  after  being  sacked  by 
the  Arabs  in  748,  and  more  complete- 
ly pillaged  by  Tamerlane  in  1401,  it 
sank  into  hopeless  decay.  The  work 
of  destruction  was  completed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1759. 

Baba,  a  Turkish  word,  signifying 
father,  originating,  like  our  word 
papa,  in  the  first  efforts  of  children  to 
speak.  In  Persia  and  Turkey  it  is 
prefixed  as  a  title  of  honor  to  the 
names  of  ecclesiastics  of  distinction, 
especially  of  such  as  devote  themselves 
to  an  ascetic  life;  it  is  often  affixed 
in  courtesy,  also,  to  the  names  of 
other  persons,  as  Ali-Baba. 

Babbage,  Charles,  an  English 
mathematician  and  inventor  of  a  cal- 
culating machine ;  born  near  Teign- 
mouth,  England,  Dec.  26,  1792.  He 
died  in  London,  Oct.  18,  1871. 

Babbitt,  Isaac,  an  American  in* 
ventor,  born  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  July 
26,  1799;  learned  the  goldsmith's 
trade ;  early  became  interested  in  the 
production  of  alloys;  and  in  1824 
manufactured  the  first  britannia  wa*re 
in  the  United  States.  In  1839,  he  dis- 
covered the  well  known  anti-friction 
metal  which  bears  his  name,  Babbitt 
metal.  For  this  discovery,  the  Massa- 
chusetts Charitable  Mechanics'  Asso- 
ciation awarded  him  a  gold  medal  in 


Babbitt  Metal 


Babn 


1841,  and  subsequently  Congress  voted 
him  $20,000.  He  died  in  Somerville, 
Mass.,  May  26,  1862. 

Babbitt  Metal,  a  soft  metal  re- 
sulting from  alloying  together  certaiu 
proportions  of  copper,  tin,  and  zinc, 
or  antimony,  used  with  the  view  of  as 
far  as  possible  obviating  friction  in 
the  bearings  of  journals,  cranks,  axles, 
etc.  Invented  by  Isaac  Babbitt 

Babcock,  Earle  Jay,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  St.  Charles, 
Minn.,  June  11,  1865 ;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Minnesota  in 
1899 ;  worked  extensively  with  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey ;  and 
in  1902  was  director  of  the  State 
School  of  Mines  of  North  Dakota,  and 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Geology  in 
the  State  University. 

Babcock,  Orville  E.,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  Franklin, 
Vt,  Dec.  25,  1835;  served  v;th  dis- 
tinction in  the  Civil  War,  a^u  was  a 
member  of  Gen.  Grant's  staff.  When 
the  latter  was  elected  President,  Bab- 
cock became  his  secretary,  and  the 
superintending  engineer  of  several  im- 
portant public  works.  He  was  in- 
dicted in  1876  for  taking  part  in  reve- 
nue frauds,  but  on  his  trial  was  ac- 
quitted. He  died  in  Florida,  June  2, 
1884. 

Babcock,  Stephen  Moulton,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Bridge- 
water,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  22,  1843.  He  was 
instructor  of  chemistry  at  Cornell 
University  in  1875-1876;  Professor  of 
Agricultural  Chemistry  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin ;  and  chemist  to 
the  New  York  State  Experimental 
Station.  He  died  May  19,  1916. 

Babel,  a  place  or  circumstances  in 
which  confusion  of  sounds  —  as,  for 
instance,  by  several  people  speaking 
at  once  —  is  the  predominating  char- 
acteristic. The  reference  is  to  the 
confusion  of  tongues  divinely  sent  in 
consequence  of  the  building  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel  (Gen.  xi :  1-9).  The 
magnificent  temple  of  Belus,  asserte_d 
to  have  been  originally  this  tower,  is 
said  to  have  had  lofty  spires,  and  many 
statues  of  gold,  one  of  them  40  feet 
high.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  tem- 
ple was  the  tomb  of  the  founder,  Be- 
lus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures), who  was  deified  after  death. 
The  Tower  of  Babel  is  most  frequent- 


ly identified  with  the  enormous  ruin 
atBirs,  2.000  ft.  in  base  circumference, 
156  ft.  high,  and  two  hours  west  of 
Hillah  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  bib- 
lical city  of  Babylon. 

Bab-el-Mandeb  (i.  e.,  the  gate 
of  tears),  the  name  of  the  strait  be- 
tween Arabia  and  the  continent  of 
Africa,  by  which  the  Red  Sea  is  con- 
nected with  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

Babi,  the  name  of  a  modern  Per- 
sian sect,  derived  from  the  title,  Bab- 
ed-Din  (gate  of  the  faith),  assumed 
by  its  founder,  Mirza  AH  Mohammed, 
a  native  of  Shiraz,  who,  in  1843,  after 
a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  undertook  to 
form  a  new  religion  from  a  mixture 
of  Mohammedan,  Christian,  Jewish, 
and  Parsee  elements.  Babism  enjoins 
few  prayers,  and  those  only  on  fixed 
occasions ;  encourages  hospitality  and 
charity ;  prohibits  polygamy,  concu- 
binage, and  divorce ;  discourages  as- 
ceticism and  mendicancy;  and  directs 
women  to  discard  the  veil,  and  share 
as  equals  in  the  intercourse  of  social 
life. 

Babington,  Anthony,  a  Roman 
Catholic  gentleman  of  Derbyshire,  who 
associated  with  others  of  his  own  per- 
suasion to  assassinate  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  deliver  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots.  The  plot  being  discovered,  the 
conspirators  were  executed  in  1586. 

Babiroussa  (a  Malay  word  signi- 
fying stag  hog ) ,  a  species  of  wild  hog, 
sometimes  called  the  horned  or  stag 
hog,  from  the  great  length  and  curva- 
ture of  its  upper  tusks  or  canines, 
which  curl  upward  and  backward 
somewhat  like  the  horns  of  Rumin- 
antia,  the  lower  canines  being  also 
very  prominent  It  is  nearly  of  the 
size  of  a  common  hog,  but  rather 
longer,  and  with  more  slender  limbs. 
The  babiroussa  is  very  numerous  in 
Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  and  Java.  It 
is  hunted  with  dogs,  and  when  taken 
makes  little  resistance ;  sometimes 
when  pressed  it  endeavors  to  reach  the 
sea,  and  eludes  its  pursuer  by  its  dex- 
terity in  diving  and  swimming. 

Baboo,  or  Babn,  a  Hindu  title  of 
respect  equivalent  to  sir  or  master, 
usually  given  to  wealthy  and  educated 
native  gentlemen,  especially  when  of 
the  mercantile  class. 


Baboon 


Bach 


Baboon,  a  common  name  applied 
to  a  genus  of  monkeys,  natives  of  Af- 
rica. They  make  a  very  obstinate  re- 
sistance to  dogs,  and  only  retreat  be- 
fore men  when  armed  with  guns.  They 
feed  exclusively  on  fruits,  seeds,  and 
other  vegetable  matter,  and  display  a 
great  deal  of  cunning  and  audacity 
when  engaged  in  their  marauding  ex- 
peditions. This  animal  has  the  re- 
markable instinctive  power  of  being 
able  to  detect  the  presence  of  water, 
and  in  South  Africa  is  often  employed 
for  this  purpose  when  the  ordinary 
water  supply  fails.  The  baboon  can 
never  be  called  tamed,  however  long 
his  confinement  may  have  endured. 

Babuyanes,  or  Madjicosima 
Islands,  a  number  of  islands  lying 
about  30  miles  N.  of  Luzon,  and  gen- 
erally considered  the  most  northern  of 
the  Philippines.  They  are  subject  to 
the  Loo-Choo  Islands ;  aggregate  pop. 
about  12,000. 

Babylon,  the  capital  of  Babylonia, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates,  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  splendid  cities 
of  the  ancient  world,  now  a  scene  of 
ruins,  and  earth-mounds  containing 
them.  Babylon  was  a  royal  city  1600 
years  before  the  Christian  era;  but 
the  old  city  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed in  683  B.  c.  A  new  city  was 
built  by  Nebuchadnezzar  nearly  a  cen- 
tury later.  This  was  in  the  form  of  a 
square,  each  side  15  miles  long,  with 
walls  of  such  immense  height  and 
thickness  as  to  constitute  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  It  contained 
splendid  edifices,  large  gardens  and 
pleasure-grounds,  especially  the  hang- 
ing-gardens, a  sort  of  lofty  terraced 
structure  supporting  earth  enough  for 
trees  to  grow,  and  the  celebrated  tow- 
er of  Babel,  or  temple  of  Belus,  rising 
by  stages  to  the  height  of  625  feet. 
(See  BABEL.)  After  the  city  was 
taken  by  Cyrus  in  538  B.  C.,  and  Baby- 
lonia made  a  Persian  province,  it 
began  to  decline,  and  had  suffered  se- 
verely by  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  He  intended  to  restore  it,  but 
was  prevented  by  his  death,  which 
took  place  here  in  323  B.  c.,  from 
which  time  its  decay  was  rapid. 

The  great  city  of  Babylon,  or  Babel, 
was  the  capital  of  Babylonia,  which 
was  called  by  the  Hebrews  Shinar. 
The  country  was,  as  it  still  is,  ex- 
ceedingly fertile,  and  must  have 


anciently  supported  a  dense  popula- 
tion. The  chief  cities,  besides  Baby- 
lon, were  Ur,  Calneh,  Erech,  and  Sip- 
para.  Babylonia  and  Assyria  were 
often  spoken  of  together  as  Assyria. 

Babylonish.  Captivity,  a  term 
usually  applied  to  the  deportation  of 
the  two  tribes  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
585  B.  C.  The  duration  of  this  cap- 
tivity is  usually  reckoned  70  years, 
though  strictly  speaking,  it  lasted  only 
50  years.  A  great  part  of  the  10 
tribes  of  Israel  had  been  previously 
taken  captive  to  Assyria. 

Baccarat,  or  Baccara,  a  game 
played  with  the  ordinary  playing 
cards.  It  acquired  notoriety  owing  to 
a  fraud  alleged  to  have  been  perpe- 
trated by  one  of  the  persons  present 
in  a  game  at  which  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  now  King  Edward,  was 
"  banker,"  some  years  ago. 

Bacchus  (in  Greek  generally 
Dionysos),  the  god  of  wine. 

Bach,  Alexander  von,  an  Aus- 
trian statesman,  born  in  Loosdorf, 
Jan.  4,  1813 ;  was  Minister  of  Justice 
in  1848,  of  the  Interior  in  1849-1859 ; 
and,  subsequently,  ambassador  to 
Rome.  In  1855,  he  negotiated  the 
Concordat  with  the  Papacy  which 
brought  Austria  into  submission  to 
the  Roman  Church.  He  died  Nov.  15, 
1892. 

Bach  Heinrich  a  German  musi- 
cian, born  Sept.  16,  1615 ;  member  of 
the  celebrated  family  of  musicians, 
father  of  Johann  Christoph  and  Jo- 
hann  Michael  Bach ;  was  organist  at 
Arnstadt,  where  he  died  July  10,  1691. 

Bach,  Johann  Christian,  a  Ger- 
man musician,  born  in  Erfurt,  in 
1640 ;  a  member  of  the  family  of  mu- 
sicians ;  son  of  Johannes  Bach,  the 
great  uncle  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach. 
He  died  in  Erfurt,  in  1682. 

Bach,  Johann  Christian,  a 
German  musician,  born  in  Leipsic,  in 
1735 ;  a  son  of  Johann  Sebastian 
Bach ;  died  in  London,  in  1782. 

Bach,  Johann  Christoph. 
Friedrich,  a  German  musician,  born 
in  Leipsic,  in  1732 ;  a  son  of  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach ;  died  in  Biickeburg, 
in  1795. 

Bach,  Johann  Michael,  a  Ger- 
man composer  and  instrument  maker, 


Bach 


Bachelor's  Buttons 


born  in  1648 ;  a  son  of  Heinrich 
Bach ;  father-in-law  of  Johann  Sebas- 
tian Bach.  He  died  in  Arnstadt,  in 
1694. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian,  a  cel- 
ebrated musician,  born  at  Eisenach, 
Upper  Saxony,  March  21,  1685.  When 
he  was  10  years  old  his  father,  who 
was  a  musician  at  Eisenach,  died,  and 
Bach  sought  the  protection  of  an  elder 
brother,  who,  dying  soon  after,  he 
was  again  left  destitute,  and,  to  earn 
a  livelihood,  entered  the  choir  of  St. 
Michael's,  Luneberg,  as  a  soprano 
singer.  In  1703  he  became  court  mu- 
sician at  Weimar,  the  following  year 
organist  at  Arnstadt,  and  in  1708 
court  organist  at  Weimar.  While 
holding  this  office  be  labored  to  make 
himself  master  of  every  branch  of 
music.  In  1717  he  was  made  Director 
of  Concerts,  and  six  years  afterward 
Director  of  Music  and  Cantor  to  St. 
Thomas'  School,  Leipsic,  an  appoint- 
ment which  he  held  to  his  death. 
Bach's  close  studies  affected  his  eyes, 
and  an  operation  left  him^  totally 
blind  and  hastened  his  death,  in  Leip- 
sic, July  28,  1750.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Handel,  Bach  had  no  rival  as 
an  organist. 

Bach,  Karl  Philipp  Emanuel, 
a  German  musician,  born  in  Weimar, 
March  14,  1714 ;  son  of  Johann  Se- 
bastian Bach ;  was  court  musician  in 
the  service  of  Frederick  the  Great  in 
1740-1767.  He  died  in  Hamburg, 
Dec.  14,  1788. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas,  an 
American  scientist,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  July  19,  1806;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy,  at  the  head  of  his  class,  in 
1825 ;  became  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  and  Chemistry  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1828;  was 
the  organizer  and  first  President  of 
Girard  College,  1836;  and  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey,  in  1843.  In  the 
last  office  he  performed  services  of 
lasting  and  invaluable  character.  He 
was  regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution in  1846-1867;  an  active  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission  during  the  Civil  War ; 
and  President  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1863.  He  died  in 
Newport,  R.  I.,  Feb.  17,  1867. 


Bache,  Hartman,  an  American 
military  engineer,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  Sept.  3,  1798;  was  graduat- 

j  ed    at    the    United    States    Military 

*  Academy,  in  1818.  His  most  notable 
achie>ements  were  the  building  of  the 
DeiaAare  Breakwater  and  the  appli- 
cation of  iron-screw  piles  for  the  foun- 
dation of  lighthouses  upon  sandy 

I  shoals   and  coral   reefs.     He  died   hi 

I  Philadelphia,  Oct.  8,  1872. 

Bache,  Sarah,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Sept.  11,  1744;  was  the  only  daugh- 
ter of  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  the 
wife  of  Richard  Bache.  During  the 
Revolutionary  War  she  organized  and 
became  chief  of  a  band  of  patriotic 
ladies  who  made  clothing  for  the  sol- 
diers, and  in  other  ways  relieved  their 
Bufferings,  especially  during  the  severe 
i  winter  of  1780.  At  one  time  she  had 
nearly  2,500  women  engaged  under 
her  direction  in  sewing  for  the  army. 
She  personally  collected  large  sums 
of  money  to  provide  the  material  for 
this  work,  and  also  for  the  purchase 
of  medicines  and  delicacies  for  the 
soldiers  in  the  hospitals,  where  she 
also  personally  acted  as  nurse.  She 
died  Oct.  5,  1808. 

Bacheller,  Irving,  an  American 
novelist,  born  in  Pierpont,  N.  Y.,  Sept. 
26,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at  St. 
Lawrence  University  in  1879  and  be- 
came a  reporter  of  the  Brooklyn 
"  Times."  Subsequently  he  estab- 
lished a  newspaper  syndicate.  He  has 
written  several  novels,  notable  for 
originality,  and  for  fresh,  and  fasci- 
nating pen  pictures  of  American  life. 

Bachelor,  a  term  applied  anciently 
to  a  person  in  the  first  or  probation- 
ary stage  of  knighthood  who  had  not 
yet  raised  his  standard  in  the  field.  It 
also  denotes  a  person  who  has  taken 
the  first  degree  in  the  liberal  arts  and 
sciences,  or  in  divinity,  law,  or  medi- 
cine, at  a  college  or  university ;  or  a 
man  of  any  age  who  has  not  been  mar- 
ried. A  knight  bachelor  is  one  who 
has  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a 
knight  without  being  made  a  member 
of  any  of  the  orders  of  chivalry  such 
as  the  Garter  or  the  Thistle. 

Bachelor's  Buttons,  the  double 
flowering  buttercup  with  white  or  yel- 
low blossoms,  common  in  gardens. 


Bachman 

Bacliman,  John,  an  American 
clergyman  and  naturalist,  born  in 
Duchess  county,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  4,  1790; 
became  pastor  of  a  Lutheran  church 
in  Charleston,  S.  C.  He  is  best  known 
by  reason  of  his  association  with  Au- 
dubon  in  the  making  of  the  "  Quad- 
rupeds of  North  America,"  he  writ- 
ing the  principal  part  of  the  text, 
which  Audubon  and  his  sons  illustrat- 
ed. He  died  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Feb.  25,  1874. 

Bacillus,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain filiform  bacteria,  which  have  as- 
sumed much  importance  of  late,  prin- 
cipally because  of  their  constant 
presence  in  the  blood  and  tissues  in 
splenic  fever  and  malignant  pustule. 
See  BACTERIA. 

Back,  Sir  George,  an  English  ex- 
plorer, born  in  Stockport,  Nov.  6, 
1796.  He  died  in  London,  June  23, 
1878,  after  visiting  both  polar  regions. 

Backgammon,  a  favorite  game  of 
calculation.  It  is  played  by  two 
persons,  with  two  boxes,  and  two  dice, 
upon  a  quadrangular  table,  or  board, 
on  which  are  figured  24  points,  or 
fle'ches,  of  two  colors,  placed  alter- 
nately. The  board  is  divided  into  four 
compartments,  two  inner  and  two 
outer  ones,  each  containing  six  of  the 
24  points  (alternate  colors).  The 
players  are  each  furnished  with  15 
men,  or  counters,  black  and  white. 

Backliuysen,  Ludolf,  a  cele- 
brated painter  of  the  Dutch  school, 
particularly  in  sea  pieces,  born  in 
1631.  He  died  in  1709. 

Backus,  Truman  Jay,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Milan,  N.  Y., 
Feb.  11,  1842;  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Rochester  in  1864 ;  and 
became  President  of  the  Packer  Col- 
legiate Institute  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
After  going  to  Brooklyn  he  served  on 
several  State  commissions.  Died  1908. 

Bacolor,  a  town  in  the  Island  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands;  10  miles 
N.  W.  of  Manila. 

Bacon,  a  word  applied  to  the 
sides  of  a  pig  which  have  been  cured 
or  preserved  by  salting  with  salt  and 
saltpeter,  aad  afterward  drying  with 
or  without  wood  smoke. 

Bacon,  Alice  Mabel,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Feb.  26,  1858;  was  educated 


Bacon 

privately  and  took  the  Harvard  exam- 
inations in  1881 ;  taught  at  the  Hamp- 
ton Normal  and  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute in  1883-1888,  and  in  Tokio,  Ja- 
pan, in  1888-1889;  returned  to  the 
Hampton  Institute  in  1889,  and  found- 
ed the  Dixie  Hospital  for  training 
colored  nurses  in  1890. 

Bacon,  Benjamin  Wismer,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  Jan.  15,  1860;  in  1896  became 
Professor  of  New  Testament  Criticism 
and  Exegesis  in  Yale  University. 

Bacon,  Edwin  Mnnroe,  an 
American  editor  and  author  of  many 
historical  works  relating  to  Boston 
and  New  England ;  also  of  "Direct 
Election  and  Law  Making  by  Popular 
Vote ;"  born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct. 
20,  1844. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Al- 
bans,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
of  whom  any  age  can  boast ;  a  reform- 
er of  philosophy,  by  founding  it  on 
the  observation  of  nature,  after  it 
had  consisted,  for  many  centuries,  of 
scholastic  subtleties  and  barren  dia- 
lectics ;  born  in  London,  Jan.  22,  1561, 
his  father  being  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon, 
lord  keeper  of  the  great  seal.  He 
contracted  an  advantageous  mar- 
riage; was  made  solicitor-general 
and  then  attorney-general ;  in  1617 
became  lord  keeper  of  the  seals;  in 
1618  was  made  lord  high  chancellor 
and  created  Baron  of  Verulam,  and  in 
1621  Viscount  St  Albans.  He  might 
have  lived  with  splendor  without  de- 
grading his  character  by  those  acts 
which  stained  his  reputation.  He 
was  accused  before  the  House  of 
Lords  of  having  received  money  for 
grants  of  offices  and  privileges  under 
the  seal  of  State.  He  was  unable  to 
justify  himself,  and,  desiring  to  avoid 
the  mortification  of  a  trial,  confessed 
his  crimes  and  threw  himself  on  the 
mercy  of  the  peers,  beseeching  them 
to  limit  his  punishment  to  the  loss  of 
the  high  office  which  he  had  dishon- 
ored. The  lords  sentenced  him  to 
pay  a  fine  of  £40,000,  and  to  be  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower  during  the 
pleasure  of  the  king.  He  was  also 
declared  forever  incapable  of  place  or 
employment,  and  forbidden  to  sit  in 
Parliament  or  to  appear  within  the 
verge  of  the  court.  He  survived  his 
fall  only  a  few  years,  and  died  in 


Bacon 

Highgate,  April  9,  1626.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  prove  him  the  real  au- 
thor of  the  works  of  Shakespeare,  and 
the  controversy  still  goes  on. 

Bacon,  Henry,  an  American  paint- 
er, born  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  in  1839. 
He  served  in  the  Civil  War,  studied 
art  in  Paris  under  Cabanel  and  Ed- 
ward Frere,  and  painted,  among  oth- 
ers, "  Boston  Boys  and  Gen.  Gage  " 
*'  Paying  the  Scot ;  "  etc. 

Bacon,  John,  an  English  sculp- 
tor, born  in  London,  Nov.  24,  1740. 
He  died  Aug.  4,  1799. 

Bacon,  John  Mosby,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  Kentucky, 
April  17,  1844;  served  in  the  Union 
army,  through  the  Civil  War;  was 
appointed  Captain  in  the  9th  United 
States  Cavalry,  in  I860,  and  Colonel 
of  the  8th  Cavalry,  in  1897.  On  May 
4.  1898,  he  was  appointed  Brigadier- 
General  of  Volunteers  and  placed  in 
command  of  the  Department  of  Da- 
kota. In  October  of  that  year  he  put 
down  the  outbreak  of  the  Pillager 
band  of  the  Chippewa  Indians  in  Cass 
county,  Minn.  Subsequently,  he  was 
assigned  to  duty  in  Cuba,  with  head- 
quarters at  Neuvitas,  till  May  8,  1899, 
when  he  was  retired.  D.  Mch.  19, 1913. 

Bacon,  Leonard,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
Feb.  19,  1802 ;  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1820,  after  which  he  studied  theology 
at  Andover,  Mass.  *  In  1825  he  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Congregational 
church  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  where 
he  died  Dec.  24,  1881.  He  was  joint- 
editor  of  the  "Independent"  for  16 
years  and  from  1866-1871  was  Prof, 
of  Didactic  Theology  at  Yale. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  an  Anglo- 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Suffolk, 
England,  Jan.  2,  1642 ;  became  the 
leader  in  BACON'S  REBELLION  (q.  v.) 
in  Virginia,  and  died  Oct.  29,  1676. 

Bacon,  Robert,  American  states- 
man, b.  Cape  Cod,  Mass.,  1858;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1880 ;  mem- 
er  of  the  banking  firm  of  J.  Pierre- 
pont  Morgan  &  Co.,  in  1894-1903; 
U.  S.  Assistant  Secretary  of  State  in 
1905-9;  Ambassador  to  France  in 
1909-12. 

Bacon,  Roger,  an  English  monk, 
and  one  of  the  most  profound  and 
original  thinkers  of  his  day,  was  born 
about  1214,  near  Ilchester,  Somerset- 
shire. He  died  in  Oxford,  in  1294. 


Bactria 

Baconian  Philosophy,  the  in- 
ductive philosophy  of  which  it  is  some- 
times said  that  Lord  Bacon  was  the 
founder.  This,  however,  is  an  exag- 
gerated statement.  What  Lord  Bacon 
did  for  this  mode  of  ratiocination  was 
to  elucidate  and  systematize  it;  to 
point  out  its  great  value,  and  to  bring 
it  prominently  before  men's  notice; 
lending  it  the  support  of  his  great 
name  at  a  time  when  most  of  his  con- 
temporaries were  satisfied  with  the 
barren  logic  of  the  schools.  The  great 
triumphs  of  modern  science  have  aris- 
en from  a  resolute  adherence  on  the 
part  of  its  votaries  to  the  Baconian 
method  of  inquiry. 

Bacon's  Rebellion,  a  popular 
uprising  of  the  Virginian  colonists, 
headed  by  Nathaniel  Bacon,  in  pro- 
test against  certain  government  abus- 
es, which  prevailed  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  Sir  William  Berkeley. 
Bacon  compelled  Berkeley  to  take 
refuge  on*  a  warship,  and  burned 
all  the  public  buildings  at  Jamestown. 
He  died  at  the  most  critical  moment, 
and  the  rebellion  came  to  an  end. 

Bacteria,  a  class  of  very  minute 
microscopic  organisms  or  microbes 
which  are  regarded  as  of  vegetable 
nature,  and  as  being  the  cause  of  ac- 
companiment of  various  diseases,  as 
well  as  of  putrefaction,  fermentation, 
and  certain  other  phenomena.  Some 
of  the  better  known  of  these  organ- 
isms are  so  exceedingly  minute,  that 
under  the  highest  power  of  improved 
microscopes  they  appear  no  larger 
than  the  periods  of  ordinary  type. 
Various  classifications  have  boen  pro- 
posed for  them,  for  they  differ  largely 
in  size,  form,  and  mode  of  multiplica- 
tion. 

Bacteriology,  that  branch  of 
biology  which  treats  of  bacteria.  The 
study  of  these  microscopic  organisms 
has  developed  into  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  modern  bio- 
logical science.  Their  importance  to 
mankind  rests  chiefly  in  the  fact  that 
their  nourishment  consists  of  albumi- 
nous substances,  which  they  convert 
into  complex  chemical  compounds, 
many  of  which  are  highly  poisonous. 

Bactria,  a  province  of  the  an- 
cient Persian  empire^  lying  N.  of  the 
Paropamisus  (Hindu  Rush)  Moun- 
tains, on  the  Upper  Oxus.  It  corre- 


i',   I9IO,  BY  I.  E.  WRIGHT 

ORDERSAND    DECORATIONS    OF    HONOUR,    PLATE    I 

i.  Order  of  Christ  (Pontifical) ;  2.  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  (United  States) ;  3.  Order  of  the  Thistle,  with  Collar 
Attachment  (Great  Britain,  Scotland);  4.  Order  of  the  Garter — the  Great  George,  with  Collar  Attachment 
(Great  Britain) ;  5.  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (Pontifical) ;  6.  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece  (Spain) ;  7.  Guelfic 
Order  of  Hanover;  8.  Order  of  the  Bath,  Military  Class  (Great  Britain) ;  9.  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  (United 
States);  10.  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  (Great  Britain);  n.  Order  of  the  Rose  (Brazil);  12.  Order  of 
St.  Patrick,  with  Collar  Attachment  (Great  Britain,  Ireland) ;  13.  Order  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (France) ;  14.  Order 
of  the  Tower  and  Sword  (Portugal);  15.  Order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  (Pontifical);  16.  Legion  of  Honour  (  France) 
17.  Military  Order,  Loyal  Legion  (United  States);  18.  Order  of  the  Star  of  India  (England,  India);  19,  Order  of 
St.  Andrew  (Russia). 


Baczko 


Badger 


sponded  pretty  nearly  with  the  mod- 
ern Balkh.  Here  many  scholars  locate 
the  original  home  of  the  Aryan  or 
Indo-European  family  of  nations.  Its 
capital,  Bactra,  or  Zariaspa,  was  also 
the  cradle  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 

Baczko,  Ludwig  von,  a  German 
historian  and  scholar,  born  in  Lick, 
Prussia,  June  8,  1756 ;  died  March  27, 
1823. 

Badajoz,  the  fortified  capital  of 
the  Spanish  province  of  Badajoz,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Guadiana.  It 
was  besieged  by  Wellington  on  March 
16,  and  taken  April  6,  1812,  by  one  of 
the  most  bloody  assaults  in  history, 
the  British  charging  over  the  dead 
bodies  of  their  comrades. 

Badakshan,  a  territory  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  tributary  to  the  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan.  The  inhabitants  profess 
Mohammedanism.  Pop.  100,000. 

Badeau,  Adam,  an  American  mil- 
itary officer,  born  in  New  York  city, 
Dec.  29,  1831;  educated  at  private 
schools.  He  served  with  gallantry  in  , 
the  Union  army  during  the  Civil  War ; 
was  on  the  staff  of  General  Sherman 
in  1862-1863,  and  secretary  to  Gen- 
eral Grant  in  1864-1869;  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  retired  with  the  rank 
of  Captain  in  the  regular  army  and  of 
Brevet  Brigadier-General  of  Volun- 
teers, and  was  appointed  Secretary  of 
Legation  in  London.  He  was  Consul- 
General  in  London,  1870-1881,  and 
during  this  period  was  given  leave  of 
absence  to  accompany  General  Grant 
on  his  tour  around  the  world  (1877- 
1878).  In  1882-1884  he  was  Consul- 
General  in  Havana.  After  the  death 
of  General  Grant  he  brought  suit 
against  his  heirs  for  payment  of  ser- 
vices which  he  asserted  had  been  ren- 
dered in  the  preparation  of  General 
Grant's  "  Memoirs,"  but  lost  his  case. 
He  died  in  Ridgewood,  N.  J.,  March 
19.  1895. 

Baden,  Grand  Duchy  of,  one  of 
the  more  important  States  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  situated  in  the  S.  W.  of 
Germany^  to  the  W.  of  Wiirtemberg. 
It  is  divided  into  four  districts,  Con- 
stance, Freiburg,  Karlsruhe,  and 
Mannheim ;  has  an  area  of  5,819 
square  miles;  pop.  (1910)  2,142,833. 
Baden  sends  three  members  to  the 
German  Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Coun- 
cil, and  14  deputies  to  the  Diet.  Two- 


thirds  of  the  population  are  Roman 
Catholics,  the  rest  Protestants. 

Baden-Baden,  a  town  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden ;  pop.  (1910) 
22,066.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated  for 
its  medicinal  springs,  which  were 
known  at  the  time  of  the  Romans.  Its 
gaming  tables,  the  most  renowned  in 
Europe,  were  closed  with  the  rest  of 
the  licensed  German  gaming  houses  in 
1872. 

Baden-Powell,  Robert  Steven- 
son Smyth,  a  British  military  offi- 
cer ;  born  in  London,  Feb.  22,  1857. 
In  the  war  in  South  Africa  in  1899- 
1902,  he  signally  distinguished  himself 
by  his  defense  of  Mafeking,  Cape  Col- 
ony. In  recognition  of  his  heroism,  the 
queen  promoted  him  to  be  a  Major- 
General.  See  BOY  Scours. 

Badeni,  Connt  Cassimir  Felix, 
an  Austrian  statesman ;  born  in  Po- 
land, Oct  14,  1846;  Prime  Minister 
of  Austria-Hungary,  1895;  died,  1909. 

Badge,  a  distinctive  device,  em- 
blem, mark,  honorary  decoration,  or 
special  cognizance,  used  originally  to 
identify  a  knight  or  distinguish  his 
followers,  now  worn  as  a  sign  of  of- 
fice or  licensed  employment,  as  a  token 
of  membership  in  some  society,  or  gen- 
erally as  a  mark  showing  the  relation 
of  the  wearer  to  any  person,  occupa- 
tion, or  order. 

Badger,  a  plantigrade,  carnivorous 
mammal,  allied  both  to  the  bears  and 
to  the  weasels,  of  a  clumsy  make, 
with  short,  thick  legs,  and  long  claws 
on  the  fore  feeL  The  species  known 
are  the  American  and  European. 
The  American  badger  is  only  found 
in  the  remote  W.  sections  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
British  possessions  in  North  America. 
It  is  more  carnivorous  than  the  Eu- 
ropean badger.  The  weight  of  the 
American  species  is  from  14  to  18 
pounds. 

Badger,  George  Edmund,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  New- 
bern,  N.  C.,  April  13,  1795;  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1813,  and 
was  a  judge  and  U.  S.  Senator. 
He  served  in  the  State  Convention 
called  to  pass  on  the  question  of  se- 
cession, although  oposed  to  that 
measure,  and  after  making  a  strong 
speech  in  defense  of  the  Union,  was 
afterward  known  as  a  member  of  the 


Badger 

Conservative  Party.  He  died  in  Ral- 
eigh, N.  C.,  April  13,  1866. 

Badger,  Oscar  L.,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Windham,  Conn., 
Aug.  12,  1823;  entered  the  United 
States  navy,  Sept.  9,  1841 ;  became 
Lieutenant-Commander,  July  16, 
1862;  Commander,  July  25,  1866; 
Captain,  Nov.  25,  1872 ;  Commodore, 
Nov.  15,  1881 ;  and  was  retired  Aug. 
12,  1885.  He  served  on  the  steamer 
"  Mississippi "  during  the  Mexican 
War,  taking  part  in  the  attack  on  Al- 
varado,  in  1846;  led  the  party  that 
attacked  and  destroyed  the  village  of 
Vutia,  Fiji  Islands,  while  on  the  sloop 
"John  Adams,"  in  1855-1856;  and 
in  the  Civil  War  commanded  the  iron- 
clads "  Patapsco  "  and  "  Montauk," 
in  the  operations  in  Charleston  harbor 
in  1863 ;  and  was  Acting  Fleet  Cap- 
tain on  the  flag  ship  "  Weehawken  " 
in  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  Sept. 
1,  1863.  He  died  in  Concord,  Mass., 
June  20,  1899. 

Badgley,  Sidney  Rose,  a  Cana- 
dian architect,  born  near  Kingston, 
Ont,  May  28,  1850.  He  has  planned 
and  erected  churches  in  almost  all 
parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

Badliam,  Charles,  an  English  ed- 
ucator, born  in  Ludlow,  July  18, 
1813;  died  in  Sydney,  Australia,  Feb. 
26,  1884. 

Badlam,  Stephen,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Milton,  Mass., 
March  25,  1748;  entered  the  Revolu- 
tionary army  in  1775 ;  became  com- 
mander of  the  artillery,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Canada.  On  the  announce- 
ment of  the  adoption  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  he  took  posses- 
sion of  the  heights  opposite  Ticonder- 
oga,  and  named  the  place  Mt  Inde- 
pendence. Subsequently  he  rendered 
good  service  at  Fort  Stanwix,  and  in 
1799  was  made  Brigadier-General.  He 
died  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Aug.  24, 
1815. 

Bad  Lands,  tracts  of  land  in  the 
N.  W.  part  of  the  United  States.  The 
absence  of  vegetation  enables  the  rains 
to  wash  clean  the  old  lake  beds,  and 
in  many  instances  to  disclose  remark- 
able fossils  of  extinct  animals.  They 
were  first  called  Bad  Lands  (mau- 
yaises  terres)  by  the  French  explorers 
in  the  region  of  the  Black  Hills  in 
South  Dakota. 


Baffin 

Badminton,  a  popular  game,  close- 
ly  resembling  lawn  tennis,  played  with 
battledore  and  shuttlecock  on  a  rec- 
tangular portion  of  a  lawn. 

Badrinath,  a  peak  of  the  main 
Himalayan  range,  in  Garhwal  dis- 
trict, Northwestern  Provinces,  India; 
23,210  feet  above  the  sea.  On  one  of 
its  shoulders,  at  an  elevation  of  10,400 
feet,  stands  a  celebrated  temple  of 
Vishnu,  which  some  years  attracts  aa 
many  as  50,000  pilgrims. 

Baedeker,  Karl,  a  German  pub- 
lisher, born  in  1801 ;  originator  of  a 
celebrated  series  of  guide-books  for 
travelers.  He  died  in  1859. 

Baeyer,  Adolf  von,  a  German 
chemist,  born  in  Berlin,  Oct.  31,  1835 ; 
son  of  Johann  Jakob  Baeyer ;  became 
Professor  of  Chemistry  at  Strasburg 
in  1872,  and  at  Munich,  in  1875,  suc- 
ceeding Liebig  at  the  latter.  He  made 
many  important  discoveries  in  organic 
chemistry,  especially  cerulein,  eosin, 
and  indol. 

Baeyer,  Johann  Jakob,  a  Prus- 
sian geometrician,  born  in  Miiggels- 
heim,  Nov.  5,  1794 ;  died  in  Berlin, 
Sept  10,  1885. 

Baez,  Buenaventura,  a  Domin- 
ican statesman,  born  in  Azua,  Haiti, 
about  1810 ;  aided  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Dominican  Republic;  was 
its  President  in  1849-1853 ;  was  then 
expelled  by  Santa  Ana  and  went  to 
New  York  city;  was  recalled  in  1856, 
on  the  expulsion  of  Santa  Ana,  and 
again  elected  President;  and  was  re- 
elected  President  in  1865  and  1868. 
During  his  last  term,  he  signed  treat- 
ies with  the  United  States  (Nov.  29, 
1869),  for  the  annexation  of  Santo 
Domingo  to  the  United  States,  and  for 
the  cession  of  Samana  Bay.  The 
treaties  failed  of  ratification  in  the 
United  States  Senate  and  caused  the 
downfall  of  Baez.  He  died  in  Porto 
Rico,  March  21,  1884. 

Baffin,  William,  an  English  nav- 
igator and  discoverer,  believed  to  have 
been  born  in  London  about  1584. 
In  1615  he  took  service  as  pilot 
of  the  "  Discovery,"  in  search  of  a 
northwest  passage,  and  made  a  care- 
ful examination  of  Hudson  Strait 
His  recorded  latitudes  and  notes 
of  the  tides  are  in  remarkable 
agreement  with  those  of  a  later  date. 
In  the  following  year,  with  Capt  By- 


Baffin  Land 

lot,  he  discovered,  charted,  and  named 
Smith  Sound,  and  several  others,  and 
explored  the  large  inlet  now  associated 
with  his  name.  His  last  voyages, 
1616-1621,  were  to  the  East.  At 
the  siege  of  Ormuz,  which  the  Eng- 
lish were  helping  the  Shah  of  Persia 
to  recover  from  the  Portuguese,  he 
was  killed,  Jan.  23,  1622. 

Baffin  Land,  a  Canadian  island, 
crossed  by  the  Arctic  Circle;  area, 
236,000  square  miles. 

Baffin    Sea    (erroneously   styled  a 
Bay),   a   large  expanse   of  water   in 
North     America,    between    Greenland 
and  the  lands  or  islands  N.  of  Hudson 
Bay.     This  sea  was  discovered  by  the  | 
English    navigator,    Baffin,    in    1616,  | 
while  in  search  of  a  passage  to  the ' 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Bagamoyo,  a  town  of  German 
East  Africa,  on  the  coast  opposite  the 
island  of  Zanzibar;  pop.  (1899), 
about  13,000.  It  is- an  important  trad- 
ing station  for  ivory,  gum  and  caout- 
chouc. 

Bagasse,  the  sugar  cane  in  its  dry, 
crushed  state,  as  delivered  from  the 
mill,  and  after  the  main  portion  of  its 
juice  has  been  expressed ;  used  as  fuel 
in  the  su|;ar  factory,  and  called  also 
cane  trash. 

Bagatelle,  a  game  played  on  a 
long,  flat  board,  covered  with  cloth 
like  a  billiard-table,  with  spherical 
balls  and  a  cue,  or  mace. 

Bagby,  George  William,  an 
American  physician  and  humorist, 
born  in  Buckingham  co.,  Va.,  Aug.  13, 
1828;  died  in  Richmond,  Va.,  Nov. 
29,  1883. 

Bagdad,  capital  of  the  Turkish 
vilayet  and  city  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  southern  part  of  Mesopotamia 
(now  Irak  Arabi).  Bagdad  was  found- 
ed in  762,  by  the  Caliph  Almansur, 
and  raised  to  a  high  degree  of  splen- 
dor, in  the  9th  century,  by  Haroun  A) 
Raschid.  It  is  the  scene  of  a  number 
of  the  tales  of  the  "  Arabian  Nights." 
In  the  13th  century  it  was  stormed  by 
Hulaku,  grandson  of  Genghis-Khan, 
who  caused  the  reigning  caliph  to  be 
slain,  and  destroyed  the  caliphate.  The 
vilayet  has  an  area  of  54,540  square 
miles,  and  an  estimated  population  of 
900,000,  and  the  city  an  estimated 
population  of  225,000.  Germany  had 

E.  IS. 


Bagley 

a  concession  for  the  construction  of 
a  railway  which  would  extend  the  An- 
atolian line  from  Konia  to  Adana, 
Mosul,  Bagdad,  and  Bassa,  with  many 
branch  lines,  but  the  great  war  inter- 
rupted the  work.  See  APPENDIX  : 
World  War. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  an  English 
economist,  born  in  Somersetshire,  Feb. 
3,  1826 ;  died  March  24,  1877. 

Baggage,  a  term  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  the  old  French  word 
bague,  meaning  bundle.  As  ordinar- 
ily used,  it  includes  trunks,  valises, 
portmanteaus,  etc.,  which  a  traveler 
carries  with  him  on  a  journey. 

Baggesen,  Jens,  a  Danish  poet ; 
born  in  Korsor,  Zealand,  Feb.  15, 
1764;  died  in  Hamburg,  Oct  3,  1826. 

Bagirmi,  or  Baghermi,  a  coun- 
try in  Central  Africa,  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  Bornu  and  a  portion  of  Lake 
Tchad,  and  with  the  powerful  Sultan- 
ate of  Wadai  to  the  N.  E.  Its  area 
is  estimated  at  nearly  71,000  square 
miles.  The  country  was  first  vis- 
ited by  Earth  in  1852.  Most  of  it 
was  recognized  as  in  the  German 
sphere  by  the  Anglo-German  agree- 
ment of  1893;  but  it  came  under 
French  control  in  1900. 

Bagley,  Wortn,  an  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Raleigh,  N.  C., 
April  6,  1874 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1895 ;  promoted  to  Ensign,  July  1, 
1897,  and  was  detailed  as  inspector  to 
the  new  torpedo-boat  "  Winslow  "  in 
November  following.  This  boat  went 
into  commission  the  next  month,  and 
he  was  appointed  her  executive  officer. 
In  April,  1898,  the  "Winslow"  was 
assigned  to  the  American  fleet  off  the 
coast  of  Cuba,  and  on  May  9,  while 
on  blockading  duty  at  the  harbor  of 
Cardenas,  with  the  "  Wilmington " 
and  "  Hudson,"  drew  the  fire  of  sev- 
eral Spanish  coast-guard  vessels.  All 
the  American  vessels  escaped  untouch- 
ed. Two  days  afterward,  the  three 
vessels  undertook  to  force  an  entrance 
into  the  harbor,  when  they  were  fired 
on  by  Spanish  gunboats.  The  "  Wins- 
low  "  was  disabled,  and  with  difficulty 
was  drawn  out  of  range  of  the  en- 
emy's guns.  The  "  Wilmington  "  then 
silenced  the  Spanish  fire,  and  as  the 
action  closed,  Ensign  Bagley  and  four 
sailors  on  the  "  Winslow  "  were  in- 


Bagpipe 

stantly  killed  by  a  shell,  be  being  the 
first  American  naval  officer  to  fall  in 
the  war  with  Spain. 

Bagpipe,  a  musical  wind  instru- 
ment of  very  great  antiquity,  having 
been  used  among  the  ancient  Greeks 
for  many  ages,  and  is  the  favorite 
musical  instrument  of  the  Scottish 
Highlanders. 

Bagration,  Peter  Ivanovich, 
Prince,  a  Russian  general,  descended 
from  the  royal  family  of  the  Bagra- 
tidse  of  Georgia  and  Armenia,  born  in 
1765.  In  the  campaign  of  1812,  he 
commanded  the  Second  Russian  Army 
of  the  West  He  was  mortally  wound- 
ed in  the  battle  of  Borodino,  and  died 
Oct.  7,  1812. 

Bahama  Channel,  Old  and  New, 
two  American  channels;  the  former 
separates  the  Great  Bahama  Bank  and 
Cuba;  the  latter,  also  called  the  Gulf 
of  Florida,  is  between  the  Great  and 
Little  Bahama  Banks  and  Florida, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  channel  of  the 
great  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  here 
at  the  rate  of  from  2  to  5  miles  an 
hour. 

Bahama  Islands,  or  Lncayos,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  West  Indies, 
forming  a  colony.,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  lying  N.  E.  of  Cuba  and  S.  E. 
of  the  coast  of  Florida,  the  Gulf 
Stream  passing  between  them  and  the 
mainland.  They  extend  a  distance  of 
upward  of  GOO  miles,  and  are  said  to 
be  29  in  number,  besides  keys  and 
rocks  innumerable.  Of  the  whole 
group  about  20  are  inhabited,  the 
most  populous  being  New  Provi- 
dence, which  contains  the  capital, 
Nassau,  the  largest  being  Andros, 
100  miles  long,  20  to  40  broad.  They 
are  low  and  flat,  and  have  in  many 
parts  extensive  forests.  Total  area, 
4,404  square  miles.  Pop.  (1911)  55,- 
944. 

Bahia,  formerly  San  Salvador,  a 
city  of  Brazil,  on  the  Bay  of  All 
Saints,  in  the  State  of  Bahia.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  South 
America ;  and  the  trade,  chiefly  in 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  hides, 
piassava,  and  tapioca,  is  extensive. 
Pop.  (1911)  290,000.  The  State,  area, 
164,649  square  miles ;  pop.  about  2.- 
118,000,  has  much  fertile  land,  both 
along  the  coast  and  in  the  interior. 


Ball 

Bahia  Honda,  a  seaport  of  Cuba, 
on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  lying  on  a  small  bay,  bearing  the 
same  name.  The  town  and  bay  are 
about  50  miles  W.  of  Havana,  being 
commanded  by  a  small  fort. 

Bahr,  Johann  Christian  Felix, 
a  German  philologist,  born  at  Darm- 
stadt, June  13,  1798;  died  Nov.  29, 
1872. 

Bahrein  Islands,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  in  an  in- 
dentation on  the  Arabian  coast.  The 
Bahrein  Islands  are  chiefly  noted  for 
their  pearl-fisheries,  which  were  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  which  employ  in 
the  season  from<  2,000  to  3,000  boats 
with  from  8  to  20  men  each.  Total 
pop.,  est.  at  110,000. 

Bahr-el-Ghazal,  the  name  of  the 
old  Egyptian  province  which  incloses 
the  district  watered  by  the  southern 
tributaries  of  Bahr-el-Arab  and  Bahr- 
el-Ghazal,  since  the  overthrow  of  the 
Khalifa  in  1899  known  as  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan.  Slatin  Pasha  has 
drawn  attention  both  to  the  fertility 
of  the  province  and  to  its  strategical 
importance.  To  the  W.  of  it  lies  the 
Ubangi  district  of  French  Kongo ;  and 
it  was  thence  that  Major  Marchand 
made  his  way  through  the  Bahr-el- 
Ghazal  to  Fashoda  in  the  summer  of 
1898. 

Bahr  Yusuf ,  or  Bahr  el  Yusnf , 
an  artificial  irrigation  channel  from 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  below  Sint. 
to  the  Fayum ;  270  miles  long.  Ac- 
cording to  Koptic  traditions  it  was 
constructed  during  Joseph's  adminis- 
tration. 

Baikal,  an  extensive  lake  of  East- 
ern Siberia;  crescent-shaped,  and  sur- 
rounded by  high  and  wild  mountains 
rising  3,000  to  4.000  feet  above  its 
surface.  Length,  S.  W.  to  N.  E.,  370 
miles;  breadth,  20  to  70  miles;  alti- 
tude, about  1,400  feet;  greatest  ascer- 
tained depth,  4,500  feet;  average 
depth  of  its  southern  part,  about  800 
feet 

Bail.  (1)  Of  persons:  Those  who 
stand  security  for  the  appearance  of 
rn  accused  person.  The  word  is  a  col- 
loctive  one,  and  not  used  in  the  plural. 
They  were  so  called  because  formerly 
the  person  summoned  was  bailie1,  that 
is,  given  into  the  custody  of  those  who 
were  security  for  his  appearance. 


Bailey        

(2)  Pecuniary  security  given  by  re- 
sponsible persons  that  an  individual 
charged  with  an  offense  against  the 
law  will,  if  temporarily  released,  sur- 
render when  required  to  take  his  trial. 

Bailey,  Gamaliel,  an  American 
journalist,  born  in  Mount  Holly,  N. 
J.,  Dec.  3,  1807;  with  J.  G.  Birney, 
founded  the  anti-slavery  journal,  the 
"Cincinnati  Philanthropist"  (1836), 
the  office  of  which  was  destroyed  by  a 
mob,  though  it  continued  to  be  pub- 
lished till  1847.  He  established  the 
well-known  newspaper,  the  Washing- 
ton "National  Era5'  (1847),  in 
which  the  famous  novel,  "  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,"  appeared  first.  He  died  at 
sea,  June  5,  1859. 

Bailey,  Jacob  "Whitman,  an 
American  scientist,  born  in  Auburn, 
Mass.,  April  29,  1811;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Acad- 
emy, in  1832;  and  from  1834  till  his 
death  was  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy  and  Geology  at  the  Mili- 
tary Academy.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  Bailey  indicator  and  of  many 
improvements  in  the  microscope,  in 
the  use  of  which  he  achieved  high  dis- 
tinction; and  he  is  regarded  as  the 
pioneer  in  microscopic  investigation. 
He  was  President  of  the  American  As- 
sociation for  the  Advancement  of  Sci- 
ence in  1857;  held  membership  in  the 
principal  scientific  associations  of  the 
world ;  and  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ours  papers  on  the  results  of  his  re- 
searches. He  died  in  West  Point,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  26,  1857. 

Bailey,  James  Montgomery,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Albany,  N. 
Y.,  Sept.  25,  1841;  died  in  Danbury, 
Conn.,  March  4,  1894. 

Bailey,  Joseph,  an  American  mil- 
itary officer,  born  in  Salem,  O.,  April 
28,  1827 ;  entered  the  Union  army  as  a 
private  in  1861,  and  signally  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Red  River  cam- 
paign under  Gen.  N.  P.  Banks,  in 
1864,  by  building  a  dam  and  deepen- 
ing the  water  in  the  channel,  which 
enabled  Admiral  Porter's  Mississippi 
flotilla  to  pass  the  Red  River  rapids 
in  safety,  and  so  escape  a  perilous  sit- 
uation. For  this  engineering  feat, 
Bailey,  who,  before  entering  the  army 
was  a  plain  farmer,  was  breveted 
Brigadier-General,  promoted  Colonel, 
voted  the  thanks  of  Congress,  and 


Bailiff 

presented  by  the  officers  of  the  fleet 
with  a  sword  and  purse  of  $3,000. 
Subsequently,  he  was  promoted  to  full 
Brigadier-General,  and  was  engaged 
on  engineering  duty  till  his  resigna- 
tion, July  7,  1865.  He  died  in  Ne- 
vada, Mo.,  March  21,  1867. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde,  an  Amer- 
ican horticulturist  and  editor,  born  in 
South  Haven,  Mich.,  March  15, 1858; 
became  chairman  of  the  Roosevelt 
Commission  on  Country  Life  in  1908. 

Bailey,  Philip  James,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  April 
22,  1816;  died  Sept.  6,  1902. 

Bailey,  Samuel,  an  English  po- 
litical and  mental  philosopher,  born 
in  Sheffield,  in  1791;  died  in  1870. 

Bailey,  Theodorus,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Chateaugay,  N. 
Y.,  April  12,  1805;  entered  the  navy 
in  1818;  served  on  the  W.  coast  of 
Mexico  during  the  Mexican  War; 
commanded  frigate  "  Colorado,"  of 
the  Western  Gulf  Blockading  Squad- 
ron, in  1861-1862;  and  in  the  last 
year  commanded  the  right  column  of 
Admiral  Farragut's  squadron  in  the 
passage  of  Forts  St.  Philip  and  Jack- 
son, and  led  the  fleet  at  the  capture  of 
the  Chalmette  batteries  and  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  In  1862-1865  he  com- 
manded the  East  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron.  He  was  commissioned 
Rear-Admiral  and  retired  in  1866. 
!  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb.  10, 
1877. 

Bailey,  Vernon,  an  American 
scientist,  born  in  Manchester,  Mich., 
June  21,  1863;  received  a  university 
education ;  and  became  chief  field 
naturalist  of  the  United  States  Bio- 
logical Survey. 

Bailey,  William  Whitman,  an 
American  botanist,  born  in  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  22,  1843.  He  was 
educated  at  Brown  and  Harvard,  hav- 
ing been  a  pupil  of  Prof.  Asa  Gray. 
In  1867  he  was  botanist  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  of  the  40th 

Earallel;    in    1867-1869    assistant   li- 
rarian  of  the  Providence  Athenaeum. 
He  was  Professor  of  Botany  at  Brown 
University    in    1881-1906.      He    died 
Feb.  20,  1914. 

Bailiff,  essentially  a  person  in- 
trusted by  a  superior  with  power  of 
superintendence.  In  the  United  States 
the  word  bailiff  has  no  precise  mean- 


Baillie 


Baird 


ing.  The  term  is  most  frequently 
used  to  denote  a  court  officer  whose 
duty  it  is  to  take  charge  of  juries  and 
wait  upon  the  court. 

Baillie,  Joanna,  a  Scotch  author ; 
born  in  Bothwell,  near  Glasgow,  Sept.. 
11,  1762 ;  died  Feb.  23,  1851. 

Baillie,  Robert,  the  "  Scottish 
Sidney,"  was  a  native  of  Lanarkshire, 
who  first  came  into  notice  in  1676 
through  his  rescue  of  a  brother-in-law, 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Kirkton,  from  the 
clutches  of  Archbishop  Sharp's  prin- 
cipal informer.  In  1683  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  a  scheme  of  emi- 
gration to  South  Carolina,  as  he  saw 
no  other  refuge  7  from  the  degrading 
tyranny  of  the  government.  Accused 
of  conspiring  against  the  King's  life, 
and  of  hostility  to  monarchical  gov- 
ernment, he  was  tried  at  Edinburgh 
and  condemned  to  death  upon  evidence 
at  once  insignificant  and  illegal.  The 
sentence  was  carried  into  execution- 
on  the  very  day  that  it  was  passed, 
Dec.  24,  1684. 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain,  a  French 
astronomer  and  statesman,  born  in 
Paris,  Sept.  15,  1736.  The  Revolu- 
tion drew  him  into  public  life.  As 
mayor  of  Paris  his  moderation  and  im- 
partial enforcement  of  the  law  failed 
to  commend  themselves  to  the  people, 
and  his  forcible  suppression  of  mob 
violence,  July  17,  1791,  aroused  a 
storm  which  led  to  his  resignation. 
He  was  condemned  by  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal,  and  executed  on 
Nov.  12,  1793. 

Bailment,  "  a  delivery  of  a  thing 
in  trust  for  some  special  object  or 
purpose,  and  upon  a  contract,  express 
or  implied,  to  conform  to  the  object 
or  purpose  of  the  trust."  (Story,  on 
"  Bailment.")  The  party  who  deliv- 
ers the  thing  bailed  to  another  is  call- 
ed the  bailor;  the  one  receiving  it  is 
called  bailee.  Various  degrees  of  dili- 
gence are  required  of  the  bailee,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  bailment. 

Baily,  Edward  Hodges,  an  Eng- 
lish sculptor,  born  at  Bristol  in  1788. 
He  died  in  London  in  1867. 

Bain,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  writer 
on  mental  philosophy  and  education, 
born  in  Aberdeen  in  1818.  His  most 
important  works  are  "  The  Senses  and 
the  Intellect"  (1855);  "The  Emo- 
tions and  the  Will"  (1859),  together 


forming  a  complete  exposition  of  the 
human  mind.  He  died  Sept.,  1903. 

Bain,  Alexander,  a  Scotch  elec- 
trician, born  in  Watten,  Caithness,  in 
1810;  went  to  London  and  began  a 
series  of  electrical  experiments  in 
1837 ;  invented  electric  fire  alarm  and 
sounding  apparatus,  and  the  auto- 
matic chemical  telegraph  by  which 
high  speed  telegraphy  was  for  the  first 
time  possible.  He  died  in  1877. 

Bainbridge,  'William,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  born  in  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  May  7,  1774 ;  became  a  Captain 
in  1800 ;  and  commanded  the  frigate 
"  Philadelphia "  in  the  war  against 
Tripoli.  In  1812  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  a  squadron  including  the 
"  Constitution,"  "  Essex,"  and  "  Hor- 
net." With  the  "  Constitution "  as 
his  fiagship,  he  conquered,  in  Decem- 
ber of  that  year,  the  British  frigate 
"  Java,"  carrying  49  guns.  Later  he 
commanded  a  squadron  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  was  afterward  station- 
ed at  various  American  coast  cities. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  28, 1833. 

Bairaktar  (more  correctly  Bai- 
rak-dar),  signifying  "standard  bear- 
er," the  title  of  the  energetic  Grand 
Vizier  Mustapha.  Born  in  1755,  of 
poor  parents,  he  entered  the  military 
service  at  an  early  age,  and  rose  to 
high  command.  He  deposed  the  Sul- 
tan Mustapha  IV.,  and  when  the 
Janissaries  revolted,  demanding  Mus- 
tapha's  restoration,  and  besieged  the 
seraglio,  Bairaktar  defended  himself 
bravely.  When  he  saw  that  the  flames 
threatened  to  destroy  the  palace,  and 
that  he  was  in  danger  of  falling  alive 
into  his  enemies'  hands,  he  strangled 
Mustapha,  threw  his  head  to  the  be- 
siegers, and.  then  blew  himself  up. 

Bairam,  the  name  of  the  only 
two  festivals  annually  celebrated  by 
the  Turks  and  other  Mohammedan 
nations.  The  first  closes  the  fast  of 
the  month  Ramadhan  or  Ramazan. 
The  second  commemorates  Abraham's 
offering  of  Isaac. 

Baird,  Absalom,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Washington, 
Pa.,  Aug.  20,  1824;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
and  assigned  to  the  artillery  in>1849. 
He  became  Captain  and  Major  in  the 
regular  army  in  1861,  and  in  the  vol- 
unteer army  was  commissioned  a 


Baird  

Brigadier-General,  April  28,  1862,  and 
brevetted  Major-General,  September 
1864,  for  his  conduct  in  the  Atlanta 
campaign.  On  March  13,  1865,  he 
was  brevetted  Major-General,  United 
States  army,  for  his  meritorious  ser- 
vices in  the  field  during  the  war.  In 
1885,  he  was  promoted  Brigadier- 
General  and  Inspector-General,  Unit- 
ed States  army,  and  in  1888  was  re- 
tired. He  died  July  14,  1905. 

Baird,  Charles  'Washington,  an 
American  historian  and  religious 
writer,  son  of  Robert  Baird :  born  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  Aug.  28,  1828;  died 
in  Rye,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  10,  1881. 

Baird,  Henry  Carey,  an  Ameri- 
can political  economist,  nephew  of 
Henry  C.  Carey,  bora  in  Bridesburg, 
Pa.,  in  1825.  He  was  a  publisher  at 
Philadelphia.  A  strong  protectionist, 
his  economical  views  generally  were 
similar  to  those  of  his  distinguished 
uncle,  and  made  public  in  numerous 
pamphlets.  He  died  Dec.  31,  1912. 

Baird,  Henry  Martyn,  an  Amer- 
ican author  and  educator,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1832;  died  1906. 

Baird,  Robert,  an  American  his- 
torian, born  in  Fayette  county,  Pa., 
Oct.  6,  1798;  died  at  Yonkers,  N.  Y., 
March  15,  1863. 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton,  a 
distinguished  American  naturalist, 
born  at  Reading,  Pa.,  Feb.  3,  1823. 
His  writings  cover  nearly  every  branch 
of  natural  history.  He  died  at  Wood's 
Holl,  Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1887. 

Bairenth,  or  Bayrenth,  a  city 
and  capital  of  the  Bavarian  province 
of  Upper  Franconia,  43  miles  N.  N. 
E.  of  Nuremberg  by  rail.  A  mag- 
nificent National  theater  for  the  per- 
formance of  Wagner's  music,  finished 
in  1875,  was  in  the  following  year 
opened  with  a  grand  representation  of 
his  Nibelungen  trilogy.  On  Feb.  14, 
1883,  the  great  master  (who  died  in 
Venice)  was  buried  in  the  garden  of 
his  villa  here. 

Baize,  a  sort  of  coarse  woolen  fab- 
ric with  a  rough  nap,  now  generally 
used  for  linings,  and  mostly  green  or 
red  in  color. 

Bajazet,  or  Bayazeed,  I.,  an  Ot- 
toman Sultan,  born  1347,  succeeded 
his  father,  Amurath  I.,  in  1389.  He 
was  the  first  of  his  family  who  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Sultan.  After  de- 


Baker 

feating  Hungarians,  Germans,  and 
French  ac  Nicopoli,  on  the  Danube, 
Sept.  28,  1396,  Bajazet  is  said  to 
have  boasted  that  he  would  feed 
his  horse  on  the  altar  of  St.  Peter 
at  Rome.  His  progress,  however, 
was  arrested  by  a  violent  attack 
of  the  gout.  Bajazet  was  prepar- 
ing for  an  attack  on  Constantinople, 
when  he  was  interrupted  by  the  ap- 
proach of  Timur  the  Great,  by  whom 
he  was  defeated  at  Angora,  in  Ana- 
tolio,  July  28,  1402.  He  was  taken 
captive,  and  died  about  nine  months 
afterward,  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Mohammed  I.  Mod- 
ern writers  reject  as  a  fiction  the  story 
of  the  iron  cage  in  which  Bajazet  was 
said  to  have  been  imprisoned. 

Baker,  Sir  Benjamin,  an  Eng- 
lish engineer,  born  near  Bath,  in  1840. 
In  1877  he  superintended  the  removal 
of  Cleopatra's  Needle  from  Egypt  to 
London.  In  conjunction  with  Sir 
John  Fowler  he  drew  the  plans  for 
the  great  bridge  over  the  Firth  of 
Forth.  He  died  May  19,  1907. 

Baker,  Benjamin  W.,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Coles  county, 
111.,  Nov.  25,  1841 ;  was  brought  up  on 
a  farm ;  served  in  the  Union  army 
through  the  Civil  War ;  was  graduated 
at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Univer- 
sity in  1870;  became  a  Methodist 
Episcopal  clergyman  in  1874 ;  and  was 
financial  secretary  of  the  Illinois  Wes- 
leyan  University  in  1883-1893 ;  presi- 
dent of  Chaddock  College  in  1893- 
1898;  of  the  Missouri  Wesleyan  Col- 
lege in  Cameron,  in  1898-1906;  then 
pastor  in  Florida. 

Baker,  Edward  Dickerson,  an 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born 
in  London,  England,  Feb.  24,  1811; 
came  to  the  United  States  in  youth. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Illinois  Legisla- 
ture in  1837,  became  a  State  Senator 
in  1840,  and  was  sent  to  Congress  in 
1844.  He  served  under  General  Scott 
in  the  war  with  Mexico  and  was  elect- 
ed United  States  Senator  from  Oregon 
in  1860.  He  entered  the  Federal  army 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff, 
Oct.  21,  1861. 

Baker,  Frank,  an  American  zool- 
ogist ;  was  graduated  in  the  medical 
department  of  Columbian  University 
in  1880 :  was  Professor  or  Anatomy  in 
the  University  ot  Georgetown ;  and 


Baker 


Baksheesh 


became  superintendent  of  the  National 
Zoological  Park,  in  Washington.  D.  C., 
in  1900. 

Baker,  Harriette  Newell 
(Woods)  (pseudonyms  "  Madeline 
Leslie"  and  "Aunt  Hatty"),  an 
American  writer  of  juvenile  stories, 
born  in  1815.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
Rev.  Leonard  Woods  and  wife  of  Rev. 
Abijah  R.  Baker;  died  in  1893. 

Baker,  John  Gilbert,  an  English 
botanist,  born  in  Guisbrough,  York- 
shire, Jan.  13,  1834;  was  appointed 
assistant  curator  at  the  herbarium  at 
Kew  in  1866.  His  voluminous  writ- 
ings include  works  on  the  flora  of  dis- 
tricts so  diverse  as  the  North  of  Eng- 
land, Madagascar,  and  Brazil. 

Baker,  Lafayette  C.,  an  Ameri- 
can detective,  born  in  Stafford,  N.  Y., 
Oct.  13,  1826 ;  was  chief  of  the  Secret 
Service  Bureau  during  the  Civil  War ; 
and  reached  the  military  rank  of  Brig- 
adier-General. He  superintended  the 
EursuSt  of  Wilkes  Booth,  President 
incoln's  assassin.  He  died  at  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  July  2,  1868. 

Baker,  Marcus,  an  American 
cartographer,  born  in  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  Sept  23,  1849;  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1870 ; 
became  connected  with  the  United 
States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  in 
1873,  and  with  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey,  in  1886;  and  was 
made  secretary  of  the  United  States 
Board  on  Geographic  Names.  He  was 
cartographer  to  the  Venezuela  Bound- 
ary Commission,  and  after  spending 
many  years  surveying  and  exploring 
prepared,  with  William  H.  Dall,  the 
"Alaska  Coast  Pilot."  He  died  Dec. 
12,  1903. 

Baker,  Newton.  Diekl,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer ;  born  in  Martinsburg,  W. 
Va.,  Dec.  3,  1871 ;  was  private  secre- 
tary to  Postmaster-General  Wilson  in 
1896-7;  began  law  practice  in  1897; 
was  city  solicitor  of  Cleveland,  O.,  in 
1902-12 ;  mayor  of  that  city  in  1912- 
14  and  1914-16 ;  and  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  March  7,  1916.  He 
was  recognized  for  many  years  as  a 
leader  of  the  Ohio  bar  and  of  the  mu- 
nicipal reform  movement  in  Cleveland. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White,  a 
distinguished  English  traveler ;  born 
in  London,  June  8,  1821.  He  was 
trained  as  an  engineer,  and  at  the  age 


!  of  24  he  went  to  Ceylon,   where  he 

I  founded  an  agricultural  settlement  at 
Nuwara  Eliya  in  1847.  In  the  early 

!  part  of  1861,  accompanied  by  his  (sec- 
ond) wife,  he  set  out  for  Africa  on  a 
journey  of  exploration.  When  he  had 

;  ascended  the  Nile  as  far  as  Gondokoro 
he  met  Speke  and  Grant  returning 
after  their  discovery  of  the  Victoria 
Nyanza  lake,  and  learned  from  them 
that  another  large  lake  in  the  district 
had  been  spoken  of  by  the  natives. 
This  lake  he  determined  to  discover, 
and  after  many  adventures  he  and  his 
wife  beheld  the  Albert  Nyanza  from  a 
height  on  March  14,  1864.  On  his  re- 
turn home  he  was  received  with  great 
honor  and  was  knighted.  In  1869  he 
returned  to  Africa  as  head  of  an  ex- 
pedition sent  by  the  Khedive  of  Egypt 
to  suppress  the  slave  trade  and  to  an- 
nex and  open  up  to  trade  a  large  part 
of  the  newly  explored  country,  being 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  pasha.  He  re- 
turned home  in  1873,  having  finished 
his  work,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
celebrated  Gordon.  In  1879  he  explor- 
ed the  island  of  Cyprus,  and  subse- 
quently he  traveled  in  Asia  and 
America.  He  died  Dec.  30,  1893. 

Baker,  William  Bliss,  an  Amer- 
ican artist,  born  in  New  York  in 
1859,  and  is  especially  noted  for  his 
landscapes.  He  died  in  Ballston,  N. 
Y.,  in  1889. 

Baker,  Mount,  an  occasionally 
active  volcano  in  Whatcom  county, 
Wash.,  belonging  to  the  Cascade  Range ; 
very  active  in  1880;  height  10,827  ft. 
Baker's  Dozen,  a  familiar  phrase 
said  to  have  originated  in  an  old  cus- 
tom of  bakers  who,  when  a  heavy  pen- 
alty was  inflicted  for  short  weight, 
used  to  give  a  surplus  to  avoid  all 
risk  of  incurring  a  fine. 

Baking  Powder,  a  mixture  of  bi- 
carbonate of  soda  and  tartaric  acid, 
usually  with  some  flour  added.  The 
water  of  the  dou?h  causes  the  libera- 
tion of  carbonic  acid,  which  makes  the 
bread  '  rise.' 

Bakony  Wald,  a  thickly-wooded 
mountain  range  dividing  the  Hunga- 
rian plains,  famous  for  the  herds  of 
swine  fed  on  its  mast. 

Bakshish,  an  Eastern  term  for  a 
present  or  gratuity.  A  demand  for 
bakshish  meets  travellers  in  the  East 
i  everywhere  from  Egypt  to  India. 


Baku 


Balata 


Baku,  a  Russian  port  on  the  W. 
shore  of  the  Caspian,  occupying  part 
of  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron,  and  a 
noted  centre  of  oil  production.  Some 
of  the  wells  have  had  such  an 
outflow  of  oil  as  to  be  unmanageable, 
and  the  Baku  petroleum  now  com- 
petes successfully  with  r.ny  other  in 
the  markets  of  the  world.  Baku  is 
the  station  of  the  Caspian  fleet,  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  has  a  large 
shipping  trade.  Pop.  (1913)  232,200. 

Bakuniu,  Michael,  a  Russian 
anarchist,  the  founder  of  Nihilism, 
born  in  1814  of  rich  and  noble  family. 
Wherever  he  went,  he  was  influential 
for  disturbance,  and  after  undergoing 
imprisonment  in  various  States,  wan 
handed  over  to  Russia,  in  1851,  by 
Austria,  imprisoned  for  five  year^,  and 
finally  set  to  Siberia.  Escaping  thence 
through  Japan,  he  joined  Herzen  in 
London,  on  the  staff  of  the  "  Kolo- 
kol."  His  extreme  views,  however, 
ruined  the  paper  and  led  to  a  quarrel 
with  Marx  and  the  International ;  and 
having  fallen  into  disrepute  with  his 
own  party  in  Russia,  he  died  suddenly 
and  almost  alone  at  Berne,  in  1878. 
He  demanded  the  entire  abolition  of 
the  State  as  a  State,  the  absolute 
equalization  of  individuals,  and  the 
extirpation  of  hereditary  rights  and 
of  religion,  his  conception  of  the  next 
stage  of  social  progress  being  purely 
negative  and  annihilatory. 

Balaam,  a  heathen  seer,  invited 
by  Balak,  King  of  Moab,  to  curse  the 
Israelites,  but  compelled  by  miracle  to 
bless  them  instead  (Num.  xxii-xxiv). 

Balaena,  the  genus  which  includes 
the  Greenland,  or  right  whale,  type  of 
the  family  balaenidse,  or  whale-bone 
whales. 

Balseniceps,  a  genus  of  wading 
birds,  belonging  to  the  Sudan,  inter- 
mediate between  the  herons  and  storks, 
and  characterized  by  an  enormous  bill, 
broad  and  swollen,  giving  the  only 
known  species  (also  called  shoe-bird) 
a  peculiar  appearance. 

Balsenidse,  the  true  whales,  the 
most  typical  family  of  the  order  ceta- 
cea  and  the  suborder  cete.  They  are 
known  by  the  absence  of  teeth  and  the 
presence  in  their  stead  of  a  horny  sub- 
stance called  whale-bone,  or  baleen. 

Balaenoptera,  fin-back  whales.  A 
genus  of  balaenidse,  characterized  by 


the  possession  of  a  soft,  dorsal  fin,  and 
by  the  shortness  of  the  plates  of  ba- 
leen. Balaenoptera  boops  is  the  north" 
ern  rorqual,  or  fin-fish,  called  by  sail- 
ors the  finner.  It  is  the  largest  of 
known  animals,  sometimes  reaching 
100  feet  in  length. 

Balaklava,  a  small  seaport  in  the 
Crimea,  8  miles  S.  S.  E.  Sebasto- 
pol.  In  the  Crimean  War  it  was 
captured  by  the  British,  and  a 
heroically  fought  battle  took  place 
here  (Oct.  25,  1854),  ending  in  the 
repulse  of  the  Russians  by  the  British. 
The  charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  was 
at  this  battle. 

Balance,  an  instrument  employed 
for  determining  the  quantity  of  any 
substance  equal  to  a  given  weight. 

Balance  Electrometer,  an  in- 
strument invented  by  Cuthbertson  for 
regulating  the  amount  of  the  charge 
of  electricity  designed  to  be  sent 
through  any  substance. 

Balance  of  Power,  a  political 
principle  which  first  came  to  be  rec- 
ognized in  modern  Europe  in  the  16th 
century,  though  it  appears  to  have 
been  also  acted  on  by  the  Greeks  in 
ancient  times,  in  preserving  the  re- 
lations between  their  different  States. 
The  object  in  maintaining  the  balance 
of  power  is  to  secure  the  general  in- 
dependence of  nations  as  a  whole,  by 
preventing  the  aggressive  attempts  of 
individual  States  to  extend  their  ter- 
ritory and  sway  at  the  expense  of 
weaker  countries. 

Balance  of  Trade,  a  term  for- 
merly used  by  political  economists  to 
signify  an  excess  of  imports  over  ex- 
ports, or  of  exports  over  imports  in 
the  foreign  trade  of  a  country,  which 
required  to  be  balanced  by  an  export 
or  import  of  the  precious  metals. 
After  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  in 
Europe  the  world's  balance  of  trade 
came  to  the  United  States  because  it 
was  the  greatest  source  of  supplies. 

Balata,  the  product  of  the  bullet- 
tree  —  its  milk  or  juice,  in  fact  — 
which  is  a  large  forest  tree,  ranging 
from  Jamaica  and  Trinidad  to  Ven- 
ezuela and  Guiana.  The  tree  grows 
to  a  height  of  120  feet,  and  has  a 
large,  spreading  head.  A  tree  of  aver- 
age size  yields  three  pints  of  milk.  The 
milk  is  dried  in  hollow  wooden  trays. 
When  it  is  sufficiently  dry  it  is  re- 


Balbo 

moved  from  the  trays  in  strips  and 
hung  up  on  lines  to  harden. 

Balbo,  Count  Cacsare,  an  Ital- 
ian author,  born  at  Turin,  in  1789. 
He  is  chiefly  remarkable  from  the  fact 
that  his  first  important  work,  "  Le 
Speranze  d'ltalia,"  published  in  1844, 
may  be  regarded  as  having  given  the 
programme  of  the  Moderate  Party  of 
Italian  politics,  and  as  having  to- 
gether with  the  writings  of  d'Azeglio, 
Durando,  and  others,  created  the  Lib- 
eral Party,  in  opposition  to  the  Re- 
publican Party  as  represented  by  Maz- 
zini.  Balbo  was  an  accomplished 
historian  and  translator.  He  died 
in  June,  1853. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  a  cel- 
ebrated Spanish  discoverer,  born  at 
Xeres  de  los  Caballeros,  in  1475.  He 
accompanied  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  in 
his  expedition  to  the  New  World,  and 
first  settled  in  Haiti  (or,  as  it  was 
then  termed,  Hispaniola).  Though 
an  adventurer  in  search  of  fortune,  his 
great  ambition  seems  to  have  been  to 
extend  the  boundaries  of  geographical 
knowledge,  and  especially  to  be  able 
to  announce  to  Europe  the  existence 
of.  another  great  ocean.  On  Sept  1, 
1513,  he  began  his  perilous  enterprise. 
Accompanied  by  a  small  band  of  fol- 
lowers, he  began  to  tread  the  almost 
impenetrable  forests  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  and,  guided  by  an  Indian 
chief,  named  Ponca,  clambered  up  the 
rugged  gorges  of  the  mountains.  At 
length,  after  a  toilsome  and  danger- 
pus  journey,  Balboa  and  his  compan- 
ions approached,  on  Sept.  25,  the  sum- 
mit of  the  mountain  range,  when  Bal- 
boa, leaving  his  followers  at  a  little 
distance  behind,  and  advancing  alone 
to  the  W.  declivity,  was  the  first  to 
behold  the  vast  unknown  ocean,  which 
he  afterward  took  solemn  possession 
of  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  and 
named  it  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  the 
apparent  quietude  of  its  waters.  Sur- 
rounded by  his  followers,  he  walked 
into  it,  carrying  in  bis  right  hand 
a  naked  sword,  and  in  his  left  the 
banner  of  Castile,  and  declared  the 
sea  of  the  South,  and  all  the  regions 
whose  shores  it  bathed,  to  belong  to 
the  crown  of  Castile  and  Leon.  Dur- 
ing his  absence,  however,  a  new  gov- 
ernor had  been  appointed  to  super- 
sede Balboa  in  Haiti ;  where,  on  his 
return,  jealousy  and  dissensions 


Baldness 

springing  up  between  them,  Balboa, 
accused  of  a  design  to  rebel,  was  be- 
headed in  1517,  in  violation  of  all 
forms  of  justice. 

Balcony,  a  gallery  or  projecting 
framework  of  wood,  iron  or  stone, 
in  front  of  a  house,  generally  on  a 
level  with  the  lower  part  of  the  win- 
dows in  one  or  more  floors. 

Baldachin,  a  structure  in  form 
of  a  canopy,  supported  by  columns, 
and  often  used  as  a  covering  for  in- 
sulated altars. 

Bald  Mountain,  the  name  of 
several  eminences  in  the  United 
States,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  principal:  (1)  In  Colorado, 
height,  11,493  feet;  (2)  in  Califor- 
nia, height,  8,295  feet;  (3)  in  Utah, 
height,  11,976  feet;  (4)  in  Wyom- 
ing, in  the  Wind  River  Range,  height, 
10,760  feet;  and,  (5)  in  North  Car- 
olina, height  5,550  feet.  The  last 
one  was  the  cause  of  much  excite- 
ment in  May,  1878,  because  of  inexpli- 
cable rumblings  which  lasted  for  about 
two  weeks.  The  mountain  shook  as 
if  in  the  throes  of  an  earthquake, 
immense  trees  and  rocks  were  hurled 
down  its  sides,  and,  for  a  time,  fears 
were  entertained  lest  a  volcanic  erup- 
tion should  follow.  A  subsequent  ex- 
amination showed  that  a  large  sec- 
tion of  the  mountain  had  been  split 
asunder,  but  no  further  disturbance 
occurred. 

Baldness,  an  absence  of  hair  on 
the  head.  Congenital  baldness  (com- 
plete absence  of  hair  at  birth)  is 
sometimes  met  with ;  but,  in  most 
cases,  is  only  temporary,  and  gives 
place,  in  a  few  years,  to  a  natur- 
al growth  of  hair.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, it  persists  through  life.  Senile 
baldness  (calvities)  is  one  of  the  most 
familiar  signs  of  old  age.  It  com- 
mences in  a  small  area  at  the  crown, 
where  the  natural  hair  is  first  re- 
placed by  down  before  the  skin  be- 
comes smooth  and  shining.  From 
this  area  the  process  extends  in  all 
directions.  It  is  more  common  in 
men  than  women.  A  precisely  simi- 
lar condition  occurs  not  unfrequently 
at  an  earlier  age  (presenile  baldness). 
It  is  generally  due  to  hereditary  ten- 
dency ;  but  is  favored  by  keeping  the 
head  closely  covered,  especially  with 
a  waterproof  cap.  The  best  author- 


Baldric 

ities    agree    that   this   form   of   bald- 
ness is  incurable. 

Great  loss  of  hair  frequently  fol- 
lows severe  illnesses  or  other  causes 
which  produce  general  debility.  As 
health  returns,  the  hair  usually  re- 
turns with  it. 

Baldric,  a  broad  belt  formerly 
worn  over  the  right  or  left  shoulder 
diagonally  across  the  body,  often  high- 
ly decorated  and  enriched  with  gems, 
and  used  not  only  to  sustain  the 
sword,  dagger,  or  horn,  but  also  for 
purposes  of  ornament,  and  as  a  mili- 
tary or  heraldic  symbol.  The  fashion 
appears  to  have  reached  its  height  in 
the  15th  century.  In  the  United 
States  it  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
uniform  of  Knights  Templar  and  oth- 
er fraternal  organizations. 

Baldwin,  the  name  of  a  long  line 
of  sovereign  Counts  of  Flanders,  of 
whom  the  most  celebrated  was  Bald- 
win IX.,  who  became,  afterward,  Em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  under  the 
name  of  Baldwin  I. 

Baldwin  II.,  the  last  Frank  Em- 
peror of  Constantinople,  born  in  1217. 
He  was  the  son  of  Pierre  de  Courte- 
nay,  and  succeeded  his  brother  Robert 
in  1228.  Driven  from  his  throne  he 
died  in  obscurity  in  1273. 

Baldwin,  Charles  H.,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  born  in  New  York 
city,  Sept.  3,  1822.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  a  midshipman,  in  1839.  Serv- 
ing on  the  frigate  "  Congress  "  during 
the  war  with  Mexico,  he  figured  in 
several  sharp  encounters  near  Mazat- 
lan.  He  commanded  the  steamer  "Clif- 
ton "  at  the  passage  of  Forts  Jackson 
and  St.  Philip,  and  at  the  first  attack 
on  Vicksburg.  He  became  Rear-Ad- 
miral in  1883,  receiving  the  command 
of  the  Mediterranean  Squadron.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  17,  1888. 

Baldwin,  Frank  Dwight,  a  U.  S. 
military  officer;  born  in  Michigan, 
June  26,  1842;  entered  the  volunteer 
army  in  1861  and  the  regular  army  in 
1866 ;  became  colonel  of  the  4th  United 
States  Infantry,  July  26,  190! ;  and 
was  promoted  Brigadier-General,  U.  S 
A.,  June  9,  1902.  He  was  awarded  a 
Congressional  medal  of  honor  for  ser- 
vice at  the  battle  of  Pine  Tree  Greet 
Ga.,  July  20,  1864,  and  another  for 
gallantry  in  an  action  against  Indians 
in  Texas.  He  greatly  distinguished 


Balen 

himself  in  the  Philippines,  in  the  early 
part  of  1902. 

Baldwin,  James  Mark,  an  Amer- 
ican psychologist,  born  in  Columbia, 
S.  C.,  Jan.  12,  1861;  educated  at 
Princeton  College,  Leipsic,  Berlin,  and 
Tubingen  Universities;  President  of 
the  American  Psychological  Associa- 
tion in  1897-1898. 

Baldwin,  John  Denison,  an 
American  journalist,  politician,  poet, 
and  writer  on  archaeology,  born  at 
North  Stonington,  Conn.,  Sept.  28, 
1809;  died  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  July 
8,  1883. 

Baldwin,  Maurice  Scollard,  a 
Canadian  clergyman,  born  in  Toronto, 
June  21,  1836 ;  was  graduated  at  Trin- 
ity College  in  that  city,  in  1862;  be- 
came rector  of  St.  Luke's  Church  in 
Montreal ;  was  Dean  of  Montreal  in 
1882-1883;  and  in  the  last  year  was 
made  Bishop  of  Huron. 

Baldwin,  Theodore  Anderson, 
American  military  officer,  born  in  New 
Jersey,  Dec.  21,  1839;  entered  the 
army  as  a  private,  May  3,  1862,  and 
served  in  that  grade  and  as  quarter- 
master's sergeant  in  the  19th  United 
States  Infantry,  till  May  31,  1865, 
when  he  became  First  Lieutenant.  He 
was  promoted  Captain,  July  23,  1867 ; 
Major  of  the  7th  Cavalry,  Oct.  5, 
1887;  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  10th 
Cavalry,  Dec.  11,  1896 ;  and  Colonel  of 
the  7th  Cavalry,  May  6,  1899.  From 
Oct.  6,  1898,  till  Jan.  31,  1899,  he 
served  as  a  Brigadier-General  of  Vol- 
unteers. Retired  in  1903. 

Balearic  Islands,  a  group  of  is- 
lands, S.  E.  of  Spain,  including  Ma- 
jorca, Minorca,  Iviza,  and  Formentera. 
The  islands  form  a  Spanish  province, 
with  an  area  of  1,935  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1913)  329,831. 

Baleen,  whale-bone,  in  the  rough 
or  natural  state. 

Bale-Fire,  in  its  older  and  strict 
meaning,  any  great  fire  kindled  in  the 
open  air,  or  in  a  special  sense,  the  fire 
of  a  funeral  pile.  It  has  frequently 
been  used  as  synonymous  with  beacon- 
fire,  or  a  fire  kindled  as  a  signal,  Sir 
Walter  Scott  having  apparently  been 
the  first  to  use  the  term  in  this  sense. 

Balen,  Hendrik  van,  painter, 
born  at  Antwerp,  in  1560.  His  works, 
chiefly  classical,  religious,  and  allegori- 
cal —  some  of  them  executed  in  part- 


Baler 


Balfonr 


nership  with  Breughel  —  are  to  be 
found  in  most  of  the  leading  galler- 
ies. Three  of  his  sons  also  followed 
the  art,  but  the  best  of  them,  John 
van  Balen  (1611-1654),  was  inferior 
to  his  father.  He  died  in  1632. 

Baler,  a  town  in  the  N.  E.  part 
of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  population  is  sev- 
eral thousand,  mostly  natives.  The 
most  conspicuous  edifice  is  a  native 
Catholic  church.  The  town  is  noted 
for  the  heroic  defense  of  a  Spanish 
garrison  in  1899,  during  a  siege  by  the 
Filipinos,  lasting  11  months.  The 
Spaniards  were  commanded  by  Lieut. 
Saturnine  Martin  Cerezo,  who  refused 
to  surrender  the  town  even  when  di- 
rected to  do  so  by  his  superiors  in 
Manila.  He  entrenched  himself  in  the 
church  and  heroically  resisted  the  be- 
siegers until  his  supplies  gave  out, 
when  he  surrendered  with  all  the  hon- 
ors of  war,  July  2,  1899.  Baler  was 
occupied  by  the  American  troops  and 
garrisoned  with  two  companies  of  the 
34th  Volunteer  Infantry,  under  Major 
Shunk,  in  March,  1900. 

Bales,  Peter,  a  famous  caligraph- 
er,  born  in  1547.  He  was  one  of  the 
early  inventors  of  shorthand.  He  died 
about  1610. 

Balestier,  Charles  Wolcott,  an 
American  novelist,  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  13,  1861;  studied  in  Cor- 
nell University ;  and  became  connected 
with  a  New  York  publishing  house. 
He  was  brother-in-law  of  Rudyard 
Kipling.  He  died  in  Dresden,  Sax- 
ony, Dec.  6,  1891. 

Balfe,  Michael  William,  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Dublin,  May  15, 
1808.  His  musical  talent  received 
early  culture,  and  in  his  ninth  year  he 
made  his  debut  as  a  violinist,  having 
begun  to  compose  at  least  two  years 
earlier.  In  1826  he  wrote  the  music 
for  a  ballet,  "  La  Perouse,"  performed 
at  Milan;  and  in  1827  he  sang  in  the 
Italian  Opera  at  Paris  with  great  ap- 
plause, his  voice  being  a  pure,  rich 
baritone.  In  1833  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  in  1846  was  appointed  con- 
ductor of  the  London  Italian  Opera. 
He  died  at  Rowley  Abbey,  his  estate 
in  Hertfordshire,  Oct.  20,  1870. 

Balfonr,  Sir  Andrew,  a  Scottish 
botanist  and  physician,  born  in  Fife- 
shire,  in  1630.  He  planned  with  Sir 


Robert  Sibbald,  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  at  Edinburgh,  and  was 
elected  its  first  President. 

Balfonr,  Arthur  James,  a  Brit- 
ish statesman ;  born  in  Scotland,  July 
25,  1848;  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge ;  entered 
Parliament  in  1874 ;  was  private  sec- 
retary to  his  uncle,  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury,  in  1878-1880,  and  accom- 
panied him  to  the  Berlin  Congress; 
was  member  of  Parliament  for  Hert- 
ford in  1879,  and  for  the  East  Divi- 
sion of  Manchester  in  1885 ;  president 
of  the  Local  Government  Board  in 
1885 ;  Secretary  for  Scotland  in  1886 ; 
with  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet;  Lord  Rec- 
tor of  St.  Andrew's  University  in 
1866;  Secretary  for  Ireland  in  1887- 
1891 ;  member  of  the  Gold  and  Silver 
Commission  in  1887-1888;  Lord  Rec- 
tor of  Glasgow  University  in  1890; 
Chancellor  of  Edinburgh  University  in 
1891;  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury 
in  1891-1892;  became  the  leader  of 
the  Conservative  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1892.  In  1895 
he  again  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury  and  leader  of  the  House. 
He  was  an  effective  speaker.  As  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland,  he  was  success- 
ful. He  passed  the  Crimes  Act  and 
Law  Act,  secured  a  free  grant  for 
railways,  made  a  tour  of  investigation 
and  created  the  Congested  Districts 
Board.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Salisbury.  Mr.  Balfonr  became  prime 
minister,  July  12,  1902.  Iii  1903  lie 
issued  a  pamphlet  on  "Insular  Free 
Trade,"  which  caused  a  sensation  as 
the  first  blow  at  British  free  trade 
from  a  British  premier.  In  1917  he 
headed  a  distinguished  mission  to  the 
United  States  after  Congress  had  de- 
clared the  existence  of  a  state  of  war 
against  the  Imperial  German  Govern- 
ment. Congress  gave  him  and  his  as- 
sociates an  exceptionally  grand  recep- 
tion, and  he  met  extreme  cordiality  on 
every  hand. 

Balfonr,  Nesbit,  a  British  mili- 
tary officer,  born  in  Dunbog,  Scotland, 
in  1743 ;  was  promoted  Lieutenant- 
General  in  1798  and  General  in  1803  ; 
distinguished  himself  during  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution ;  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill;  fought  at 
the  battles  of  Elizabethtown,  Brandy- 
wine,  Germantown,  and  Long  Island  ; 
and  was  present  at  the  capture  of 


Bali 

New  York.  He  was  appointed  com- 
mandant at  Charlestown,  in  1779.  He 
died  in  Dunbog,  in  October,  1823. 

Bali,  an  island  of  the  Indian  Arch- 
ipelago E.  of  Java,  belonging  to  Hol- 
land ;  greatest  length,  85  miles,  great- 
est breadth,  55  miles ;  area,  about 
2,260  square  miles.  It  is  divided  into 
eight  provinces  under  native  rajahs, 
and  forms  one  colony  with  Lombok, 
the  united  population  being  estimated 
Dec.  31,  1912,  at  1,207,310. 

Baliol,  or  Balliol,  John,  King 
of  Scotland ;  born  about  1249.  On  the 
death  of  Margaret,  the  Maiden  of  Nor- 
way, and  grandchild  of  Alexander  III., 
Baliol  claimed  the  vacant  throne  by 
virtue  of  his  descent  from  David,  Earl 
of  Huntington,  brother  to  William  the 
Lion,  King  of  Scotland.  Robert  Bruce 
(grandfather  of  the  King)  opposed 
Baliol ;  but  Edward  I.'s  decision  was 
in  favor  of  Baliol,  who  did  homage 
to  him  for  the  kingdom,  Nov.  20,  1292. 
Irritated  by  Edward's  harsh  exercise 
of  authority,  Baliol  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Prance,  then  at  war  with  Eng- 
land; but,  after  the  defeat  at  Dunbar 
he  surrendered  his  crown  into  the 
hands  of  the  English  monarch.  He 
was  sent  with  his  son  to  the  Tower, 
but,  by  the  intercession  of  the  Pope, 
in  1297,  obtained  liberty  to  retire  to 
his  Norman  estates,  where  he  died  in 
1315.  His  son,  Edward,  in  1332,  land- 
ed in  Fife  with  an  armed  force,  and 
having  defeated  a  large  army  under 
the  Regent  Mar  (who  was  killed),  got 
himself  crowned  King,  but  was  driven 
out  in  three  months. 

Baliol  College,  Oxford,  founded 
between  1263  and  1268  by  John  de 
Baliol,  father  of  John  Baliol,  King  of 
Scotland. 

Balista,  or  Ballista,  a  machine 
used  in  military  operations  by  the  an- 
cients for  hurling  heavy  missiles,  thus 
serving  in  some  degree  the  purpose  of 
the  modern  cannon.  They  are  said  to 
have  sometimes  had  an  effective  range 
of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  to  have 
thrown  stones  weighing  as  much  as 
300  Ibs.  The  balistse  differed  from  the 
catapultae,  in  that  the  latter  were  used 
for  throwing  darts. 

Balkan  Peninsula,  a  region  in  Eu- 
rope named  from  the  Balkan  Moun- 
tains; between  the  Adriatic  and  Ionian 
Seas  on  the  W.,  and  the  Black  Sea,  Sea 


Ball 

of  Marmora,  and  JEgean  Sea  on  the 
E. ;  comprising  Bulgaria,  Servia, 
Montenegro,  Rumania,  Eastern  Rume- 
lia,  European  Turkey,  and  Greece ; 
area,  about  125,500  square  miles ;  pop. 
est.  17,700,000,  about  half  Slavs.  This 
region  was  the  scene  of  a  war  declared 
by  Bulgaria,  Montenegro,  Servia,  and 
Greece  against  Turkey  and  by  Tur- 
key against  these  allies  in  mid-Octo- 
ber, 1912.  On  Nov.  3,  beaten  at  every 
point,  Turkey  sued  for  peace  through 
the  Powers.  It  was  also  the  scene 
of  important  military  operations  in 
the  great  war,  for  a  summary  of  which 
see  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Balkhash.  (Kirghiz  Tengis ;  Chi- 
nese Sihai),  a  great  inland  lake,  near 
the  E.  border  of  Russian  Central  Asia, 
between  44°  and  47°  N.  lat.  and  73 
and  79°  E.  long.  Lying  about  780 
feet  above  sea  level,  it  extends  323 
miles  VV.  S.  W. ;  its  breadth  at  the  W. 
end  is  50  miles ;  at  the  E.  from  9  to  4 
miles ;  the  area  is  8,400  square  miles. 
Its  principal  feeder  is  the  river  Hi.  It 
has  no  outlet. 

Ball,  Ephraim,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Greentown,  O.,  Aug. 
12,  1812 ;  was  brought  up  in  the  car- 
penter's trade ;  in  1840  established  a 
foundry  for  making  plow  castings ;  in- 
vented a  plow,  a  turn-top  stove,  the 
Ohio  mower,  the  World  mower  and 
reaper,  the  Buckeye  machine,  and  the 
New  American  harvester ;  and  for 
many  years  before  his  death  had  an 
extensive  manufacturing  plant  at  Can- 
ton. He  died  in  Canton,  O.,  Jan.  1, 
1872. 

Ball,  John,  a  priest,  was  one  of 
the  leaders  in  the  rebellion  of  Wat 
j  Tyler,  and  was  in  several  respects  a 
I  precursor  of  Wyclif,  having  been  re- 
I  peatedly  in  trouble  for  heresy  from 
1 1366.  He  was  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered  in  1381. 

Ball,    Sir    Robert    Stawell,    an 

English  astronomer,  born  in  Dublin, 
July  1,  1840 ;  studied  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege. He  was  knighted  Jan.  25,  1886. 

Ball,  Thomas,  an  American  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  June 
3,  1819.  Chief  works :  Equestrian 
statue  of  Washington,  in  Boston ; 
Webster  statue  in  New  York,  and 
"Emancipation,"  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
He  died  Dec.  11,  1911. 


Ballad 


Ballot  Reform 


Ballad,  a  narrative  song,  from  the 
French  ballade,  Italian  ballata,  an  old 
kind  of  song  of  a  lyric  nature.  Bal- 
lata is  derived  from  ballare,  to  dance. 

Ballantine,  James,  a  Scottish  | 
artist  and  poet,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
June  11,  1808;  was  brought  up  as  a 
house  painter,  but  afterward  learned 
drawing  under  Sir  William  Allen,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  to  revive  the  art 
of  glass  painting.  He  was  commis- 
sioned to  execute  the  stained  glass 
windows  for  the  House  of  Lords.  He 
died  Dec.  18,  1877. 

Ballantine,  •William  Gay,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  Dec.  7,  1848;  and  Presi- 
dent of  Oberlin  College  in  1891-1896. 
Dr.  Ballantine  was  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  "Bibliotheca  Sacra,"  in  1884r- 
1891. 

Ballarat,  or  Ballaarat,  an  Aus- 
tralian town  in  Victoria,  chief  center 
of  the  gold  mining  industry  of  the 
State. 

Ballinger,  Richard  Achilles,  an 
American    lawyer;    born    in    Boones- 
boro,  la.,  July  9,   1858;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1886;  Commissioner  of  the 
General    Land    Office    in    1907-1909; 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1909-11.  | 
His  controversy  with  Gifford  Pinchot,  | 
Chief  Forester,  on  conservation  inter-  | 
ests  in  Alaska,  led  to  a  Congressional  ' 
investigation  in  1910.     Resigned  and 
resumed  law  practice  in  Seattle. 

Balloon.  See  AERONAUTICS  ;  FLY- 
ING MACHINE. 

Ballot,  a  means  of  expressing  an 
individual  choice  for  a  public  or  other ' 
officer,  or  a  measure  of  public  impor- ' 
tance ;  the  medium  through  which  a 
voter  indicates  his  preference  at  an 
election. 

The  term  ballot,  at  a  club  or  private  j 
election,  is  applied  to  a  ball  used  for  i 
the  purpose  of  voting.     In  casting  a 
ball  for  or  against  an  individual,  the  | 
arrangement  sometimes  is  that  if  the 
vote  be  designed  in  his  favor,  then  a 
white  ball  is  used,  but  if  it  be  intended 
to  be  against  him,  then  one  of  a  black 
color  is  used  —  whence  the  phrase  "  to 
blackball  one."     Other  methods,  how- 
ever, may  be  adopted ;  thus,  a  ball  of 
any  color  put  through  a  hole  into  one 
drawer  may  indicate  a  favorable  vote, 
and  into  another  an  unfavorable  one. 

The  ballot,  as  a  political  institution, 


is  known  from  early  times,  having 
been  made  use  of  in  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome.  At  Athens,  the  verdicts 
given  in  the  courts  by  the  dicasts  were 
indicated  by  balls  of  stone  or  metal, 
black  or  pierced  balls  indicating  con- 
demnation, while  white  or  unpierced 
meant  acquittal. 

When  the  measure  called  ostracism 
was  resorted  to,  the  votes  were  given 
by  means  of  shells,  on  which  the  voters 
wrote  the  name  of  the  citizen  whom 
they  wished  banished.  The  method 
known  as  petalism  was  employed  at 
Syracuse,  the  voters  using  olive  leaves 
as  ballots.  At  Rome  the  ballot  was 
introduced  in  the  election  of  magis- 
trates in  139  B.  c.,  and  subsequently 
in  trials  and  legislation,  the  people 
voting  at  first  viva  voce,  but  later 
writing  upon  tablets  the  names  of 
their  candidates.  In  the  republic  of 
Venice  a  system  of  voting  by  ballot 
prevailed  for  many  centuries. 

In  the  United  States  it  was  in  use 
in  early  colonial  times;  in  France  it 
has  been  in  operation  in  elections 
since  1851 ;  and  in  several  of  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies  since  1855. 

Ballot  Reform,  is  a  term  applied 
to  such  improvements  in  method?  of 
voting  as  tend  to  eliminate  unfairness 
at  elections.  Nearly  every  State  in 
the  Union  has  adopted  some  plan  in- 
tended to  make  the  ballot  wholly  se- 
cret. There  is  a  single  ballot,  usually 
called  a  blanket  ballot,  because  of  its 
size,  on  which  the  voter  indicates  his 
choice  —  for  a  straight  vote  —  by 
marking  a  cross  in  the  circle  at  the 
head  of  the  column  containing  the 
nominees  of  his  party,  and  for  a  scat- 
tered or  split  vote,  by  making  a  cross 
in  the  space  before  the  desired  name. 
Two  forms  of  the  single  ballot  are  in 
use:  (a)  One,  following  the  Austra- 
lian plan,  in  which  the  titles  of  the 
officers  are  arranged  alphabetically, 
the  names  of  the  candidates  and  the 
party  following ;  (b)  one  which  groups 
all  names  and  offices  by  parties. 

In  New  York  State  the  single  bal- 
lot has  one  column  for  each  organiza- 
tion that  had  made  regular  nomina- 
tions, and  another  column  containing 
only  the  titles  of  the  offices  to  be  filled, 
with  a  space  on  the  left  to  indicate 
the  choice  by  making  a  cross,  and  a 
space  beneath  the  title  of  office,  in 
which  the  voter  could  write  the  name 


Ballon 


Balsam 


of  any  person  for  whom  he  desired  to 
vote,  whose  name  was  not  printed  in 
any  of  the  party  columns  of  the  ballot. 
Each  of  the  columns  is  headed  by 
a  registered  party  emblem,  the  circle 
in  which  to  indicate  the  choice  for  a 
straight  vote,  and  the  name  of  the 
party  organization.  Corruption  is 
baffled,  if  not  defeated  by  the  practical 
inability  of  a  voter  to  show  how  he  is 
voting. 

A  new  feature  of  ballot  reform  is 
the  substitution  for  the  ballot  paper, 
which  is  folded  and  deposited  by  hand, 
of  voting  machines,  which  are  contriv- 
ances that  both  record  the  votes  and 
count  them,  enabling  the  inspectors  to 
see  at  any  moment  how  many  votes 
have  been  cast,  and  for  whom.  No 
machine  has  as  yet  come  into  gen- 
eral use,  but  several  States  have 
authorized  their  employment,  and  oth- 
ers have  referred  the  question  of  their 
adoption  to  local  option. 

Ballon,  Hosea,  an  American  Uni- 
versalist  clergyman,  journalist,  and 
historian,  born  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Oct. 
18,  1796;  was  the  first  President  of 
Tufts  College  (1854-1861),  and  was 
very  successful  as  editor  of  the  "  Uni- 
versalist  Magazine."  He  died  at  Som- 
erville,  Mass.,  May  27,  1801. 

Ballon,  Matnrin  Murray,  an 
American  journalist,  son  of  Hosea 
Ballou,  born  in  Boston,  April  14, 
1820 ;  died  in  Cairo,  Egypt,  March  27, 
189o. 

Ball's  Bluff,  a  spot  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Potomac  river  in  Loudon 
county,  Va.,  about  33  miles  N.  W.  of 
Washington;  where  the  bank  rises 
about  150  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
river.  It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  a 
battle  between  a  Union  force  under 
Col.  Edward  D.  Baker,  and  a  Confed- 
erate force  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Evans,  Oct.  21,  1861.  The  battle 
resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Union 
force  and  the  death  of  Colonel 
Baker. 

Balm,  a  tree  the  specific  name 
being  given  because  it  was  once  sup- 
posed to  be  the.  Scriptural  "  Balm  of 
Gilead  "  —  an  opinion  probably  er- 
roneous, for  it  does  not  at  present 
grow  in  Gilead,  either  wild  or  in  gar- 
dens, nor  has  it  been  satisfactorily 
proved  that  it  ever  did.  It  is  a  shrub 
or  small  spreading  spineless  tree,  10 


to  12  feet  high,  with  trifoliate  leaves 
in  fascicles  of  2-6,  and  reddish  flow- 
ers haying  four  petals.  It  is  found  on 
both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  Arabia, 
Abyssinia,  and  Nubia.  It  does  not 
occur  in  Palestine. 

Balm  of  Gilead  Fir,  a  tree  which 
furnishes  a  turpentine-like  gum.  It 
is  a  North  American  fir,  having  no 
geographical  connection  with  Gilead. 

Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel,  a 
Chilian  statesman,  born  in  1840 ;  early 
distinguished  as  a  political  orator ;  ad- 
vocated in  Congress  separation  of 
Church  and  State;  as  Premier,  in 
1884,  introduced  civil  marriage;  elect- 
ed President  in  1886.  A  conflict  with 
the  Congressional  Party,  provoked  by 
his  alleged  cruelties  and  official  dis- 
honesty, and  advocacy  of  the  claim  of 
Signer  Vicuna  as  his  legally  elected 
successor,  resulted  in  Balmaceda's  ov- 
erthrow and  suicide  in  1891. 

Balmerino,  Arthur  Elphin- 
stoae,  Lord,  a  Scottish  Jacobite, 
born  in  1688.  He  took  part  in  the 
Jacobite  rebellion  of  1715,  and  fought 
at  Sheriffmuir.  Having  joined  the 
young  Pretender  in  1745,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Culloden,  tried  at  West- 
minster, found  guilty,  and  beheaded  in 
1746.  His  title  was  from  Balmerino, 
in  Fife. 

Balmoral  Castle,  the  Highland 
residence  of  King  Edward,  beautifully 
situated  on  the  S.  bank  of  the  Dee,  in 
the  county  of,  and  45  miles  W.  of  Ab- 
erdeen. It  stands  in  the  midst  of  fine 
and  varied  mountain  scenery,  is  built 
of  granite  in  the  Scottish  baronial 
style,  was  enlarged  in  1888,  and  has  a 
massive  and  imposing  appearance.  The 
estate,  which  is  the  King's  private 
property,  comprises  25,000  acres,  most- 
ly deer  forest. 

Balsa,  a  kind  of  raft  or  float  used 
on  the  coasts  and  rivers  of  Peru  and 
other  parts  of  South  America  for  fish- 
ing, for  landing  goods  and  passengers 
through  a  heavy  surf,  and  ^for  other 
purposes  where  buoyancy  is  chiefly 
wanted.  It  is  formed  generally  of  two 
inflated  sealskins,  connected  by  a  sort 
of  platform  on  which  the  fisherman, 
passengers  or  goods  are  placed. 

Balsam,  the  common  name  of  suc- 
culent plants  of  the  genus  impatiens, 
having  beautiful  irregular  flowers,  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  and  greenhouses. 


Balsam 

Balsam,  an  aromatic,  resinous 
substance,  flowing  spontaneously  or  by 
incision  from  certain  plants.  A  great 
variety  of  substances  pass  under  this 
name.  But  in  chemistry  the  term  is 
confined  to  such  vegetable  juices  as 
consist  of  resins  mixed  with  volatile 
oils,  and  yield  the  volatile  oil  on  dis- 
tillation. 

Balta,  Jose,  a  Peruvian  states- 
man, born  in  Lima,  in  1816;  retired 
from  the  army  with  the  rank  of  Colo- 
nel in  1855 ;  Minister  of  War  in  1865 ; 
one  of  the  leaders  in  the  insurrection 
which  overthrew  the  unconstitutional 
President,  Prado,  in  1868;  and  was 
President  of  Peru,  in  1868M872.  He 
was  murdered  in  a  military  mutiny  in 
Lima,  July  26,  1872. 

Baltic  and  North  Sea  Canal,  a 
German  ship  canal,  starting  at  Hol- 
tenau,  on  the  Bay  of  Kiel,  and  joining 
the  river  Elbe  15  miles  from  its 
mouth;  called  by  the  Germans  the 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal.  The  Emperor 
William  I.  commenced  the  works  on 
June  6,  1887,  so  far  as  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Holtenau  locks  was  con- 
cerned, while  William  II.  opened  the 
canal  gates  in  1895.  The  work  was 
thus  actually  completed  in  the  esti- 
mated time,  eight  years,  and  the  esti- 
mate of  cost,  $40,000,000,  had  not 
been  exceeded. 

Baltic  Provinces  (in  Russia),  a 
term  very  commonly  used  to  compre- 
hend the  five  Russian  governments 
bordering  on  the  Baltic,  viz.,  Courland, 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petrograd,  and 
Finland ;  in  a  restricted  sense  it  desig- 
nates the  first  three  only.  The  Baltic 
provinces  once  belonged  to  Sweden, 
except  Courland,  which  was  a  depen- 
dency of  Poland.  The  bulk  of  the 
population  is  composed  of  Esths  and 
Letts;  the  Germans  number  above 
200,000,  the  Russians  only  65,000. 
The  three  provinces  combined  have  an 
area  of  35,614  square  miles,  and  a 
population  (1914)  of  3,049,500. 

Baltic  Sea,  the  great  gulf  or  in- 
land sea  bordered  by  Denmark,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  Sweden,  and  com- 
municating with  the  Kattegat  and 
North  Sea  by  the  Sound  and  the  Great 
and  Little  Belts.  Its  length  is  from 
850  to  900  miles;  breadth,  from  100 
to  200;  and  area,  including  the  Gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  184,496 


Baltimore 

square  miles,  of  which  12,753  are  oc- 
cupied by  islands.  Its  mean  depth  is 
44  fathoms,  and  the  greatest  ascer- 
tained depth,  between  Gottland  and 
Courland,  140. 

Baltimore,  a  coextensive  city  and 
county  of  Maryland;  sixth  city  in  the 
United  States  in  pop.  in  1900;  (1910) 
558,485;  on  an  expansion  of  the 
Patapsco  river  and  seven  railroads ;  38 
miles  N.  E.  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
14  miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay.  The 
city  covers  an  area  of  28  square  miles, 
and  the  expansion  of  the  river  gives 
it  a.  spacious  and  secure  harbor  (con- 
sisting of  an  outer  bay  accessible  to 
the  largest  ships,  and  an  interior  basin 
for  small  vessels),  which  has  become 
the  seat  of  a  very  large  foreign  and 
coastwise  trade.  The  entrance  to  the 
harbor  is  defended  by  Fort  McHenry, 
an  important  military  post,  which 
successfully  resisted  an  attack  by  the 
British  fleet  in  the  War  of  1812.  The 
city  is  laid  out  in  general  at  right 
angles,  with  streets  averaging  60  feet 
in  width,  and  is  built  up  with  red 
brick",  made  from  clay  beds  near  the 
city,  white  marble  and  granite,  both 
from  quarries  near  by,  and  with  iron. 

The  city  is  the  largest  oyster  can- 
ning place  in  the  world,  the  indus- 
try employing  over  5,000  vessels  and 
boats  of  all  kinds  and  several  thousand 
persons.  It  also  ranks  very  high  in 
the  various  manufactures  of  tobacco, 
and  in  the  exportation  of  corn  and 
grains  in  general. 

On  Sept.  11,  1814,  the  British  forces 
under  General  Ross  landed  near  Bal- 
timore and  attempted  to  carry  the  city 
by  assault.  The  American  forces  were 
placed  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and 
were  unable  to  resist  the  invasion ; 
but  in  the  assault  the  British  com- 
mander was  killed,  and  his  troops 
abandoned  their  purpose.  On  the  fol- 
lowing day,  the  British  fleet  bombard- 
ed Fort  McHenry  without  practical 
success.  During  the  Civil  War  the 
city  was  a  scene  of  almost  continual 
excitement.  On  April  19,  1861,  a  fatal 
assault  was  made  on  portions  of  the 
Sixth  Massachusetts  and  the  Seventh 
Pennsylvania  Regiments  as  they  were 
passing  through  the  city  on  their  way 
to  Washington-;  in  the  following 
month  General  Butler  occupied  Fed- 
eral Hill;  in  1863-1864  the  city  was 
fortified  to  resist  a  threatened  attack 


Baltimore 


Baliac 


by  the  Confederates ;  and  in  the  latter 
year  the  National  Republican  Conven- 
tion, which  renominated  President 
Lincoln,  met  in  the  city.  On  Sunday, 
Feb.  7,  1904,  a  fire  broke  out  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  and  raged  for  two 
days,  destroying  property  of  the  value 
of  $50,000,000.  It  necessitated  the  re- 
construction of  that  portion  of  the 
city,  and  enabled  other  important  im- 
provements, wider  streets,  new  build- 
ings, electric  lighting  and  transit, 
improved  harbor  accommodation,  etc., 
to  be  effectively  accomplished  in  the 
"Monumental  City." 

Baltimore  is  the  oldest  Roman 
Catholic  See  in  the  United  States, 
dating  from  1789.  It  has  long  been 
one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
centers  of  the  country,  having,  in  the 
calendar  year  1916,  imports  of  mer- 
chandise valued  at  $38,941.666,  and 
exports  valued  at  $291,167,696.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Federal  census  on 
manufactures  in  1910  the  city  had 
2,502  establishments,  employing  $164,- 
437,000  capital  and  71,444  wage 
earners,  paying  $107,024,000  for  ma- 
terials, and  yielding  products  valued 
at  $186,978,000.  During  the  year 
ended  Sept.  30,  1916,  the  exchanges 
at  the  Baltimore  clearing  house  aggre- 
gated $2.192.008,000,  an  increase  in  a 
year  of  $464,175,000. 

Baltimore,  George  Calvert. 
Lord,  an  English  colonist,  born  in 
Yorkshire  about  1580 ;  was  for  some 
time  Secretary  of  State  to  James  L, 
but  this  post  he  resigned  in  1624  in 
consequence  of  having  become  a  Ro- 
man Catholic.  Notwithstanding  this 
he  retained  the  confidence  of  the  King, 
who,  in  1625,  raised  him  to  the  Irish 
peerage,  his  title  being  from  Balti- 
more, a  fishing  village  of  Cork.  He 
had  previously  obtained  a  grant  of 
land  in  Newfoundland,  but,  as  this 
colony  was  much  exposed  to  the  at- 
tacks of  the  French,  he  left  it,  and  ob- 
tained another  patent  for  Maryland. 
He  died  (1632)  before  the  charter  was 
completed,  and  it  was  granted  to  his 
son,  Cecil,  who  deputed  the  governor- 
ship to  his  brother,  Leonard. 

Baluchistan,  a  country  in  Asia, 
the  coast  of  which  is  continuous  with 
the  N.  W.  seaboard  of  India,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Afghanistan,  on  the  W. 
by  Persia,  on  the  S.  by  the  Arabian 
Sea,  and  on  the  E.  by  Sind.  It  has 


an  area  of  about  134,630  square  miles, 
and  a  population  (1911)  of  834,703. 
In  1910  it  was  divided  into  (1)  Brit- 
ish and  administered  territory ;  (2) 
native  States  of  Kalat  and  Las  Bela ; 
(3)  and  the  Marri  and  Bugti  tribal 
areas.  The  British  province  had  an 
area  of  54,228  square  miles  and  pop. 
of  414,412,  and  the  native  States 
an  area  of  80,410  square  miles  and  a 
pop.  of  420,291. 

Balustrade,  a  range  of  balusters, 
together  with  the  cornice  or  coping 
which  they  support,  used  as  a  parapet 
for  bridges  or  the  roofs  of  buildings, 
or  as  a  mere  termination  to  a  struc- 


BALUSTBADE. 

ture;  also  serving  as  a  fence  or  in- 
closure  for  altars,  balconies,  terraces, 
staircases,  etc. 

Balzac,  Honore  de,  a  French  au- 
thor, born  at  Tours,  May  20,  1799; 
died  in  Paris,  August,  1850.  From 
1819  to  1830  he  led  a  life  of  frequent 
privation  and  incessant  industry,  pro- 
ducing stories  which  neither  found  nor 
deserved  to  find  readers,  and  incurring 
—  mainly  through  unlucky  business 
speculations — a  heavy  burden  of  debt, 
which  harassed  him  to  the  end  of  his 
career.  He  first  tasted  success  in  Ids 
30th  year  on  the  publication  of  "The 
Last  of  the  Chouans,"  which  was  soon 
afterward  followed  by  "The  Magic 
Skin,"  a  marvellous  interweaving  of 
the  supernatural  into  modern  life,  and 
the  earliest  of  his  great  works.  After 
writing  several  other  novels,  he  formed 
the  design  of  presenting  in  the  "Hu- 
man Comedy"  a  complete  picture  of 
modern  civilization.  All  ranks,  pro- 
fessions, arts,  trades,  all  phases  of 
manners  in  town  and  country,  were  to 


Bambarra 

be  represented  in  bis  imaginary  sys- 
tem of  things.  In  attempting  to  carry 
out  this  impossible  design,  he  produced 
what  is  almost  in  itself  a  literature. 
His  work  did  not  bring  him  wealth ; 
his  yearly  income,  even  when  he  was 
at  the  height  of  bis  fame,  is  said  to 
have  rarely  exceeded  12,000  francs. 
In  1849,  when  his  health  had  brok- 
en ^  down,  he  traveled  to  Poland  to 
visit  Madame  Hanska,  a  rich  Polish 
lady,  with  whom  he  had  corresponded 
for  more  than  15  years.  In  1850  she 
became  his  wife,  and  three  months 
after  the  marriage,  in  August  of  the 
same  year,  Balzac  died  at  Paris. 

Bambarra,  one  of  the  Sudan 
States  of  Western  Africa.  The  in- 
habitants, a  branch  of  the  Mandigoes, 
number  about  2,000,000,  and  are  su- 
perior to  their  neighbors  in  intelli- 
gence. The  country  is  within  the 
French  sphere. 

Bamberger,  Heinrich  von,  an 
Austrian  pathologist,  born  in  Prague 
in  1822 ;  was  graduated  in  medicine  in 
1847;  became  Professor  of  Special 
Pathology  and  Therapeutics,  first  ir 
the  University  of  Wiirzburg,  and,  in 
1872,  in  the  University  of  Vienna.  He 
died  in  1888. 

Bambino,  the  figure  of  our  Sa- 
viour represented  as  an  infant  in 
swaddling  clothes.  The  "  Santissimo 
Bambino  "  in  the  Church  of  Ara  Cceli 
at  Rome,  a  richly  decorated  figure 
carved  in  wood,  is  believed  to  have  a 
miraculous  virtue  in  curing  diseases. 

Bamboo,  a  giant  grass  some- 
times reaching  the  height  of  40  or 
more  feet,  which  is  found  everywhere 
in  the  tropics  of  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere, and  has  been  introduced  into 
the  West  Indies,  the  Southern  States 
of  America,  and  various  other  regions 
of  the  Western  world.  Bamboo  is  put 
to  all  sorts  of  uses.  Bows,  arrows, 
quivers,  the  shafts  of  lances,  and 
other  warlike  weapons  can  be  made 
from  the  stems  of  bamboo,  as  can 
ladders,  rustic  bridges,  the  masts  of 
vessels,  walking  sticks,  water  pipes, 
flutes,  and  many  other  objects.  The 
leaves  are  everywhere  used  for  weav- 
ing and  for  packing  purposes.  Finally, 
the  seeds  are  eaten  by  the  poorer  class- 
es in  parts  of  India ;  and  in  the  West 
Indies  the  tops  of  the  tender  shoots 
are  pickled. 


Bancroft 

Ban,    Bann,    Banne,    Bain,    or 

Bane,  a  proclamation,  public  notice, 
or  edict  respecting  a  person  or  thing. 

I.  Military  and  feudal :    A  procla- 
mation in  time  of  war. 

II.  Historical.     The  ban  of  the  em- 
pire :    A   penalty  occasionally  put  in 
force  under  the  old   German   Empire 
against  a  prince  who  had  given  some 
cause  of  offense  to  the  supreme  au- 
thority. 

III.  Law,     etc.      Banns     (plural)  : 
The  publication  of  intended  marriages, 
proclamation     that     certain     parties 
named  intend  to  proceed  to  marriage, 
unless  any  impediment  to  their  union 
be  proved  to  exist. 

Ban,  in  Austro-Hungary :  (1) 
Formerly :  A  title  belonging  to  the 
warden  of  the  Eastern  Marshes  of 
Hungary.  (2)  Now :  The  Viceroy  of 
Temesvar,  generally  called  the  Ban  of 
Croatia.  The  territory  he  rules  over 
is  called  a  banat  or  banate. 

Banana,  a  fruit  originally  East 
Indian,  but  much  cultivated  in  warm 
countries  over  the  whole  globe. 

Banana,  an  island  in  West  Afri- 
ca, N.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo; 
also  a  seaport  of  the  Kongo  Free 
State  on_  the  island.  It  has  lost  com- 
mercial importance  in  recent  years. 

Banana-Bird,  a  bird  belonging  to 
the  family  sturnidse  (starlings),  and 
the  sub-family  oriolinse,  or  orioles.  It 
is  tawny  and  black,  with  white  bars 
on  the  wings.  It  occurs  in  the  West 
Indies  and  the  warmer  parts  of  Con- 
tinental America. 

Banat,  a  large  and  fertile  region 
in  Hungary,  consisting  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Temesvar,  Torontal  and  Kris- 
so;  principal  town,  Temesvar.  The 
region  originally  belonged  to  Hun- 
gary; was  occupied  by  the  Turks  in 
1652-1716;  and  was  reunited  to  Hun- 
gary in  1779.  The  population  ex- 
seeds  1,500,000. 

Banca,  an  island  belonging  to  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  between  Sumatra 
and  Borneo,  130  miles  long,  with  a 
width  varying  from  10  to  30;  pop. 
80,921,  a  considerable  proportion  be- 
ing Chinese.  II  is  celebrated  for  its 
excellent  tin,  of  which  the  annual  yield 
is  above  4,000  tons. 

Bancroft,  Aaron,  a  Unitarian 
clergyman,  born  in  Reading,  Mass., 
Nov.  10,  1755 ;  graduated  at  Harvard, 


Bancroft 

in  1778 ;  became  pastor  in  Worcester 
in  1785,  where  he  remained  nearly  50 
years.  Besides  a  great  number  of  ser- 
mons his  works  include  a  "  Life  of 
George  Washington"  (1807).  He 
was  the  father  of  the  historian,  George 
Bancroft.  He  died  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Aug.  19,  1839. 

Bancroft,  George,  an  American 
historian,  born  near  Worcester,  Mass., 
Oct.  3,  1800.  He  was  educated  at 
Harvard  and  in  Germany,  where  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  many  liter- 
ary men  of  note.  In  1824  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Heeren's  "  Poli- 
tics of  Ancient  Greece,"  and  a  small 
volume  of  poems,  and  was  also  em- 
ployed in  collecting  materials  for  a 
history  of  the  United  States.  Between 
1834  and  1840  three  volumes  of  his 
history  were  published.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  effected  many  reforms  and  im- 
provements in  that  department.  He 
was  American  Minister  to  England 
from  1846  to  1849,  when  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the 
honorary  degree  of  D.  C.  L.  He  took 
the  opportunity,  while  in  Europe,  to 
perfect  his  collections  on  American 
history.  He  returned  to  New  York  in 
1849,  and  began  to  prepare  for  the 
press  the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  of 
his  history,  which  appeared  in  1852. 
The  sixth  appeared  in  1854,  the  sev- 
enth in  1858,  the  eighth  soon  after, 
but  the  ninth  did  not  appear  until 
1866.  From  1867  to  1874  he  was 
Jlinister  Plenipotentiary  at  the  Court 
of  Berlin.  The  10th  and  last  volume 
of  his  great  work  appeared  in  1874. 
An  additional  section  appeared,  first 
as  a  separate  work,  in  1882 :  "  His- 
tory of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,"  and  the 
whole  came  out  in  six  volumes  in 
1884-1885.  He  settled  in  Washing- 
ton on  returning  from  Germany,  in 
1875,  and  died  there,  Jan.  17,  1891. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  an 
American  historian,  born  in  Granville, 
Ohio,  May  5,  1832.  In  1852  he  went 
to  California  to  establish  a  book  busi- 
ness, and  began  to  collect  documents, 
maps,  books  and  MSS.  for  a  complete 
"  History  of  the  Pacific  States  "  from 
Mexico  to  Alaska.  In  1905  he  gave 
his  library  of  60,000  volumes  and  500 
original  MSS.  to  the  University  of 
California. 

E.  13. 


Band  Fish 

Bancroft,  The,  a  steel  gunboat  of 
the  United  States  navy ;  built  express- 
ly for  a  practice  ship  for  the  cadets  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy; 
launched  in  1892. 

Bandai-San,  a  volcano  in  Japan; 
140  miles  N.  of  Tokio.  Its  summit 
consists  of  several  peaks,  the  highest 
of  which  is  6,035  feet  above  the  ocean, 
and  4,000  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plain.  On  July  15,  1888,  there  was  a 
terrible  explosion  of  steam  which 
blew  out  a  side  of  the  mountain,  mak- 
ing a  crater  more  than  a  mile  in  width, 
and  having  precipitous  walls  on  three 
sides.  The  debris  of  broken  rock  and 
dust  poured  down  the  slope  and  over 
an  area  of  27  square  miles,  killing  461 
persons  and  covering  many  villages. 

Banda  Islands,  a  group  belonging 
to  Holland,  Indian  Archipelago,  S.  of 
Ceram,  Great  Banda,  the  largest,  be- 
ing 12  miles  long  by  2  broad.  They 
are  beautiful  islands,  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin, yielding  quantities  of  nutmeg. 
Goenong  Api,  or  Fire  Mountain,  is  a 
cone-shaped  volcano  which  rises  2,320 
feet  above  the  sea.  Pop.  about  7,000. 

Banda  Oriental,  a  State  of  South 
America,  now  usually  called  UBU- 

GUAY. 

Bandel,  Ernst  von,  a  Bavarian 
sculptor,  born  in  1800,  at  Ansbach ; 
studied  art  at  Munich,  Nuremberg, 
and  Rome ;  and  from  1834  lived  chiefly 
at  Hanover,  engaged  off  and  on,  for 
40  years,  on  his  great  monument  of 
Arminius,  near  Detmold,  90  feet  high, 
which  was  unveiled  by  the  Emperor 
Wilhelm  on  Aug.  16,  1875.  He  died 
near  Donauworth,  Sept.  25,  1876. 

Bandelier,  Adolph  Francis 
Alphonse,  a  Swiss-American  archae- 
ologist, born  in  Berne,  Aug.  6,  1840; 
settled  early  in  the  United  States, 
where  he  did  important  work  under 
the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Amer- 
ica. His  studies  were  chiefly  among 
the  Indians  of  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  Central  America  and  Mexico. 
He  published  many  papers  on  the  sub- 
ject. Died  March  19,  1914. 

Band  Fish.  The  red  band  fish. 
It  is  about  15  inches  long.  Its  bril- 
liant appearance,  when  seen  moving 
in  the  water,  has  suggested  the  names 
of  fire-flame  and  red  ribbon,  by  which 
it  is  also  known.  The  home  of  the 
genus  is  in  Japanese  waters. 


Bandicoot 

Bandicoot,  the  largest  known  spe- 
cies of  rat,  attaining  the  weight  of 
two  or  three  pounds,  and  the  length, 
including  the  tail,  of  24  to  30  inches. 
It  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  very 
abundant  in  Ceylon.  Its  flesh  is  said 
to  be  delicate  and  to  resemble  young 
pork,  and  is  a  favorite  article  of  diet 
with  the  coolies. 

Bandiera,  Attilio  and  Emilio, 
two  brothers  of  a  Venetian  family, 
lieutenants  in  the  Austrian  navy,  who 
attempted  a  rising  in  favor  of  Italian 
independence  in  1843.  The  attempt 
was  a  failure,  and  they  fled  to  Corfu ; 
but,  misled  by  false  information  they 
ventured  to  land  in  Calabria  with  20 
companions,  believing  that  their  ap- 
pearance would  be  the  signal  for  a 
general  insurrection.  One  of  their 
accomplices  had  betrayed  them,  and 
the  party  was  captured  at  once  by  the 
Neapolitan  police.  Attilio  and  Emilio 
were  shot  along  with  seven  of  their 
comrades  in  the  public  square  of  Co- 
senza,  on  July  25,  1844. 

Bandinelli,  Baccio,  son  of  a  fa- 
mous goldsmith  of  Florence,  and  one 
of  the  best  sculptors  of  his  time,  was 
born  at  Florence  in  1493.  Among  his 
best  works  are  his  colossal  group  of 
"  Hercules,"  with  Cacus  at  his  feet, 
his  "  Adam  and  Eve,"  his  copy  of  the 
"  Laocoon,"  and  the  exquisite  bassi- 
rilievi  which  adorn  the  choir  of  the 
Duomo  in  Florence,  where  he  died  in 
1560. 

Bauer,  Johan  Gnstafsson,  a 
Swedish  general  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  born  in  1596 ;  made  his  first 
campaigns  in  Poland  and  Russia,  and 
accompanied  Gustavus  Adolphus,  who 
held  him  in  high  esteem,  to  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Gustavus,  in  1632, 
he  had  the  chief  command  of  the 
Swedish  army,  and,  in  1634,  invaded 
Bohemia,  defeated  the  Saxons  at  Witt- 
stock,  Sept.  24,  1636,  and  took  Tor- 
gau.  He  ravaged  Saxony  again  in 
1639,  gained  another  victory  at  Chem- 
nitz, and,  in  1640,  defeated  Piccolo- 
mini.  In  January,  1641,  he  very  near- 
ly took  Ratisbon  by  surprise.  He 
died  in  1641. 

Bang,  Herman,  a  Danish  novel- 
ist, born  in  1857.  He  came  into  no- 
tice about  1879,  from  which  time  he 
published  a  number  of  novels  and 
some  poems.  He  died  in  1912. 


Bangkok 

Bangalore,  a  town  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  Mysore,  and  giving  its  name 
to  a  considerable  district  in  the  E.  of 
Mysore  State.  Pop.  180,366. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  city  of  Siam, 
situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Menam, 
about  20  miles  from  its  mouth.  The 
population  in  1910,  628,675,  nearly 
half  of  whom  are  Chinese,  the  others, 
including  Burmese,  Annamese,  Cam- 
bodians, Malays,  Eurasians,  and  Eu- 
ropeans. The  foreign  trade  of  Siam 
centers  in  Bangkok,  and  is  mainly  in 
the  hands  of  the  Europeans  and  Chi- 
nese. The  approach  to  Bangkok  by 
the  Menam.  which  can  be  navigated 
by  ships  of  350  tons  burden  (large 
sea-going  ships  anchor  at  Paknam,  be- 
low the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river),  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  The 
internal  traffic  of  Bangkok  is  chiefly 
carried  on  by  means  of  canals,  there 
being  only  a  few  passable  streets  in 
the  whole  city.  Horses  and  carriages 
are  rarely  seen,  except  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  palaces.  The  native 
houses  on  land  —  of  bamboo  or  other 
wood,  like  the  floating  fiouses —  are 
raised  upon  piles,  six  or  eight  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  are  reached  by 
ladders.  The  circumference  of  the 
walls  of  Bangkok,  which  are  15  to  30 
feet  high,  and  12  broad,  is  about  6 
miles. 

Bangkok  is  now  the  permanent  res- 
idence of  the  King.  The  palace  is  sur- 
rounded by  high  walls,  and  is  nearly 
a  mile  in  circumference.  It  includes 
temples,  public  offices,  accommodation 
for  officials  and  for  some  thousands  of 
soldiers,  with  their  necessary  equip- 
ments, a  theater,  apartments  for  a 
crowd  of  female  attendants,  and  sev- 
eral Buddhist  temples,  or  chapels. 
Several  of  the  famous  white  elephants 
are  kept  in  the  courtyard  of  the  pal- 
ace. Throughout  the  interior  are  dis- 
tributed the  most  costly  articles  in 
gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.  The 
chief  exports  are  rice,  sugar,  pepper, 
cardamoms,  sesame,  hides,  fine  woods, 
ivory,  feathers,  and  edible  birds'  nests. 
The  imports  are  tea,  manufactured 
silks  and  piece  goods,  opium,  hard- 
ware, machinery,  and  glass  wares.  In 
1893,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Bang- 
kok, by  which  Siam  made  large  ces- 
sions to  France,  two  French  gunboats 
having  forced  their  way  to  the  capital 
after  an  ineffective  defense. 


Bangor 

Bangor,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Penobscot  county,  Me.;  at 
juriction  of  the  Penobscot  and  Ken- 
duskeag  rivers  and  on  the  Maine 
Central  railroad;  140  miles  N.  E.  of 
Portland;  has  exceptional  power  for 
manufacturing  from  the  Penobscot 
river;  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  lum- 
ber industry;  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
noted  theological  seminary.  Pop. 
(1910)  24,803. 

Bangs,  John  Kendrick,  an 
American  humorist  and  editor,  born 
in  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  May  27,  1862.  He 
was  long  famous  for  his  light  verse 
and  humorous  stories. 

Bangs,      Lemuel      Bolt  on,      an 

American  physician ;  born  in  New 
York,  Aug.  9,  1842 ;  was  president  of 
the  American  Association  of  Genito- 
urinary Surgeons  (1895)  and  editor 
of  "American  Text-Book  of  Genito- 
Urinary  Diseases."  D.  Oct.  4,  1914. 

Bangweolo  (also  called  Bemba), 
a  great  Central  African  lake,  discover- 
ed by  Livingstone  in  1SG8,  which  is 
150  miles  long  by  75  in  width,  and 
3,700  feet  above  the  sea.  On  its  S. 
shore  Livingstone  died. 

Banian,  or  Banyan,  an  Indian 
trader,  or  merchant,  one  engaged  in 
commerce  generally^  but  more  particu- 
larly one  of  the  great  traders  of  West- 
ern India,  as  in  the  seaports  of  Bom- 
bay, Kurrachee,  etc.,  who  carry  on  a 
large  trade  by  means  of  caravans  with 
the  interior  of  Asia,  and  with  Africa 
by  vessels. 

Banim,  John,  an  Irish  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  poet,  born  in  Kilkenny, 
April  3,  1798 ;  died  in  Kilkenny,  Aug. 
13,  1842. 

Banishment  (the  act  of  putting 
under  ban,  proclamation,  as  an  out- 
law), a  technical  term  for  the  punish- 
ment of  sending  out  of  the  country 
under  penalties  against  return. 

Banister,  John,  an  Anglo-Amer- 
ican scientist,  born  in  England ;  set- 
tled in  the  West  Indies,  and  later  in 
Virginia,  in  the  vicinity  of  James- 
town, where  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  botany.  He  died  in  1692. 
His  son,  JOHN,  born  in  Virginia,  was 
educated  in  England,  and  studied  law 
there ;  became  Colonel  in  the  Virginia 
militia;  member  of  the  Virginia  As- 
sembly ;  and  prominent  in  the  patri- 


Bank  Note 

otic  conventions  of  the  Revolutionary 
period ;  was  a  Representative  from 
Virginia  in  the  Continental  Congress 
in  1778-1779,  and  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  He 
died  near  Hatchers  Run,  Va.,  in  1787. 

Banjermassin,  a  former  Sultan- 
ate in  the  S.  E.  of  Borneo,  with  an 
area  of  5,928  square  miles,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  300,000,  chiefly  Mo- 
hammedans. Tributary  to  Holland 
since  1787,  it  was  annexed  on  the 
death  of  the  last  Sultan  in  1857,  and 
is  now  governed  by  the  Dutch  Resi- 
dent for  the  S.  and  E.  of  Borneo,  who 
has  an  assistant  at  Martapura,  where 
the  Sultans  formerly  lived. 

Banjo,  a  musical  instrument  with 
five  strings,  having  a  head  and  neck 
like  a  guitar,  with  a  body  or  sound- 
ing-board hollow  at  the  back,  and 
played  with  the  hand  and  fingers.  It 
is  the  favorite  instrument  of  the  plan- 
tation negroes  of  the  Southern  States 
and  their  imitators,  and  seems  to  have 
had  its  origin  in  the  bandore,  a  musi- 
cal instrument  like  a  lute  or  guitar, 
invented  by  John  Ross  or  Rose,  a  fa- 
mous violin-maker,  about  15G2. 

Bank,  primarily  an  establishment 
for  the  deposit,  custody  and  repay- 
ment on  demand,  of  money ;  and  ob- 
taining the  bulk  of  its  profits  from  the 
investment  of  sums  thus  derived  and 
not  in  immediate  demand.  The  term 
is  a  derivative  of  the  banco  or  bench 
of  the  early  Italian  money  dealers.  ^ 

Bank  Acceptances,  commercial 
notes  for  discouut  which  the  Federal 
Reserve  Banking  Act  of  1913  per- 
mitted National  banks  to  accept.  This 
system  of  financing  trade  has  been  in 
operation  abroad  for  many  years  and 
to  some  extent  in  the  United  States, 
but  has  never  been  extended  to  do- 
mestic business  lest  the  credit  privi- 
lege should  be  overdone.  The  process 
is  about  the  same  as  having  an  ordi- 
nary note  discounted  at  a  bank,  but  is 
largely  restricted  to  foreign  business. 

Bankes,  Henry,  an  English 
statesman  and  historian ;  born  in  Lon- 
don in  1757 ;  died  Dec.  17,  1834. 

Bankiva  Fowl,  a  fowl  living  wild 
'in  Northern  India,  Java,  Sumatra,  etc. 

Bank  Note,  an  engraved  certifi- 
cate representing  its  face  value  in  spe- 
cie. In  the  production  of  bank  notes, 
the  principal  purpose  is  to  render  their 


Bankruptcy  Laws 


Bank* 


forgery  impossible,  or  at  least  easy  of 
detection.  This  is  sought  to  be  effect- 
ed by  peculiarity  of  paper,  design,  and 
printing. 

In  the  United  States,  the  bank  notes 
at  present  in  circulation  are  manufac- 
tured by  the  Government  Bureau  of 
Engraving  and  Printing,  the  paper 
being  made  by  a  private  concern,  un- 
der a  patented  process,  the  chief  in- 
gredients being  a  mixture  of  linen 
and  cotton  fiber,  into  which  are  in- 
troduced threads  of  silk,  so  arranged 
as  to  be  perceptible  after  the  notes 
are  printed.  This  style  of  paper  is 
furnished  only  to  the  government.  Su- 
perior skill  is  exercised  in  engraving 
the  plates,  nearly  all  parts  of  them 
being  executed  by  the  geometrical 
lathe  and  the  ruling  machine  the  work 
of  which  it  is  impossible  to  imitate 
successfully  by  hand.  The  printing  of 
the  notes  is  done  in  colored  inks  of  the 
best  quality,  sometimes  as  many  as 
four  shades  being  used.  The  great  ex- 
pense of  the  machines  used  in  the  en- 
graving, and  the  superior  quality  of 
the  work  generally,  renders  successful 
counterfeiting  almost  impossible.  The 
notes,  when  badly  worn,  are  returned 
to  the  United  States  Treasury,  other 
notes  being  issued  in  their  stead. 

Bankruptcy  Laws,  regulations 
passed  by  a  competent  authority  with 
a  view  to  distributing  the  property  of 
an  insolvent  equitably  among  his  cred- 
itors and  free  the  debtor  from  further 
obligation.  In  England,  before  1841, 
only  a  tradesman  could  be  a  bankrupt. 
This  distinction  was  then  abolished. 
It  was  abolished  in  the  United  States 
in  1869.  The  act  "  to  establish  a 
uniform  system  of  bankruptcy 
throughout  the  United  States,"  was 
passed  by  both  Houses  of  the  55th 
Congress,  and  by  the  approval  of  Pres- 
ident McKinley,  became  a  law  on  July 
1,  1898. 

The  provisions  under  which  a  man 
can  be  thrown  into  bankruptcy  against 
his  will  are  as  follows:  (1)  Where  a 
man  has  disposed  of  his  property  with 
intent  to  defraud.  (2)  Where  he  has 
disposed  of  his  property  to  one  or 
more  creditors  to  give  a  preference  to 
them.  (3)  Where  he  has  given  a 
preference  through  legal  proceedings. 
(4)  Where  a  man  has  made  a  volun- 
tary assignment  for  the  benefit  of  his 
creditors  generally.  (5)  Where  a 


man  admits  in  writing  that  he  is  bank- 
rupt. The  last  two  provisions  are 
practically  voluntary  proceedings.  Un- 
der the  common  law,  a  man  is  consid- 
ered insolvent  when  he  cannot  pay  his 
debts  when  they  are  due ;  under  the 
new  law,  he  is  deemed  insolvent  only 
when  his  property,  fairly  valued,  is  in- 
sufficient to  pay  his  debts.  Only  two 
offenses  are  cited  under  the  new  law : 
one  when  property  is  hidden  away 
after  proceedings  in  bankruptcy  have 
been  begun,  and  the  other  when  per- 
jury is -discovered.  Discharges  are  to 
be  denied  in  only  two  cases ;  one,  in 
which  either  of  the  offenses  detailed 
has  been  committed,  and  the  other, 
when  it  is  shown  that  fraudulent 
books  have  been  kept.  The  term  of 
imprisonment  for  either  of  these  of- 
fenses is  not  to  exceed  two  years. 

The  law  provides  a  complete  sys- 
tem throughput  the  United  States,  and 
for  its  administration  by  the  United 
States  courts  in  place  of  the  different 
systems  formerly  in  existence  in  the 
various  States  administered  by  State 
courts.  In  bankruptcy  proceedings,  a 
bankrupt  debtor  may  turn  over  all  his 
property  to  the  court,  to  be  adminis- 
tered for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors, 
and  then  get  a  complete  discharge 
from  his  debts.  A  bankrupt  may  of 
his  own  motion  offer  to  surrender  his 
property  to  the  administration  of  the 
United  States  court  and  ask  for  his 
discharge  in  voluntary  bankruptcy,  or 
creditors  may  apply  to  the  court  to 
compel  a  bankrupt  to  turn  over  his 
property  to  be  administered  under  the 
act  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors  in 
voluntary  bankruptcy.  The  bankrupt 
who  has  turned  over  all  his  property 
and  conformed  to  the  provisions  of  the 
act,  is  entitled  to  a  judgment  of  court 
discharging  him  from  any  future  lia- 
bility to  his  creditors. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  an  English 
naturalist,  born  in  London  in  1743. 
He  died  in  1820,  and  bequeathed  his 
collections  to  the  British  Museum. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  an 

American  legislator  and  soldier,  born 

in  Waltham,  Mass.,  Jan.  30,  1816.  At 

first  a  factory  worker,  he  studied  law, 

and  became  successively  a  member  of 

the  State  and  National  Legislatures. 

He  was  Speaker  of  Congress  in  1856, 

,  and  in  1858,  and  in  1859  he  was  elect- 

I  ed  Governor  of  his  native  State.     On 


Banks 


Banks 


the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  took 
a  command  in  the  army,  at  first  on 
the  Potomac,  then  at  New  Orleans, 
and  finally  on  the  Red  river.  Relieved 
of  his  command  in  1864,  he  re-entered 
Congress,  voting  mainly  with  the  Re- 
publican party.  He  died  in  Waltham, 
Sept.  1,  1894. 

Banks,  Thomas,  an  English 
sculptor,  born  in  1735.  He  died  in 
1805. 

Banks  in  ike  United  States, 
financial  institutions  comprising  (1) 
National  banks;  (2)  Suite  banks; 
and  (3)  savings  banks,  consisting  of 
(a)  mutual  savings  banks;  and  (b) 
stock  savings  banks.  These  are  gen- 
eral throughout  the  entire  country. 
In  addition  to  these,  are  (1)  co-opera- 
tive banks,  common  to  New  England, 
especially  Massachusetts;  (2)  loan  and 
trust  companies,  established  in  nearly 
all  the  large  cities;  and  (3)  building 
and  loan  associations,  now  represented 
in  most  of  the  States  and  Territories. 
The  last  three  classes  partake  of  some 
of  the  features  of  regular  banking,  es- 
pecially in  the  reception  of  money  on 
deposit,  subject  to  call,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  interest  thereon.  The  first 
three  kinds  of  banks  only  are  heie 
considered. 

The  first  bank  in  the  United  States 
was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in  1780, 
and  a  Bank  of  North  America  was 
planned  in  1781  and  opened  in  1782. 
The  Massachusetts  Bank  was  incor- 
porated in  1784;  that  of  New  York 
was  chartered  in  1791,  although,  since 
1784,  under  Alexander  Hamilton's 
"  Articles  of  Association,"  it  had 
been  doing  business.  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton also  originated  a  plan  for  a 
United  States  bank,  with  a  capital  of 
$10,000,000,  three-fourths  to  be  paid 
in  United  States  stock,  at  6  per  cent., 
which  plan  was  adopted  and  approved 
by  Washington  in  1791.  The  bank 
was  reorganized  in  1816  with  a  capital 
of  $35,000.000,  the  United  States  sub- 
scribing $7,000,000,  with  interest  at  6 
per  cent.,  but  in  consequence  of  a  gen- 
eral financial  depression,  was,  the 
next  year,  in  great  danger  of  failure. 
Congress  refusing  to  renew  the  char- 
ter, a  State  bank,  called  the  United 
States  bank,  was  chartered  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  eventually  failing,  the 
whole  account  was  settled  in  1856. 


The  $28,000,000  deposited  by  share- 
holders was  totally  lost,  while  the  Gov- 
ernment realized  $6,093.167  upon  its 
investments  of  stock.  State  banks 
were  afterward  chartered  in  the  inter- 
ests of  individual  and  dominant  polit- 
ical parties.  The  charters  were  some- 
times fraudulently  obtained  and  cur- 
rency issued  to  three  times  the  amount 
of  their  capital,  and,  in  1814,  1837, 
and  1857,  many  of  them  suspended 
payment  A  reform  movement  in 
bank  currency  was  inaugurated  in 
Massachusetts  in  1825,  and  a  "  safety- 
fund  "  system,  recommended  by  Mr. 
Van  Buren,  adopted  in  1829.  In  1838 
the  Free  Bank  Act  passed  the  New 
York  Legislature,  which  authorized 
any  number  of  persons  to  form  a  bank- 
ing association,  subject  to  certain 
specified  conditions  and  liabilities. 

On  Feb.  25,  1863,  the  National 
banking  system  was  organized,  but  the 
act  establishing  it  was  modified  by 
that  of  June  3,  1864.  This  provided 
for  a  National  Bank  Bureau  in  the 
Treasury  Department,  whose  chief 
officer  is  the  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency. Under  it  National  banks  could 
be  organized  by  any  number  of  indi- 
viduals, not  less  than  five,  the  capital 
t9  be  not  less  than  $100,000  except  in 
cities  of  a  population  not  exceeding 
6,000 ;  in  these  banks  could  be  estab- 
lished with  a  capital  of  not  less  than 
$50,000.  In  cities  having  a  popula- 
tion of  50,000  the  capital  stock  could 
not  be  less  than  $200,000.  One  third 
of  the  capital  was  required  to  be  in- 
vested in  United  States  bonds,  which 
were  deposited  in  the  Treasury  for  se- 
curity, upon  which  notes  were  issued 
equal  in  amount  to  90  per  cent,  of  the 
current  market  value,  but  not  exceed- 
ing 90  per  cent  of  the  par  value ;  and 
these  notes  were  receivable  at  par  in 
the  United  States  for  all  payments  to 
and  from  the  Government,  except  for 
duties  on  imports,  interest  on  the  pub- 
lic debt,  and  in  redemption  of  the  na- 
tional currency.  On  March  3,  1865, 
an  act  was  passed  by  which  the  cir- 
culation of  the  State  banks  was  taxed 
10  per  cent.,  which  drove  their  notes 
out  of  existence. 

Various  laws  have  since  been  passed 
in  relation  to  National  banks.  On 
March  14,  1900,  President  McKin- 
ley  approved  a  new  currency  act, 
which,  among  other  things,  established 


Bannock 

the  gold  dollar  as  the  standard  unit  of 
value,  and  placed  at  a  parity  with 
that  standard  all  forms  of  money  is- 
sued or  coined  by  the  United  States. 
The  bill  also  made  a  number  of  im- 
portant changes  in  the  regulations 
governing  National  banks.  The  new 
law  permitted  National  banks,  with 
$25,000  capital,  to  be  organized  in 
places  of  3,000  inhabitants  or  less, 
whereas  the  minimum  capital  previ- 
ously was  $50,000.  It  also  permitted 
banks  to  issue  circulation  on  all 
classes  of  bonds  deposited  up  to  the 
par  value  of  the  bonds,  instead  of  90 
per  cent,  of  their  face,  as  before. 

More  recent  features  of  banking  inj 
the  United  States  are  the  Oklahoma 
scheme  for  guaranteeing  the  deposits 
of     banks,     which     Attorney-General 
Bonaparte   nullified,    as   far    as    Na-  j 
tional  banks  were  concerned,  in  1908 ;  j 
the  combined  savings  and  insurance  j 
banks    of    Massachusetts,    known    as ! 
"Brandeis     banks,"     established     in  I 
1908 ;   the1  SCHOOL  SAVINGS   BANKS  i 
(or.  v.)    founded  by  J.  H.  Thiry,  in  j 
New  York,  in  1885;  and  the  POSTAL' 
SAVINGS  BANKS   (q.  v.),  established 
by  Congress  in  1910.     At  the  special 
session  of  Congress  in  1913  an  elabo- 
rate scheme  was   introduced  for  re- 
forming  the   national   banking  laws. 
This  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
the   Federal   Reserve   System,   under 
which  it  was  obligatory  for  National 
banks  and  permissible  for  State  banks 
to  become  associated  in  the  new  organ- 
ization  (see  FEDEBAL  RESERVE  SYS- 
TEM; FEDERAL  FARM  BANKS). 

On  Nov.  17,  1916,  there  were  7,584  i 
National  banks  in  operation,  having  a 
combined   capital   of   $1,071,116,000; 
deposits,  $12,489,279,000;  circulation, 
$665,259.000;    loans    and    discounts, 
$8,345,784,000;    reserve,    $2,472,622,-' 
000 ;  and  resources,  $15,520,205,000. 

Bannock,  a  tribe  of  North  Amer- 
ican Indians  belonging  to  the  Shoshoni 
stock.  They  are  divided  into  two  sec- 
tions, inhabiting  Nevada  and  Montana. 

Bannockbnrn,  a  village  of  Stir? 
lingshire,  Scotland,  3  miles  S.  S.  E.  of 
Stirling,  on  the  Bannock  Burn,  a  lit- 
tle affluent  of  the  Forth.  In  the  great 
battle  of  Bannockburn,  fought  on  June 
24,  1314,  Robert  Bruce,  with  30,000 
Scotch,  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
Edward  II.,  with  100,000  English,  and 
secured  his  throne  and  the  independ- 


Bantry  Bay 

ence  of  Scotland.  The  English  are 
said  to  have  lost  30,000,  and  the 
Scotch  8,000  men.  Not  far  off  was 
fought  the  battle  of  Sauchieburn.  In 
September,  1903,  it  was  reported  that 
Andrew  Carnegie  was  negotiating  to 
acquire  ownership  of  the  battlefield  in 
order  to  preserve  it  as  a  national 
memorial. 

Banquo,  a  famous  Scottish  thane 
of  the  llth  century.  In  conjunction 
with  Macbeth,  cousin  of  -Duncan,  the 
King,  he  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
Danes,  who  had  landed  on  the  Scot- 
tish coast.  Macbeth,  shortly  after- 
ward, violently  dethroned  Duncan, 
and  caused  him  to  be  secretly  assass- 
inated. Banquo,  though  not  an  ac- 
complice, was  a  witness  of  the  crime ; 
and  being  subsequently  regarded  by 
Macbeth  with  fear  and  suspicion,  the 
latter  invited  him  and  his  son  to  sup- 
per, and  hired  assassins  to  attack 
them  on  their  return  home  during  the 
darkness  of  night.  Banquo  was  slain, 
but  the  youth  made  his  escape. 
Shakespeare  has  interwoven  this  oc- 
currence with  the  theme  of  his  tragedy 
of  "  Macbeth." 

Banshee,  a  fay,  elf,  or  other  su- 
pernatural being,  supposed  by  some  of 
the  peasantry  in  Ireland  and  the  Scot- 
tish Highlands  to  sing  a  mournful  dit- 
ty under  the  windows  of  the  house 
when  one  of  the  inmates  is  about  to 
die. 

Bantam,  a  variety  of  the  common 
domestic  fowl,  originally  brought  from 
the  East  Indies,  and  supposed  to  de- 
rive its  name  from  the  above  town.  It 
is  remarkable  for  its  small  size,  being 
only  about  one  pound  in  weight,  and 
for  a  disposition  more  courageous  and 
pugnacious  than  even  that  of  a  game- 
cock. 

Banting,  William,  an  English* 
man  of  notable  corpulence,  born  in 
1797,  who,  by  adopting  a  simple  diet 
was  able  to  relieve  himself  of  his  su- 
perfluous flesh.  The  dietary  recom- 
mended was  the  use  of  butcher's  meat 
principally,  and  abstinence  from  beer, 
farinaceous  food,  and  vegetables.  He 
died  in  1878. 

Bantry  Bay,  a  deep  inlet  in  the 
S.  W.  extremity  of  Ireland,  in  County 
Cork.  Here  a  French  force  attempted 
to  land  in  1796.  The  coast  around  is 
rocky  and  high. 


Bantu 

Bantu,  the  ethnological  name  of 
a  group  of  African  races  dwelling  be- 
low about  6°  N.  lat,  and  including  the 
Kaffirs,  Zulus,  Bechuanas,  the  tribes 
of  the  Loango,  Kongo,  etc.,  but  not 
the  Hottentots. 

Banvard,  John,  an  American 
artist,  poet,  and  dramatist,  born  in 
New  York  about  1820 ;  died  in  1891. 

Banvard,  Joseph,  an  American 
Baptist  clergyman  and  historian, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  New 
York  in  1810;  died  in  1887. 

Banyan  Tree,  a  species  of  the 
genus  ficus.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
sacred  tree  by  the  Hindus. 


BANYAN  TREK. 

Bapanme,  a  small  town  of  N. 
France,  15  miles  S.  S.  E.  of  Arras 
and  25  miles  N.  W.  of  St.  Quentin, 
the  scene  of  the  great  battle  of  Jan. 
3,  1871,  when  the  Germans  were 
forced  back  behind  Somme.  The  town 
also  figures  in  the  Peace  of  the 
Pyrenees,  in  1659,  by  which  it  was 
ceded  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  the  great 
Arras  campaign  of  1917.  See  APPEN- 
DIX: World  War. 

Baptism  (from  the  Greek  baptize, 
from  bapto,  to  immerse  or  dip),  a  rite 
which  is  generally  thought  to  have 
been  usual  with  the  Jews  even  before 
Christ,  being  administered  to  prose- 
lytes. From  this  baptism,  however, 
that  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  differed 


Baptist* 

because  he  baptized  Jews  also  as  a 
symbol     of    the    necessity    of    perfect 
purification  from  sin.     Christ  himself 
never  baptized,  but  directed  his  disci- 
ples to  administer  this  rite  to  converts 
(Matt    xxviil:     19);     and    baptism, 
therefore,  became  a  religious  ceremony 
among  Christians,   taking  rank  as  a 
sacrament  with  all  sects    which    ac- 
knowledge  sacraments.     Three  modes 
of  administering   the   rite  have   been 
adopted  —  immersion,      pouring     and 
sprinkling.      The  question,   on   which 
I  there  have  been  innumerable  disputes, 
,  turns  upon  the  meaning  of  the  Greek 
I  preposition   following  the  verb.     The 
j  advocates  of  baptism  by  immersion,  as 
the   only  valid   form,   claim   that  the 
I  preposition  is  "in ;"  the  advocates  of 
sprinkling   contend    that   the   preposi- 
1  tion   is,   "with."     The   Greek   Church 
adopted  the  custom  of  immersion ;  but 
the    Western    Church    adopted  or   al- 
lowed the  mode  of  baptism  by  pouring 
or  sprinkling,  since  continued  by  most 
Protestants. 

Baptists,  a  Protestant  denomina- 
tion based  on  the  belief  that  immer- 
sion is  the  only  Scriptural  mode  of 
baptism,  and  that  those  only  are  proper 
subjects  for  this  ceremony  who  are 
converted  and  profess  personal  faith 
!n  Christ.  They  thus  reject  both  in- 
fant baptism  and  baptism  by  sprink- 
ling or  pouring  of  water  as  invalid. 
There  are,  however,  other  sects,  in- 
cluding the  Mennonites,  the  Chris- 
tians, the  Disciples  of  Christ,  etc.,  who 
accept  the  prominent  principles  of  the 
Baptists  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  yet 
are  not  classified  with  them,  owing  to 
some  minor  differences.  The  Baptists 
reject  the  name  of  Anabaptists  as  a 
term  of  reproach,  holding  that  it  is  in- 
correct, because  their  members  gener- 
ally receive  the  rite  on  their  admis- 
sion to  the  church,  and  because  they 
were  not  identified  with  the  Baptists 
of  Munster.  The  Baptists  first  ap- 
peared in  Switzerland,  in  1523,  and 
soon  spread  to  Germany,  Holland,  and 
other  continental  countries,  whence 
they  were  driven  to  England  by  perse- 
cution on  account  of  their  rejection  of 
infant  baptism.  The  history  of  the 
Baptists  in  England  prior  to  the  16th 
century  is  still  a  matter  of  contro- 
versy. The  first  regularly  organized 
church  was  Arminian,  and  was  estab- 
lished in  1610  or  1611.  A  Calvinistic 


Baptist 

Baptist  Church  was  founded  about 
1633.  Those  holding  Arminian  views 
received  the  name  of  General  Bap- 
tists, and  those  holding  Calvinistic 
views  the  name  of  Particular  Baptists. 
In  1640  there  were  seven  Baptist  con- 
gregations in  London. 

The  Baptists  in  the  United  States 
spring  historically  from  the  English 
and  Welsh  Baptists ;  but  the  first  Bap- 
tist church  was  organized  by  Roger 
Williams,  who  was  a  minister  in  the 
Massachusetts  Colony  previous  to  his 
immersion.  He  was  persecuted  for 
holding  principles  which  inclined  to 
Anabaptism,  and  for  antagonizing  the 
authorities  of  the  colony  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal matters.  After  being  immersed, 
in  1639,  by  Ezekiel.  Holliman,  whom 
he  in  turn  immersed  with  10  others, 
he  organized  a  Baptist  Church  in 
Providence,  R.  I.  In  1644  he  obtained 
a  charter  which  granted  to  the  people 
of  Rhode  Island  entire  freedom  of 
conscience.  There  were  other  Bap- 
tists, however,  who  emigrated  from 
England  in  the  17th  century,  and,  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  18th  century,  be- 
came numerous  in  New  England,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Geor- 
gia, and  other  States.  In  all  the 
British  colonies,  excepting  Rhode  Is- 
land, the  Baptists  were  persecuted  for 
a  long  time.  In  Massachusetts  laws 
were  issued  against  them  in  1644 ;  sev- 
eral of  them  were  imprisoned  in  1651 ; 
others  exiled  in  1669;  and  a  Baptist 
meeting-house  was  closed  in  1680. 
New  York  issued  laws  against  them  in 
1662,  and  Virginia  in  1664.  This  per- 
secution had  greatly  abate'd  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  After 
the  Revolutionary  War  the  Baptists 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  especial- 
ly in  the  South  and  Southwestern 
States,  and  have  steadily  increased 
ever  since. 

There  are  at  present  three  bodies  of 
Regular  Baptists,  the  Northern,  the 
Southern,  and  the  Colored,  all  of 
whom  agree  in  doctrinal  and  ecclesias- 
tical principles,  but  each  has  its  own 
associations,  State  Conventions,  and 
general  missionary  and  other  associa- 
tions. In  1845  a  controversy  concern- 
ing slavery,  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  caused  a  division  be- 
tween the  Baptists  in  the  Northern 
and  those  in  the  Southern  States,  af- 
ter which  the  Northern  Baptists  con- 


Baptiii 

tinued  to  support  the  Home  Mission 
Society  and  the  American  Baptist 
Missionary  Union,  on  an  anti-slavery 
basis.  In  1879  the  question  of  re- 
uniting the  divisions  was  agitated,  but 
nothing  was  accomplished.  The 
Southern  Division  is  the  largest  branch 
of  white  Baptists.  After  the  division 
of  1845  the  Southern  churches  estab- 
lished the  Southern  Baptist  Conven- 
tion, which  holds  annual  meetings, 
where  the  promotion  and  direction  of 
the  denominational  interests  are  con- 
sidered, such  as  Sunday-schools,  and 
home  and  foreign  missions.  It  is  com- 
posed of  representatives  from  associa- 
tions, other  organizations,  and  from, 
the  churches.  The  Colored  Baptists 
compose  the  largest  body  of  Regular 
Baptists,  although  many  Colored  Bap- 
tists are  not  members  of  this  division ; 
those  only  being  included  who  have 
separate  churches,  State  Conventions, 
and  associations.  The  Colored  Bap- 
tists of  the  North  are  generally  mem- 
bers of  churches  belonging  to  white  as- 
sociations. In  1866  the  first  State 
Convention  of  Colored  Baptists  was 
organized  in  North  Carolina,  the  sec- 
ond in  Alabama,  and  the  third  in  Vir- 
ginia, both  in  1867,  and  the  fourth  in 
Arkansas  in  1868.  There  are  (1900) 
Colored  conventions  in  15  States  and 
the  District  of  Columbia.  Besides 
these  associations  there  are  the  Amer- 
ican National  Convention,  which  delib- 
erates upon  questions  of  general  con- 
cern ;  the  Consolidated  American  Mis- 
sionary Convention,  the  General  As- 
sociation of  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  the  New  England  Mission- 
ary Convention,  and  the  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Convention  of  the  United 
States. 

Besides  the  three  large  divisions  of 
Baptists,  there  are  10  smaller  ones. 
(1)  Six  Principle  Baptists  date  back 
to  Roger  Williams  and  the  year  1639 
for  their  origin.  They. differ  from  the 
Regular  Baptists  in  holding  the  Ar- 
minian instead  of  the  Calvinistic 
creed,  and  in  the  practice  of  the  laying 
on  of  hands  in  the  reception  of  mem- 
bers. (2)  Seventh  Day  Baptists,  in 
the  United  States,  date  their  origin 
back  to  1671,  when  Stephen  Mumford, 
from  England,  organized  the  first 
church  in  Newport,  R.  I.  Their  only 
difference  from  other  Baptists  is  found 
in  their  keeping  the  seventh  day  as 


Baptist 

"the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord."  (3) 
Freewill  Baptists.  The  first  church 
of  this  sect  was  founded  by  Benjamin 
Randall  in  New  Durham,  N.  H.,  in 
1780.  At  first  their  organizations 
were  called  simply  Baptist  churches, 
but  later  the  word  "  Freewill "  was 
applied  to  them,  in  allusion  to  their 
doctrine  concerning  the  freedom  of  the 
will.  (4)  Original  Freewill  Baptists 
date  back  to  1729,  when  a  number  of 
General  Baptist  churches  were  found- 
ed in  North  Carolina.  In  1759  many 
of  these  general  churches  became  Cal- 
vinistic.  Those  which  did  not  join  the 
Calvinistic  association  were  called 
"  Freewillers,"  because  they  held  the 
doctrine  of  the  freedom  of  will.  (5) 
General  Baptists  are  thus  named,  be- 
cause they  originally  differed  from  the 
Regular  Baptists  in  holding  that  the 
atonement  was  for  the  whole  race  and 
not  merely  for  those  effectually  called. 
They  date  back  to  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century.  (6)  Separate  Baptists 
originated  in  the  great  Whitefield  revi- 
val. In  doctrine  they  generally  agree 
with  the  Freewill  Baptists.  (7)  Unit- 
ed Baptists.  A  sect  which  sprang 
from  the  opposition  to  the  great  revi- 
val of  George  Whitefield.  They  hold 
moderate  Calvinistic  views.  (8)  Bap- 
tist Church  of  Christ.  A  sect  organ- 
ized in  1808  in  Tennessee,  where  half 
their  number  is  found.  They  have  a 
mild  form  of  Calvinism  with  a  general 
atonement.  (9)  Primitive  Baptists 
are  variously  known  as  Primitive,  Old 
School,  Regular,  and  Antimission 
Baptists.  Their  organization  occurred 
about  1835.  They  do  not  believe  in 
the  establishment  of  Sunday-schools, 
mission,  Bible,  and  other  societies, 
which  they  hold  are  unscriptural  be- 
cause they  are  human  institutions. 
(10)  Old  Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Pre- 
destinarian  Baptists.  A  conservative 
body  of  Baptists  who  are  strongly  Cal- 
vinistic, believing  firmly  in  predestina- 
tion. The  phrase  "  Two-Seed  "  is  un- 
derstood to  mean  their  belief  that 
there  are  two  seeds,  one  of  the  good 
and  one  of  the  evil.  The  doctrine  is 
supposed  to  have  been  originated  by 
Elder  Daniel  Parker,  who  preached  in 
Tennessee  in  1806-1817,  in  Illinois  till 
1836,  and  later  in  Texas,  where  he 
died. 

All  Baptist  denominations  are  con- 
gregational in  polity,  with  the  possible 


Barataria  Bay 

exception  of  the  Original  Freewill 
Baptists.  Each  church,  under  its  of- 
ficers of  pastor  and  deacons,  manages 
its  own  affairs.  According  to  a  spe- 
cial Census  report  on  "  Religious 
Bodies"  (2  vols.,  1910),  there  were 
in  the  United  States  in  1906,  14  dis- 
tinct Baptist  bodies,  with  a  total  of 
54,880  organizations,  52,338  places  of 
worship,  43,790  ministers,  5,662,234 
communicants,  property  valued  at 
$139,842,656.  and  2,898,914  Sunday 
school  scholars. 

Baptist  Young  People's  Union 
o£  America,  an  association  repre- 
senting numerous  young  people's  so- 
cieties connected  with  the  Baptist 
Churches  in  all  the  States  and  in 
Canada.  Organized  in  June,  1891,  in 
Chicago,  111.,  which  place  has  since 
been  its  headquarters. 

Bar,  in  hydrography,  a  bank  of 
sand,  silt,  etc.,  opposite  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  which  obstructs  or  bars  the  en- 
trance of  vessels.  The  bar  is  formed 
where  the  rush  of  the  stream  is  ar- 
rested by  the  water  of  the  sea,  as  the 
mud  and  sand  suspended  in  the  river 
water  are  thus  allowed  to  be  deposited. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  deltas  are  form- 
ed at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  The  navi- 
gation of  many  streams  is  kept  open 
only  by  constant  dredging. 

Barabbas,  a  noted  robber  in 
Christ's  time,  who  was  awaiting 
j  death  for  sedition  and  murder.  It 
1  was  a  custom  of  the  Roman  govern- 
j  ment  to  conciliate  the  Jews,  to  re- 
lease one  Jewish  prisoner,  whom 
they  might  choose,  at  the  yearly 
Passover.  Pilate  desired  thus  to  re- 
lease Jesus,  but  the  Jews  demanded 
Barabbas. 

Baracoa,  a  seaport  town  in  the 
province  of  Oriente,  Cuba;  on  the 
N.  E.  coast;  90  miles  E.  N.  E.  of 
Santiago;  is  the  oldest  settlement  in 
Cuba  and  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
New  World  (1514);  has  a  small,  shal- 
low harbor.  Pop.  (1907)  27,852. 

Baranoff  Island,  one  of  the  Alex- 
ander Islands,  Alaska.  It  is  about 
75  miles  long.  On  its  coast  is  the 
town  of  Sitka.  The  island  derives  its 
name  from  the  Russian  trader,  Bar- 
anofif,  who,  in  1799,  took  possession 
of  it. 

Barataria  Bay,  in  the  S.  E.  part 
1  of  Louisiana,  extending  N.  from  the 


Baratier 


Barbecue 


Gulf  of  Mexico,  between  the  parishes 
of  Jefferson  and  Plaquemine.  This 
bay  is  about  15  miles  long  by  6  wide. 
It,  and  the  lagoons  branching  out  of 
it,  were  rendered  notorious  about  the 
years  1810-1812  as  being  both  the 
headquarters  and  rendezvous  of  the 
celebrated  Lafitte  and  his  buccaneers. 

Baraticr,  Johann  Fhilipp,  a 
German  litterateur,  remarkable  for 
the  precocity  of  his  intellect,  was  born 
in  1721.  At  the  age  of  7  he  under- 
stood Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  two 
years  later  he  compiled  a  Hebrew  dic- 
tionary. He  was  13  when  he  trans- 
lated the  "  Itinerary  of  Benjamin  of 
Tudela."  Excess  of  work  and,  per- 
haps, a  too  rapid  development  of  his 
intellectual  faculties  brought  about  a 
languid  malady,  and,  at  the  age  of  19 
years  he  died. 

Barbacan,  a  projecting  watch 
tower,  or  other  advanced  work,  be- 
fore the  gate  of  a  castle  or  forti- 
fied town.  The  term  barbacan  was 
more  especially  applied  to  the  out- 
work intended  to  defend  the  draw- 
bridge, which  in  modern  fortifications 
is  called  the  tete  du  pont. 

Barbadoes,  or  Barbados,  the 
most  eastern  of  the  West  India  Is- 
lands, first  mentioned  in  1518,  and 
occupied  by  the  British  in  1625 ; 
length  21  miles,  breadth,  13;  area, 
106,470  acres,  or  166  square  miles ; 
mostly  under  cultivation.  Capital, 
Bridgetown.  It  is  more  densely  peo- 
pled than  almost  any  spot  in  the 
world,  the  population  on  Dec.  31,  1914, 
being  estimated  at  176,397,  or  over 
1,062  to  the  square  mile.  The  climate 
is  very  hot,  though  moderated  by  the 
constant  trade  winds ;  and  the  island 
is  subject  to  dreadful  hurricanes. 

Barbaro,  Francesco,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  Italian  authors  of 
the  15th  century,  born  at  Venice,  in 
1398;  died  in  1454. 

Barbaroux,  Charles  Jean  Ma- 
rie, one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Giron- 
dists, was  born  at  Marseilles,  March 
6,  1767.  He  opposed  the  party  of 
Marat  and  Robespierre,  and  even  di- 
rectly accused  the  latter  of  aiming  at 
the  dictatorship;  consequently,  he 
was,  in  May,  1793,  proscribed  as  a 
royalist  and  an  enemy  of  the  Repub- 
lic. He  fled  to  Calvados,  and  thence 
with  a  few  friends  to  the  Gironde, 


where  he  wandered  about  the  coun- 
try, hiding  himself  as  he  best  could 
for  about  13  months.  At  last,  on  the 
point  of  being  taken,  he  tried  to  shoot 
himself ;  but  the  shot  miscarried,  and 
he  was  guillotined  at  Bordeaux,  June 
25,  1794. 

Barbary,  a  general  name  for  the 
most  northerly  portion  of  Africa,  ex- 
tending about  2,600  miles  from 
Egypt  to  the  Atlantic,  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  about  140  to  1,550 
miles;  comprising  Morocco,  Fez,  Al- 
geria, Tunis  and  Tripoli  (including 
Barca  and  Fezzan).  The  principal 
races  are  the  Berbers,  the  original 
inhabitants,  from  whom  the  country 
takes  its  name ;  the  Arabs,  who  con- 
quered an  extensive  portion  of  it  dur- 
ing the  times  of  the  caliphs ;  the  Bed- 
ouins?  Jews,  Turks,  and  the  French 
colonists  of  Algeria,  etc.  The  coun- 
try, which  was  prosperous  under  the 
Carthaginians,  was,  next  to  Egypt, 
the  richest  of  the  Roman  provinces, 
and  the  Italian  States  enriched  them- 
selves by  their  intercourse  with  it. 
In  the  15th  century,  however,  it  be- 
came infested  with  adventurers  who 
made  the  name  of  Barbary  corsair  a 
terror  to  commerce,  a  condition  of 
things  finally  removed  by  the  French 
occupation  of  Algeria. 

Barbary  Ape,  or  Magot,  a  mon- 
key —  the  macacus  inuus,  found  in 
the  N.  of  Africa,  and  of  which  a  col- 
ony exists  on  the  Rock  of  Gibral- 
tar. It  is  the  only  recent  European 
quadrumanous  animal.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  magot,  and  is  the  spe- 
cies occasionally  exhibited,  when 
young,  by  showmen  in  the  streets, 

Barbazan,  Arnanld  Gnilhem, 
Sire  de,  a  French  captain,  who  waa 
distinguished  by  Charles  VI.  with  the 
title  of  "  Chevalier  Sans  Reproche," 
and  by  Charles  VIII.  with  that  of 
"  Restaurateur  du  Royaume  et  de  la 
Couronne  de  France,"  born  about  the 
end  of  the  14th  century.  He  was  kill- 
ed at  Bullegneville,  in  1432. 

Barbecne.  1.  A  beef  dressed 
whole,  as  is  done  in  an  election  cam- 
paign. To  do  this,  the  carcass  of  the 
animal,  split  to  the  backbone,  is  laid 
upon  a  large  gridiron,  under  and 
around  which  is  placed  a  charcoal  fire. 

2.  A  large  gathering  of  people,  gen- 
erally in  the  open  air,  for  a  social  en- 


Barbel 

tertainment  or  a  political  rally,  one 
leading  feature  of  which  is  the  roast- 
ing of  animals  whole  to  furnish  the 
numerous  members  of  the  party  with 
needful  food. 

Barbel.  1.  A  small  fleshy  thread 
or  cord,  of  which  several  hang  from 
the  mouth  of  certain  fishes. 

2.  A  knot  of  superfluous  flesh  grow- 
ing in  the  channels  of  a  horse's  mouth. 

Barber,  one  who  shaves  beards  and 
dresses  hair.  In  early  times  the  op- 
erations of  the  barber  were  not 
confined,  as  now  to  shaving,  hair- 
dressing,  and  the  making  of  wigs; 
but  included  the  dressing  of  wounds, 
blood-letting,  and  other  surgical  op- 
erations. It  seems  that  in  all  coun- 
tries the  art  of  surgery  and  the  art 
of  shaving  went  hand  in  hand.  The 
title  of  barber-chirurgeon,  or  barber- 
surgeon,  was  generally  applied  to  bar- 
bers. The  State  of  New  York  in  1903 
adopted  a  law  regulating  the  business 
of  barbers,  enforcing  stringent  sani- 
tary rules  in  their  shops,  and  appoint- 
ing a  commission  to  enforce  the  law. 

Barber,  Edward  Atlee,  an 
American  archaeologist,  born  in  Balti- 
more, Md.,  Aug.  13,  1851 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Williston  Seminary  in  1869, 
end  was  assistant  naturalist  in  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  in 
1874-1875.  Subsequently  be  was  en- 
gaged in  gold  dredging.  His  writ- 
ings include  a  history  of  the  ancient 
Pueblos  and  a  large  number  of  mag- 
azine articles  on  ceramics. 

Barber,  Francis,  an  American 
general,  born  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
1751 ;  died  1783.  He  graduated  at 
what  is  now  Princeton  University  in 
1767,  entered  the  Revolutionary  Army 
as  a  major  in  1776,  and  rose  steadily 
through  meritorious  service  to  the  rank 
of  Adjutant-General.  He  was  acci- 
dently  killed  by  a  falling  tree,  after  re- 
covering from  severe  wounds  received 
at  the  battles  of  Momnouth,  Newton, 
and  at  Yorktown. 

Barber,  John  Warner,  an  Amer- 
ican author,  born  in  Windsor,  Conn., 
in  1798 ;.  died  in  1885.  His  writings 
were  mainly  historical  and  include : 
State  Annals ;  "  Historical  Scenes  in 
the  United  States,"  "  Religious 
Events,"  "  Elements  of  General  His- 
tory," "  Our  Whole  Country,  Histori- 
cal and  Descriptive." 


Barbierl 

Barberini,  a  celebrated  Floren- 
tine family,  which  since  the  pontifi- 
cate of  Maffeo  Barberini  (Urban 
VIII.,  1623  to  1644),  has  occupied  a 
distinguished  place  among  the  nobil- 
ity of  Rome. 

Barberry,  or  Berberry,  the  Eng- 
lish name  of  the  berberis.  The  com- 
mon barberry  is  planted  in  gardens 
or  in  hedges,  being  an  ornamental 
shrub,  especially  when  covered  with 
a  profusion  of  flowers  or  loaded  with 
fruit  It  has  yellow  flowers  with  an 
unpleasant  smell,  which,  however,  are 
much  frequented  by  bees.  Their  juice 
is  acid,  hence  they  are  used  for  pre- 
serves and  confectionery. 

Barber's  Itch,  a  disease  of  the 
skin  of  the  face  caused  by  the  en- 
trance of  a  fungus  into  the  hair  folli- 
cles of  the  beard. 

Barbet.  Birds  haying  short, 
conical  bills,  with  stiff  bristles  at  the 
base,  short  wings,  and  broad  and 
rounded  tails.  It  is  from  the  bristles, 
which  have  an  analogy  to  a  beard, 
that  the  name  is  derived.  These  birds 
are  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  both 
hemispheres,  the  most  typical  coming 
from  South  America. 

Barbette,  a  mound  of  earth  on 
which  guns  are  mounted  to  be  fired 
over  the  parapet. 

In  fortification.  En  barbette: 
Placed  so  as  to  be  fired  over  the  top 
of  a  parapet,  and  not  through  em- 
brasures. 

Barbiano,  Abrecht  da,  an  Ital- 
ian military  officer ;  formed  the  first 
regular  company  of  Italian  troops  or- 
ganized to  resist  foreign  mercenaries, 
about  1379.  This  organization,  named 
the  "  Company  of  St.  George,"  proved 
to  be  an  admirable  school,  as  from  its 
ranks  sprang  many  future  officers  of 
renown.  He  became  Grand  Consta- 
ble of  Naples  in  1384,  and  died  in 
1409. 

Barbier,  Henri  Auguste,  a 
French  poet,  born  in  Paris,  April  29, 
1805;  died  in  Nice,  Feb.  13,  1882. 

Barbier,  Jules,  a  French  drama- 
tist, born  in  Paris;  1825:  d.  1901. 

Barbieri,  Giovanni  Francesco, 
otherwise  known  as  GUERCINO  (the 
squinter)  DA  CENTO,  an  eminent  and 
prolific  historical  painter,  born  near 
Bologna  in  1590.  He  died  in  1666. 


Barbonr 

PAOLO  ANTONIO  BARBIERI,  a  cele- 
brated still-life  and  animal  painter, 
was  a  brother  of  Guercino;  born 
1596,  died  1640. 

Barbour,  Erwin  Hinckley,  an 
American  geologist,  born  near  Ox- 
ford, O. ;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1882 ;  was  assistant  paleontol- j 
ogist  in  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey  in  1882-1888;  Stone  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  and  Geol- 
ogy in  Iowa  College  in  ISS^lSdl ; 
became  Professor  of  Geology  in  the 
University  of  Nebraska,  and  acting 
State  Geologist  in  1891 ;  and  curator 
of  the  Nebraska  State  Museum  in  j 
1892.  In  1893  he  took  charge  9f  the 
annual  Morrill  geological  expeditions, 
and  since  then  he  has  also  been  en- 
gaged in  the  United  States  Geologi- 
cal and  Hydrographic  Surveys. 

Barbour,  John,  a  Scottish  poet, 
born  about  1616.  His  great  epic, 
"  The  Bruce,"  tells  the  story  of  Rob- 
ert Bruce  and  the  battle  of  Ban- 
nockburn.  It  was  written  in  1375 
and  brought  him  favor  from  the  King. 
He  died  in  Aberdeen,  March  13,  1395. 

Barbour,  John  Humphrey,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Torring- 
ton,  Conn.,  May  29,  1854.  He  was 
rector  of  Grace  Church,  Hartford,  till 
1889,  and  then  became  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Literature  and  In- 
terpretation at  the  Berkeley  Divinity 
School.  He  died  in  Middletown, 
Conn.,  April  29,  1900. 

Barbour,    William    McLeod,    a 
Congregational     clergyman,     born     in 
Fochabers,    Scotland,   May  29,   1827; 
professor  in  Bangor  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1868-1877;  Professor  of  Di- 
vinity   and    college    pastor    in    Yale, 
1877-1887 ;  became  principal  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  in  the  Congrega-  j 
tional    College   in   Montreal,   Canada, ' 
in  1887.     He  died  in  1892. 

Barca,  a  commissariat  of  the  Ital- 
ian colony  of  Eritrea ;   area,   12,700 
square    miles;    pop.    (1908)    36,862;! 
capital,    Agordat.      The    name    was ; 
formerly  applied  to  the  whole  country 
extending  along  the  N.  coast  of  Africa, ; 
between  the  Great  Syrtis    (now  the 
Gulf    of     Sidra)     and    Egypt,     and 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Tripoli,  and 
on  the  S.  by  the  Libyan  Desert.     It 
was  at  one  time  considered  a  depart- 
ment of  Tripoli ;  at  another  as  an  in- 


Barclay  de  Tolly 

dependent  province,  governed  directly 
from  Constantinople. 

Barcelona,  the  most  important 
manufacturing  city  in  Spain,  in  prov- 
ince of  same  name;  pop.  (1910)  587,- 
411.  The  province  of  Barcelona  has 
an  area  of  2,681  square  miles,  and 
pop.  1,163,242.  Barcelona  manufac- 
tures silk,  woolens,  cottons,  lace,  hats, 
firearms,  etc.,  which  form  its  princi- 
pal exports.  It  imports  raw  cotton, 
coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  and  other  colo- 
nial produce ;  also  Baltic  timber,  salt 
fish,  hides,  iron,  wax,  etc.  Next  to 
Cadiz  it  is  the  most  important  port 
in  Spain.  The  harbor  was  extended 
and  its  entrance  improved  in  1875. 
Barcelona  is  noted  for  labor  disturb- 
ances. 

Barclay,  Robert,  the  apologist  of 
the  Quakers,  born  in  1648,  at  Gor- 
donstown,  Moray,  and  educated  at 
Paris,  where  be  became  a  Roman 
Catholic.  Recalled  home  by  his  fa- 
ther, he  followed  the  example  of  the 
latter  and  became  a  Quaker.  His  first 
treatise  in  support  of  his  adopted 
principles,  published  at  Aberdeen  in 
the  year  1670,  under  the  title  of 
"  Truth  Cleared  of  Calumnies,"  to- 
gether with  his  subsequent  writings, 
did  much  to  rectify  public  sentiment 
in  regard  to  the  Quakers.  He  died 
in  1690.  He  was  a  friend  of  and 
had  influence  with  James  II. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  Michael* 
Prince,  a  Russian  military  comman- 
der, of  Scottish  descent,  born  in  Li- 
vonia in  1755.  He  began  his  military 
career  in  the  campaigns  against  the 
Turks,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Poles. 
He  was  wounded  at  Eylau,  when  he 
was  made  lieutenant-general.  In 
March,  1808,  he  surprised  the  Swedes 
at  Umea,  by  a  march  of  two  days 
over  the  ice  which  covered  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia.  He  was  made  governor- 
general  of  Finland,  and,  in  1809,  ap- 
pointed Minister  of  War.  He  was 
author  of  the  plan  of  operations  which 
was  followed  with  signal  advantage 
by  the  Russian  army  in  the  campaign 
of  1812.  After  the  battle  of  Baut- 
zen, May  26,  1813,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Prusso- 
Russian  army ;  and  under  him  Witt- 
genstein commanded  the  Russians; 
Bliicher  the  Prussians ;  and  the 
Grand  Duke  Constantine  the  Impe- 
rial Guard.  .On  the  day  the  allies  _enr 


Barclay- Allardice 


Bariatinski 


tered  Paris  he  was  created  General 
Field-Marshal.  He  died  in  1818. 

Barclay- Allardice,  Robert, 
known  as  Captain  Barclay,  the  pe- 
destrian, was  born  in  1779,  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  estate  of  Urie,  near 
Stonehaven,  in  1797.  He  died  May 
8,  1854.  His  feat  of  walking  1,000 
miles  in  1,000  consecutive  hours  took 
place  at  Newmarket,  in  June  to  July, 
1809. 

Barcocliba,  or  Barcokecas 
("son  of  a  star"),  a  famous  Jewish 
impostor,  whose  real  name  was  Sim- 
eon, and  who  lived  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury A.  D.  After  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus,  the  Jews,  at  dif- 
ferent periods,  sought  to  regain  their 
independence ;  and  Barcochba,  seeing 
his  countrymen  still  impatient  of  the 
Roman  yoke,  resolved  to  attempt  their 
emancipation.  With  this  view  he 
sought  to  sound  the  dispositions  of 
his  co-religionists  of  Egypt,  Mesopo- 
tamia, Greece,  Italy  and  Gaul,  and 
sent  forth  emissaries,  who  traveled 
over  all  the  provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  When  all  was  ready  Bar- 
cochba, solemnly  announced  himself 
as  King  and  Messiah,  and  seized  by 
surprise  on  many  fortified  places.  All 
who  refused  to  submit  to  him,  par- 
ticularly the  Christians,  were  put  to 
death.  The  revolt  was  crushed  by 
the  Romans  after  a  five  years'  conflict 
in  which  Barcochba  perished  miser- 
ably. 

Bard,  a  poet  by  profession,  espe- 
cially one  whose  calling  it  was  to 
celebrate  in  verse,  song,  and  play  the 
exploits  of  the  chiefs  or  others  who 
patronized  him,  or  those  of  contem- 
porary heroes  in  general.  Bards  of 
this  character  flourished  from  the 
earliest  period  among  the  Greeks,  and 
to  a  lesser  extent  among  the  Ro- 
mans. Tacitus  seems  to  hint  at  their 
existence  among  the  Germanic  tribes. 
It  was,  however,  above  all,  among  the 
Gauls  and  other  Celtic  nations  that 
they  flourished  most. 

Bard,  Samuel,  an  American  phy- 
sician, born  in  Philadelphia,  April  1, 
1742 ;  practiced  in  Philadelphia  and 
New  York ;  was  the  principal  mover 
in  the  establishment  of  the  medical 
school  of  Kings  (Columbia)  College; 
president  of  the  New  York  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  that  suc- 


ceeded  the   medical   school.      He   died 
in  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  May  24,  1821. 

Barebone,  or  Barbone,  Praise- 
God,  a  member  of  the  legislative  body 
assembled  by  Cromwell  in  1653,  after 
the  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment. The  royalists  facetiously  dis- 
tinguished him  by  calling  the  con- 
vention "Barebone's  Parliament." 

Barefooted  Friars,  monks  who 
use  sandals,  or  go  barefoot.  They  are 
not  a  distinct  body,  but  may  be  found 
in  several  orders  of  mendicant  friars 
— for  example,  among  the  Carmel- 
ites, Franciscans,  Augustinians.  There 
were  also  barefooted  nuns. 

Barents,  Willem,  a  Dutch  navi- 
gator. He  was  one  of  the  early  Arc- 
tic explorers;  his  attempt  being  to 
find  a  northeast  passage  to  China.  In 
his  first  voyage  he  reached  lat.  77°- 
78',  and  in  his  last,  80°  11'.  He  com- 
manded several  exploring  expeditions 
around  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzber- 
gen,  on  one  of  which  he  had  seven 
vessels  loaded  with  rich  goods  for 
Eastern  trade.  In  the  summer  of 
1596,  he  set  out  with  two  ships,  wh.ch 
were  frozen  in  at  Ice  Haven  in  Sep- 
tember. The  following  June  they  at- 
tempted to  reach  the  mainland  in 
boats,  but  most  of  them  were  lost. 

Barliam,  Rev.  Richard  Harris, 
a  humorous  writer,  born  in  1788  at 
Canterbury ;  educated  at  Paul's  School, 
London,  and  at  Brasenose,  Oxford.  He 
published  an  unsuccessful  novel,  Bald- 
win, wrote  nearly  a  third  of  the  arti- 
cles in  Gorton's  Biographical  Diction- 
ary, and  contributed  to  Blackwood's 
Magazine.  In  1824  he  was  appointed 
priest  in  ordinary  of  the  chapel-royal, 
and  afterwards  rector  of  St.  Mary 
Magdalene  and  St.  Greorgy-by-St- 
Paul,  London.  In  1837,  on  the  start- 
ing of  Bentley's  Miscellany,  he  laid 
the  main  foundation  of  his  literary 
fame  by  the  publication  in  that  period- 
ical of  the  Ingoldsby  Legends.  He 
died  in  1845. 

Bariatinski,  Alexander  Ivano- 
vich.,  Prince,  a  Russian  field-mar- 
shal, born  in  1814,  and  educated  with 
the  future  Czar,  Alexander  II.  While 
a  young  officer  in  the  hussars,  some 
love  passages  with  a  Grand  Duchess 
caused  his  transfer  to  the  Caucasus, 
where  his  success  against  the  famous 
Shamyl  secured  him,  in  1852,  the  rank 


Baring 

of  lieutenant-general.     He  died  in  Ge- 
neva, March  9.  1879. 

Baring,  family  name  of  the  found- 
ers of  one  of  the  greatest  financial 
and  commercial  houses  in  the  world ; 
now  known  as  Baring  Brothers  &  Co. 
The  father  of  the  founders  was  JOHN 
BARING,  a  German  cloth  manufac- 
turer, who  started  a  small  business 
at  Larkbear,  near  Exeter,  England, 
in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century. 
Two  of  his  sons,  FRANCIS  and  JOHN 
(1730-1816),  established  in  London 
in  1770  the  now  existing  house. 

In  1885,  the  then  head  of  the  firm,  i 
Edward  Charles  Baring,  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  as  Baron  Revelstoke. 

Barite,  or  Baryta,  a  mineral 
called  also  baroselenite,  sulphate  of 
baryta  and  heavy  spar.  It  is  found 
In  the  United  States  and  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  It  is  sometimes  trans- 
parent, sometimes  opaque. 

Baritone,  or  Barytone,  a  male 
voice,  the  compass  of  which  partakes 
of  those  of  the  common  bass  and 
the  tenor,  but  does  not  extend  so  far 
downward  as  the  one,  nor  to  an  equal 
height  with  the  other. 

Barium,  the  metallic  basis  of  bary- 
ta, which  is  an  oxide  of  barium  ;  spe- 
cific gravity  4 ;  symbol  Ba.  It  is  only 
found  in  compounds,  such  as  the  com- 
mon sulphate  and  carbonate,  and  was 
isolated  by  Davy  for  the  first  time  in 
1808.  It  is  a  yellow,  malleable  metal, 
which  readily  oxidizes,  decomposes  wa- 
ter, and  fuses  at  a  low  temperature. 

Bark,  the  exterior  covering  of  the 
stems  of  exogenous  plants.  It  is 
composed  of  cellular  and  vascular  tis- 
sue, is  separable  from  the  wood,  and 
is  often  regarded  as  consisting  of  four 
layers.  Bark  contains  many  valua- 
ble products,  as  gum,  tannin,  etc. ; 
cork  is  a  highly  useful  substance  ob- 
tained from  the  epiphloeum ;  and  the 
strength  and  flexibility  of  bast  make 
it  of  considerable  value.  Bark  used 
for  tanning  is  obtained  from  oak, 
hemlock-spruce,  species  of  acacia, 
growing  in  Australia,  etc.  Angos- 
tura bark,  Peruvian,  or  cinchona  bark, 
cinnamon,  cascarilla,  etc.,  are  useful 
barks. 

Bark,  or  Barque,  a  three-masted 
vessel  of  which  the  foremast  and 
mainmast  are  square-rigged,  but  the 
mizzenmast  has  fore-and-aft  sails  only. 


Barker 

Bark,  Peruvian,  is  the  bark  of 
various  species  of  trees  of  the  genus 
cinchona,  found  in  many  parts  of 
South  America,  but  more  particularly 
in  Peru,  and  haying  medicinal  proper- 
ties. Its  medicinal  properties  depend 
upon  the  presence  of  quinine,  which 
is  now  extracted  from  the  bark,  im- 
ported, and  prescribed  in  place  of 
nauseous  mouthfuls  of  bark. 

Barker,  Albert  S.,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
March  31,  1843 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1859 ;  served  on  the  frigate  "  Missis- 
sippi "  in  the  operations  to  open  the 
Mississippi  river  in  1861-1863,  taking 
part  in  the  bombardment  and  passage 
of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  and 
the  Chalmette  batteries,  the  capture  of 
New  Orleans,  and  the  attempted  pas- 
sage of  Port  Hudson,  where  his  vessel 
was  destroyed.  He  became  Captain 
May  5,  1892;  commanded  the  cruiser 
"  Newark "  during  the  war  with 
Spain ;  subsequently  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  battleship  "  Oregon," 
which  he  took  to  Manila;  became  a 
Rear- Admiral,  and  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  in 
1899 ;  and  in  July,  1900,  became  com- 
mandant of  the  Brooklyn  Navy  Yard. 
He  died  Jan.  29,  1916. 

Barker,  Fordyce,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Wilton,  Franklin 
co.,  Me.,  May  2,  1819;  died  in  New; 
York  city,  May  30,  1891. 


BABK. 

Barker,    Matthew    Henry,    an 

English  novelist ;  born  at  Deptford  in 
1790.     Died  in  London,  June  29,  1846. 


Bark  Louse 

Bark    Louse,    or    Scale    Insect. 

The  bark  lice  are  very  small  insects, 
whose  females  are  wingless,  their  bod- 
ies resembling  scales.  They  sting  the 
bark  of  trees  with  their  long,  slender 
beak,  drawing  in  the  sap,  and,  when 
very  numerous,  injure  or  kill  the  tree. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  males  have  two 
wings,  but  no  beak,  and  take  no  food. 

Barksdale,  "William,  an  Ameri- 
can statesman  and  military  officer, 
born  in  Rutherford  county,  Tenn., 
Aug.  21,  1821.  He  entered  Congress 
in  1853,  but  gave  up  his  seat  when  his 
State  seceded,  and  took  command  of  a 
regiment  of  Mississippi  volunteers.  He 
was  made  a  Brigadier-General  after  a 
campaign  in  Virginia,  and  was  killed 
at  Gettysburg,  July  2,  1863. 

Barley.  Barley  is  the  hardiest  of 
all  the  cereals,  and  was  originally  a 
native  of  Asia,  but  it  is  now  cultivated 
all  over  the  world,  even  as  far  N.  as 
Lapland.  In  former  times,  it  was 
largely  used  as  an  article  of  food,  but 
the  greater  proportion  of  the  barley 
now  grown  is  used  in  the  preparation 
of  malt  and  spirits. 

Barleycorn,  John,  a  personifica- 
tion of  the  spirit  of  barley,  or  malt 
liquor,  often  used  jocularly,  and  in 
humorous  verse. 

Barlow,  Francis  Channing,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  9,  1834;  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1855 ; 
studied  law  in  New  York,  and  prac- 
ticed there.  In  1861  he  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  12th  Regiment,  New 
York  State  National  Guard,  which 
was  among  the  first  troops  at  the 
front  He  was  promoted  Lieutenant 
after  three  months'  of  service;  Colo- 
nel during  the  siege  of  Yorktown ;  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  battle  of 
Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines,  for  which 
he  was  promoted  Brigadier-General ; 
fought  in  almost  every  subsequent  bat- 
tle of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  He 
was  severely  wounded  at  Chancellors- 
ville,  May  2,  1863,  and  at  Gettysburg, 
July  1,  1863.  He  was  mustered  out 
of  the  service  with  the  rank  of  Major- 
General  of  volunteers.  In  1866-1868, 
he  was  Secretary  of  State  of  New 
York;  in  1871  became  Attorney-Gen- 
eral; and  in  1873  resumed  law  prac- 
tice in  New  York.  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  Jan.  11,  1896. 


Barnacle 

Barlow,  Joel,  an  American  poet 
and  diplomatist ;  born  in  Reading, 
Conn.,  March  24,  1754.  In  the  course 
of  his  adventurous  career  he  fell 
in  with  the  French  army  and  was  a 
sharer  in  its  memorable  retreat  from 
Russia.  Being  overcome  by  cold  and 
privation,  he  died  near  Cracow,  Dec. 
22,  1812. 

Barmecides,  an  illustrious  family 
of  Khorassan,  the  romance  of  whose 
history  is  equally  familiar  to  Eu- 
ropeans and  Americans  in  the  "  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights "  (Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments),  and  to  Ori- 
entals in  the  pages  of  their  historians 
and  poets;  and  who  flourished  at  the 
Court  of  the  early  Abbasside  Caliphs. 
BarmeCj  or  Barmek,  the  founder  of 
the  family,  transmitted  the  honors  con- 
ferred on  him  by  the  Caliph  Abd-al- 
Malik  to  his  son,  Khalid,  and  from 
him  they  passed  to  his  son,  Yahia, 
who,  becoming  tutor  to  the  famous 
Haroun-al-Raschid,  acquired  an  influ- 
ence over  that  Prince;  which,  with 
Haroun's  personal  affection  for  the 
family,  carried  his  sons,  Fadl,  or  Fazl, 
Giaffar,  Mohammed,  and  Mousa,  to 
the  highest  dignities  of  the  Court.  The 
virtues  and  munificence  of  the  Bar- 
mecides were,  for  a  long  period,  dis- 
played under  favor  of  Haroun,  as  well 
as  to  the  admiration  of  his  subjects; 
but  one  of  the  brothers,  Giaffar,  hav- 
ing at  last  become  an  object  of  suspi- 
cion to  the  cruel  and  treacherous  ca- 
liph, Yahia  and  his  sons  were  sudden- 
ly seized,  Giaffar  beheaded,  and  the 
others  condemned  to  perpetual  impris- 
onment. The  year  802  is  assigned  as 
the  date  of  this  tragedy. 

Barnabas,  St.,  or  Joseph,  a  dis- 
ciple of  Jesus,  and  a  companion  of  the 
Apostle  Paul.  He  was  a  Levite,  and 
a  native  of  the  Isle  of  Cyprus,  and  is 
said  to  have  sold  all  his  property,  and 
laid  the  price  of  it  at  the  feet  of  the 
apostles  (Acts  iv:  36,  37).  He  was  a 
beloved  fellow  laborer  with  Paul. 

Barnacle,  a  common  crustacean 
belonging  to  the  group  of  stalked  cir- 
ripedia.  It  fixes  itself  to  the  bottoms 
of  vessels  and  other  inanimate  and 
also  animate  objects,  and  its  head 
being  thus  attached  kicks  food  into  its 
mouth  with  its  legs.  The  term  is  often 
applied  to  persons  who  are  superfluous 
fixtures  in  some  institution  or  organ- 
ization. 


Barnard 

Barnard,  Edward  Emerson,  an 
[American  astronomer,  born  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  Dec.  16,  1857;  graduated 
at  Vanderbilt  University  in  1887 ;  was 
astronomer  in  Lick  Observatory,  Cali- 
fornia, in  1887-1895,  and  then  became 
Professor  of  Astronomy  in  Chicago 
University  and  Director  of  the  Yerkes 
Observatory.  His  principal  discover- 
ies are  the  fifth  satellite  of  Jupiter  in 
1892,  and  16  comets.  He  has  made 
photographs  ef  the  Milky  Way,  the 
comets,  nebulae,  etc.  The  French  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  awarded  him  the  Le- 
lande  gold  medal  in  1892,  and  the 
Arago  gold  medal  in  1893,  and  the 
Royal  Astronomical  Society  of  Great 
Britain  gave  him  a  gold  medal  in  1897. 
He  is  a  member  of  many  American 
and  foreign  societies,  and  a  contribu- 
tor to  astronomical  journals. 

Barnard,  Frederick  Augustus 
Porter,  an  American  educator,  born 
in  Sheffield,  Mass.,  May  5,  1809 ;  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1828 ;  in- 
structor there  in  1830 ;  Professor  of 
Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Alabama  in  1837- 
1848,  and  afterward  of  Chemistry  and 
Natural  History  till  1854;  Professor 
of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  in  the 
University  of  Mississippi,  1854-1861 ; 
its  president  in  1856-1858;  and  its 
Chancellor  in  1858-4861.  He  was 
president  of  Columbia  College,  New 
York  city,  in  1864-1888.  He  died  1889. 

Barnard,  Henry,  an  American 
educational  reformer,  born  at  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  in  1811 ;  died  there  in 
1900.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1830;  entered  the  legal  profession,  be- 
came interested  in  politics,  and  during 
service  in  the  legislature  distinguished 
himself  by  his  interest  in  the  public 
school  system,  and  the  vigor  with 
which  he  urged  reforms.  He  was  in 
succession  School  Commissioner  of  R. 
I. ;  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  Con- 
necticut ;  President  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin ;  President  of  St.  John's 
College,  Annapolis,  and  was  first  Uni- 
ted States  Commissioner  of  Education. 
He  organized  the  Bureau,  and  in  his 
reports  suggested  or  supported  the  re- 
forms that  have  since  been  made. 

Barnard  College,  an  educational 
(non-sectarian)  institution  for  women 
only,  in  New  York  city;  organized  in 
1889,  and  named  in  honor  of  Fred- 
erick A.  P.  Barnard,  through  whose 


Bar*  Burners 

efforts  its  foundation  was  largely  due. 
It  was  made  essentially  a  part  of  Co- 
lumbia University,  certain  courses  of 
study  in  the  University  and  the  use  of 
its  library  being  open  to  the  students 
of  Barnard.  In  January,  1900,  the 
college  was  formally  incorporated  with 
Columbia  University. 

Bn.rE.ardo,  Thomas  J.,  an  Eng- 
lish philanthropist;  founder  of  the 
Barnardo  Homes  for  homeless  chil- 
dren ;  had  his  attention  first  turned  in 
this  direction  by  the  condition  in 
which  he  found  a  boy  in  a  ragged 
school  in  East  London  in  1866.  Fol- 
lowing up  the  subject,  he  began  to 
rescue  children  who  had  found  their 
only  shelter  at  night  under  archways, 
or  in  courts  and  alleys.  These  were 
introduced  to  his  homes,  where  they 
received  an  industrial  training,  were 
saved  from  a  possible  career  of  crime, 
and  enabled  to  achieve  an  honorable 
position  in  life.  He  died  in  1905. 

Barnato,  Barney,  a  South  Afri- 
can speculator.  His  real  name  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  Bernard  Isaac.  He 
was  born  in  London,  England,  about 
1845,  of  Hebrew  parents.  He  began 
business  there  as  a  dealer  in  diamonds, 
and  in  five  years  earned  enough  to  buy 
shares  in  the  Kimberley  diamond  mines. 
He  established  a  partnership  with  Ce- 
cil Rhodes,  and,  when,  in  1886,  gold 
was  discovered,  secured  possession  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  region.  He 
committed  suicide  by  jumping  from 
the  deck  of  the  steamer  "  Scot,"  bound 
from  Cape  Town  to  Southampton, 
June  14,  1897. 

Barnave,  Antoine  Pierve 
Joseph  Marie,  a  French  orator,  was 
born  at  Grenoble  in  1761.  The  Con- 
stituent Assembly  appointed  him  their 
President  in  January,  1791.  After  the 
flight  of-  the  King,  he  defended  Lafay- 
ette against  the  charge  of  being  privy 
to  this  step,  and,  upon  the  arrest  of 
the  royal  family,  was  sent,  with  Petion 
and  Latour-Maubourg,  to  meet  them, 
and  to  conduct  them  to  Paris.  When 
the  correspondence  of  the  court  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  victorious  party, 
Aug.  10,  1792,  they  pretended  to  have 
found  documents  which  showed  him 
to  have  been  secretly  connected  with 
it,  and  he  was  guillotined  Nov.  29, 
1793. 

Barn  Burners,  the  nickname  given 
to  the  radical  element  of  the  Demo- 


Barnegat  Bay 

cratic  Party  in  New  York  State,  which 
supported  Van  Buren  in  the  campaign 
of  1848. 

Barnegat  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  E. 
coast  of  New  Jersey,  about  25  miles 
in  length.  Barnegat  Inlet  connects 
the  bay  with  the  Atlantic. 

Barnes,  Albert,  an  American 
Presbyterian  minister,  born  in  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  Dec.  1,  1798.  For  37  years 
pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Philadelphia ;  he  was  best 
known  by  his  "  Notes "  on  the  New 
Testament  (of  which  over  1,000,000 
volumes  are  said  to  have  circulated), 
Isaiah,  Job,  Psalms,  etc.  He  died  at 
Philadelphia,  Dec.  24,  1870. 

Barnes,  Joseph  K.,  an  American 
medical  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
July  21,  1817 ;  was  educated  in  the 
medical  department  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania;  became  Assistant 
Surgeon  in  the  army  in  1840,  and 
served  at  various  posts  through  the 
Mexican  War.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  W«ir  he  was  summoned  from 
Oregon,  and  assigned  to  duty  in  the ! 
office  of  the  Surgeon-General.  In  1863,  i 
he  was  appointed  a  Medical  Inspector,  j 
with  the  rank  of  Colonel,  and  in  Sep- 
tember of  the  same  year  was  promoted 
to  Brigadier-General.  In  1865  he 
was  brevetted  Major-General,  United 
States  Army.  He  was  Surgeon-Gen- 
eral of  the  army  from  1864  till  1882, 
when  he  was  retired.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  April  5,  1883. 

Barnes,  William,  an  English 
poet  and  philologist,  born  in  Dorset- 
shire, Feb.  22,  1800;  died  in  Winter- 
.bourne  Came,  in  October,  1886. 

Barne veldt,  Jan  Van  Olden, 
Grand  Pensionary  of  Holland,  born  in 
1549.  He  had  scarcely  reached  his 
20th  year  when  he  was  called  to  the 
office  of  Councilor  and  Pensionary  of 
.Rotterdam;  and  such  was  the  opinion 
even  then  entertained  of  his  eminent 
abilities  and  integrity  that  he  was  al- 
lowed an  important  share  in  the  man- 
agement of  those  transactions  with 
France  and  England  by  which  the 
United  Provinces  sought  to  maintain 
themselves  against  Spain,  whose  yoke 
they  had  just  thrown  off.  His  con- 
duct in  the  high  office  of  Grand  Pen- 
sionary of  Holland  and  West  Fries- 
land,  which  he  afterward  filled,  not 
only  secured  the  independence,  but  re- 
BLlfl. 


Barnnm 

stored  the  trade  and  improved  the 
finances  of  the  United  Provinces.  Af- 
ter the  election  of  Maurice  of  Nassau 
to  the  dignity  of  Stadtholder,  Barne- 
veldt  became  the  champion  of  popular 
liberties,  and  opposed  with  determina- 
tion the  ambitious  designs  of  the  new 
prince.  The  latter  finally  carried  the 
day  and  Barneveldt  was  adjudged  to 
death  as  a  traitor  and  heretic,  by  26 
deputies  named  by  Maurice.  The  sen- 
tence was  carried  into  effect  in  1619. 
Barney,  Joshua,  an  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
July  6,  1759.  He  was  captured  by 
the  British  in  March,  1778,  but  was 
exchanged  in  August  of  the  same  year ; 
was  captured  again  and  held  a  prison- 
er till  he  escaped  in  1781.  In  April, 
1782,  he  took  the  British  ship  "Gen- 
eral Monk,"  off  Cape  May;  in  Novem- 
ber, 1782,  he  carried  dispatches  to  Dr. 
Franklin  in  France,  and  brought  back 
a  sum  of  money  lent  by  the  French 
government.  1794  he  went  with  Mon- 
roe to  France,  and  for  six  years  served 
in  the  French  navy.  In  1814,  he  com- 
manded the  fleet  stationed  in  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  He  died  in  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
Dec.  1,  1818. 

Barn  Owl,  a  bird  of  prey  belong- 
ing to  the  family  strigidae.  It  is  called 
also  the  white  owl,  the  church  owl, 
the  screech  owl,  the  hissing  owl,  the 
yellow  owl,  the  howlet,  and  the  hoolet. 
It  is  found  in  the  United  States  and 
in  Europe. 

Barnnm,  Frances  Courtenay 
(Baylor),  an  American  novelist,  born 
in  Arkansas,  1848. 

Barnnm,  Phineas  Taylor,  an 
American  showman,  born  at  Bethel, 
Conn.,  July  5,  1810 ;  after  various  un- 
successful business  ventures,  finally  es- 
tablished Barnum's  Museum  in  New 
York  (1841),  which  was  twice  burned. 
He  introduced  Tom  Thumb,  Jenny 
Lind,  Commodore  Nutt,  Admiral  Dot, 
the  woolly  horse,  Jumbo,  etc.,  to  the 
American  public.  In  1871  he  estab- 
lished his  great  circus.  He  was  mayor 
of  Bridgeport,  and  four  times  member 
of  the  Connecticut  Legislature.  His 
benefactions  were  large  and  frequent. 
He  was  a  lecturer  on  temperance  and 
other  popular  subjects.  He  died  at 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  April  7,  1891. 

Barnnm,  William  H.,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  in  Boston  Cor- 


Barnwell 


ners,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  17,  1818.     He  died 
in  Lime  Rock,  Conn.,  April  30,  1889. 

Barnwell,  Robert  Woodward, 
an  American  statesman,  born  in  Beau- 
fort, S.  C.,  Aug.  10,  1801 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1821 ; 
became  a  lawyer ;  was  a  member  of 
Congress  from  South  Carolina  in 
1829-1833;  a  United  States  Senator 
from  that  State,  1850-1851;  Commis- 
sioner from  South  Carolina  to  confer 
with  the  Federal  Government  regard- 
ing the  proposed  secession  of  the  State, 
in  1860 ;  member  of  the  Provisional 
Confederate  Congress,  1861-18G2;  a 
Confederate  Senator  in  186^1866; 
and  then  president  of  the  University 
of  South  Carolina  (an  office  he  had 
held  in  1835-1841)  till  1873.  He  died 
in  Columbia,  S.  C.,  Nov.  25,  1882. 

Baroda,  the  second  city  of  Guz- 
erat,  and  third  in  the  Presidency  of 
Bombay,  India ;  capital  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Guicowar  in  the  State  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  248  miles  N.  of 
Bombay,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway.  Baroda  occupies  an  im- 
portant situation  between  the  coast 
and  the  interior,  and  its  trade  is  con- 
siderable. Pop.  (1911)  99,345. 

Barometer,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  weight  of  the  air  and 
the  variations  of  its  pressure  in  order 
to  determine  changes  in  the  weather, 
the  height  of  mountains,  and  other 
phenomena.  This  most  useful  instru- 
ment had  its  origin  in  an  experiment 
of  Torricelli,  an  Italian,  who  flour- 
ished about  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century. 

Baron,  in  the  feudal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  title  baron,  derived 
from  the  Latin  varo,  which  signifies  a 
man,  and,  sometimes,  a  servant,  was 
given,  at  first,  to  the  immediate  tenant 
of  any  superior.  In  England,  baron 
is  the  lowest  grade  of  rank  in  the 
House  of  Lords. 

Baronet,  originally  a  term  appar- 
ently in  use  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Edward  III.  for  certain  landed  gen- 
tlemen not  of  the  dignity  of  lords, 
summoned  to  the  English  Parliament 
to  counterbalance  the  power  of  the 
clergy.  Subsequently  it  became  the 
name  given  to  three  titled  orders. 

Baronins,  or  Baronio,  Caesar,  an 
Italian  ecclesiastical  historian,  born  in 
1538.  He  owes  his  fame  to  his  work, 


"  Ecclesiastical  Annals,"  comprising 
valuable  documents  from  the  papal 
archives,  on  which  he  labored  from 
the  year  1580  until  his  death,  June  30, 
1607. 

Barony,  the  lordship  or  fee  of  a 
baron,  either  temporal  or  spiritual. 

Barotse,  or  Marotse,  an  impor- 
tant Bantu  tribe  inhabiting  the  banks 
and  the  regions  E.  of  the  Upper  Zam- 
bezi, from  about  14°  to  18°  S.  lat.  In 
Livingstone's  time  the  Makololo  were 
the  dominant  tribe  in  these  parts  of 
South  Africa,  but  since  then  they  have 
been  almost  entirely  annihilated  by 
the  Bantus,  who  now  occupy  the  vast 
territory  from  the  Kabompo  river  to 
the  Victoria  Falls. 

Barouche,  a  four-wheeled  carriage 
with  a  falling  top  and  two  inside  seats 
in  which  four  persons  can  sit,  two 
fronting  two. 

Barr,  Amelia  Edith,  an  Anglo- 
American  novelist,  born  in  Ulvertqn, 
Lancashire,  England,  March  29,  1831. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Huddleston,  and  in  1850  married 
Robert  Barr.  She  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1854,  and  lived  for  some 
years  in  Texas ;  but  after  her  hus- 
band's death  (1867)  removed  to  New 
York,  where  her  first  book,  "  Romance 
and  Reality,"  was  published  in  1872. 
She  is  a  prolific  writer,  and  her  nov- 
els are  very  popular. 

Barr,  Robert,  a  Scottish  author, 
born  in  Glasgow,  Sept.  16,  1850;  he 
spent  his  childhood  in  Canada,  drifted 
into  journalism,  joined  the  staff  of  De- 
troit "  Free  Press,"  and  wrote  under 
the  name  of  "  Luke  Sharp."  He  went 
to  London  in  1881  and  founded  "  The 
Idler"  with  Jerome  K.  Jerome.  He 
died  Oct.  22,  1912. 

Barracan,  strictly,  a  thick,  strong 
stuff  made  in  Persia  and  Armenia  of 
camel's  hair,  but  the  name  has  been 
applied  to  various  wool,  flax,  and  cot- 
ton fabrics. 

Barracand,  Leon  Henri,  a 
French  poet  and  novelist,  born  at  Ro- 
mans, Drome,  May  2,  1844. 

Barrack,  a  hut  or  small  lodge. 
The  plural,  barracks,  is  now  generally 
applied  to  a  large  structure,  either 
erected  expressly  for  the  housing  of 
troops  or  one  which  has  been  impro- 
vised for  that  purpose. 


Barracuda 


Barracuda,  a  pike-like  seafish  al- 
lied to  the  mullets,  common  on  both 
coasts  of  America.  The  great  barra- 
cuda reaches  a  length  of  8  feet  and  a 
weight  of  40  pounds.  It  is  as  savage 
as  a  shark.  Its  flesh  is  pleasant  flav- 
ored, but  is  not  always  eaten,  as  there 
are  times  when  it  it  not  wholesome. 

Barranquilla,  the  principal  port 
of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  in  the 
Department  of  Bolivar,  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Main  channel  of  the  Mag- 
dalena,  15  miles  distant  from  the  sea. 
A  railway  connects  it  with  the  seaport 
of  Sabanilla,  20  miles  to  the  north- 
west. Trade  is  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Germans.  A  United  States 
consul  is  resident  at  Barranquilla. 
Pop.  (1912)  48,907. 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean 
Nicolas,  Comte  de,  a  French  Jaco- 
bin, born  in  Provence,  in  1755,  of  an 
ancient  family ;  served  as  second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  regiment  of  Languedoc 
until  1775.  July  14,  1789,  he  took 
part  in  the  attack  upon  the  Bastille, 
and  Aug.  20,  1792,  upon  the  Tuileries. 
In  1792  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  National  Convention,  and  voted 
for  the  unconditional  death  of  Louis 
XVI.  In  February,  1795,  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  Convention, 
and,  in  that  capacity,  declared  Paris 
in  a  state  of  siege,  when  the  Assembly 
was  attacked  by  the  populace.  After- 
ward, when  the  Convention  was  as- 
sailed, Bonaparte,  by  Barras's  advice, 
was  appointed  to  command  the  artil- 
lery; and  that  general  on  the  13th 
Vendemaire  (Oct.  5,  1795),  decisively 
repressed  the  royafist  movement.  Na- 
poleon's coup  d'etat  (Nov.  9,  1799), 
effectually  overthrow  his  power.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  29,  1829. 

Barre,  a  city  in  Washington 
county,  Vt.;  on  the  Winooski  river 
and  the  Central  Vermont  and  other 
railroads;  6  miles  S.  B.  of  Mont- 
pelier;  is  widely  noted  for  its  granite 
quarries  and  interests  connected 
therewith.  Pop.  (1910)  10,734. 

Barre,  Isaac,  a  British  soldier, 
born  at  Dublin  in  1726.  Gazetted  as 
an  ensign  in  1746,  he  became  friendly 
with  General  Wolfe,  under  whom  he 
rose  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-Colo- 
nel. He  was  wounded  in  the  cheek  at 
Quebec,  was  beside  Wolfe  when  he 
fell,  and  figures  in  West's  picture  of 


"The  Death  of  Wolfe."  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1761,  and  held  office 
successively  under  Lord  Bute,  Pitt, 
Rockingham,  and  Lord  Shelburne.  In 
Pitt's  second  administration  he  ex- 
posed the  corruptions  of  the  ministry, 
was  a  strong  opponent  of  Lord  North's 
ministry,  and  opposed  the  taxation  of 
America.  He  died  in  London,  July 
20,  1802. 

Barren  Grounds,  a  large  tract  in 
the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada, 
extending  N.  from  Churchill  river  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  between  Great  Bear 
and  Great  Slave  Lakes  and  Hudson 
Bay.  It  largely  consists  of  swamps, 
lakes,  and  bare  rock. 

Barrett,  John,  an  American  di- 
plomatist, born  in  Grafton,  Vt.,  Nov. 
28,  1866;  was  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1889,  and  the  same 
year  went  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  was 
engaged  in  journalism  till  1894.  Dur- 
ing 1894-1898  he  was  United  States 
Minister  Resident  and  Consul-General 
at  Bangkok,  Siam,  and,  after  the  ex- 
piration of  his  term  of  office,  repre- 
sented several  American  newspapers 
in  Manila,  Philippine  Islands.  After 
the  American  victory  in  Manila  Bay 
he  made  a  special  study  of  conditions 
in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and,  return- 
ing by  way  of  London,  addressed  a 
joint  assembly  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  and  the  London, 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  on  the  condi- 
tion of  trade  in  the  Far  East.  He  re- 
turned to  the  United  States  in  the 
•summer  of  1899,  and  later  held  sev- 
eral diplomatic  appointments ;  became 
Director-General  of  the  Pan-American 
Union  in  1907. 

Barrett,  I*awrence,  an  American 
actor,  born  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  April 
4,  1838.  His  first  appearance  on  the 
stage  was  in  1853.  In  1856  he  ap- 
peared as  Sir  Thomas  Clifford  in 
"The  Hunchback"  at  Chambers  Street 
Theater,  New  York  city,  and  in  1857 
he  supported  Mr.  Burton,  Charlotte 
Cushman,  Edwin  Booth,  and  other 
eminent  actors.  He  served  as  a  cap- 
tain in  the  28th  Massachusetts  Infan- 
try in  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War. 
Later  he  acted  at  Philadelphia,  Wash- 
ington, and  at  Winter  Garden,  in  New 
York,  where  he  was  engaged  by  Mr. 
Booth  to  play  Othello  to  his  lago. 
After  this  he  became  an  associate 
manager  of  the  Varieties  Theater,  ia 


Barrett 


Barrow 


New  Orleans,  where  for  the  first  time 
he  played  the  parts  of  Richelieu,  Ham- 
let, and  Shylock.  He  gained  steadily 
in  distinction  both  as  manager  and 
actor.  His  last  appearance  was  on 
March  18,  1891,  in  the  character  of 
Adrian  du  Mauprat  to  the  Richelieu 
of  Mr.  Booth.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  March  21,  1891. 

Barrett,  Wilson,  an  English  dram- 
atist, born  in  Essex,  Feb.  18,  1846; 
died  July  22,  1904. 

Barrie,  town  and  capital  of  Sim- 
coe  county,  Ontario,  Canada;  on  an 
arm  of  Lake  Simcoe  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  railroad;  64  miles  N.  W.  of 
Toronto;  founded  in  1832;  incorpo- 
rated in  1871;  has  steamers  to  all 
lake  ports.  Pop.  (1911)  6,420. 

Barrie,  James  Matthew,  a  Scot- 
tish author  ;  born  in  Kurriemuir,  For- 
farshire,  May  9,  1860.  He  went  to 
London  in  1885,  to  engage  in  journal- 
ism. His  peculiar  talent  for  depicting 
Scottish  village  life  and  rustic  char- 
acters with  fidelity,  pathos,  and  poetic 
charm,  brought  him  fame.  He  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1913. 

Barrier  Reef,  a  coral  reef  which 
extends  for  1,260  miles  off  the  N.  E. 
coast  of  Australia,  at  a  distance  from 
land  ranging  from  10  to  100  miles. 

Barrili,  Antonio  Ginlio,  an  Ital- 
ian novelist,  born  in  Savona,  in  1836. 
Engaging  in  journalism  when  only  18, 
he  assumed  the  management  of  "II 
Movimento"  in  1860,  and  became  pro- 
prietor and  editor  of  "II  Caffaro"  in 
Genoa  in  1872.  He  took  part  in 
the  campaigns  of  1859  and  1866 
(with  Garibaldi  in  Tyrol)  and  in  the 
Roman  expedition  of  1867,  and  sat  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1876- 
1879.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  modern  Italy.  D.  in  1909. 

Barrios,  Gerardo,  a  Central 
American  statesman,  born  about  1810 ; 
became  President  of  Salvador  in  1860. 
He  was  deposed  by  Duenas  as  the  out- 
come of  the  war  with  Guatemala,  and, 
while  endeavoring  to  bring  about  a 
revolution  in  order  to  become  presi- 
dent again,  he  was  captured  and  exe- 
cuted, in  1865. 

Barrios,  Jnsto  Rufino,  a  Guate- 
malan statesman,  born  in  San  Marcos, 
about  1834 ;  opposed  President  Cerna 
in  the  revolutionary  movements  of 


1867,  and  was  active  in  overthrowing 
the  regime  established  by  that  presi- 
dent (1871).  Two  years  later,  when 
Granados  took  command  of  the  army, 
Barrios  became  President  and,  by  suc- 
cessive elections,  he  held  the  office  till 
his  death.  His  administration  was 
marked  by  prosperity  and  freedom.  A 
war  with  Salvador  resulted  from  a 
proclamation  intended  to  bring  about 
the  union  of  all  the  Central  American 
nations  in  one  republic.  In  an  assault 
upon  Chalchuapa,  Barrios,  putting 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  deserted  regi- 
ment, was  killed  April  2,  1885.  His 
widow  lives  in  New  York. 

Barrister,  Barraster,  or  Barre- 
ter,  in  England,  a  member  of  the  le- 
gal profession  who  has  been  admitted 
to  practice  at  the  bar;  a  counselor  at 
law.  The  term  corresponding  to  bar- 
rister is  in  the  United  States  counselor 
at  law ;  but  the  position  of  the  latter 
is  not  quite  the  same. 

Barren,  James,  an  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Virginia  in  1709; 
became  Lieutenant  in  the  navy  in 
1798,  and  was  soon  promoted  to  Cap- 
tain. He  commanded  the  "  Chesa- 
peake "  in  1807,  and  was  attacked  by 
the  British  ship  "  Leopard  "  as  a  re- 
sult of  his  refusal  to  allow  the  "  Ches- 
apeake "  to  be  searched  for  deserters. 
The  "  Chesapeake,"  which  was  quite 
unprepared,  discharged  one  gun  pre- 
vious to  striking  her  colors.  She  was 
captured  and  three  alleged  deserters 
were  found.  Barren  was  court-mar- 
tialed and  suspended  for  five  years. 
Upon  his  restoration,  as  the  outcome 
of  a  long  correspondence  with  his  per- 
sonal enemy,  Commodore  Decatur,  a 
duel  was  fought  and  Decatur  was 
killed.  Barren  became  senior  officer  in 
the  navy  in  1839.  and  died  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  April  21,  1851. 

Barren,  Samuel,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Hampton,  Va., 
about  1763 ;  in  1805  commanded  a 
squadron  of  10  vessels  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Tripoli.  On  his  return  to 
the  United  States  was  appointed  Com- 
mandant of  the  Gosport  Navy  Yard, 
but  died  immediately  afterward,  Oct. 
29,  1810. 

Barrow,  an  artificial  mound  or 
tumulus,  of  stones  or  earth,  piled  up 
over  the  remains  of  the  dead.  Such 
erections  were  frequently  made  in  an- 


Barrow 

cient  times  in  the  New  and  Old 
Worlds.  When  opened  they  are  often 
found  to  contain  stone  cysts,  calcined 
bones,  etc. 

Barrow,  Frances  Elizabeth,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  Feb.  22,  1822,  was  educated  in 
New  York,  where  she  was  married  to 
James  Barrow.  She  wrote,  under  the 
name  of  AUNT  FANNY,  numerous 
books  for  children.  She  died  in  New 
York  city,  May  7,  1894. 

Barrow,  Sir  John,  a  notable  Eng- 
lish writer  on  travels,  born  at  Drag- 
leybeck,  Lancashire,  June  19,  1764; 
died  in  London,  Nov.  23,  1848. 

Barrows,  John  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Medina,  Mich., 
July  11,  1847;  was  graduated  at  Oli- 
vet College  in  1867 ;  subsequently  stud- 
ied in  Yale  College,  Union  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminaries,  and  at 
Gottingen;  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church,  in  Chicago,  for 
14  years ;  organized  and  was  president 
of  the  World's  Parliament  of  Re-  i 
ligions,  at  the  World's  Columbian  Ex-  ' 
position  in  Chicago,  in  1893.  He  de-  I 
livered  a  course  of  lectures  on  Chris- 
tianity in  the  principal  universities  in 
India,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago,  in  1896-^1897,  and 
became  President  of  Oberlin  College 
in  1898.  He  died  in  Oberlin,  O.,  June 
3,  1902. 

Barrundia,  Jose  Francisco,  a 
Central  American  statesman,  born  in 
Guatemala,  in  1779.  He  became 
President  of  the  Central  American 
Republic  in  1829;  retaining  office  for 
something  over  a  year.  In  1852  he 
was  again  elected  President.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1854,  as  Min- 
ister from  Honduras,  to  propose  the 
annexation  of  that  territory  to  the 
United  States,  but  died  suddenly  be- 
fore anything  was  accomplished,  in 
New  York  city,  Aug.  4. 

Barry,  Ann  Spranger,  an  Eng- 
lish actress,  born  in  Bath,  1734.  As 
Desdemona  she  had,  during  her  whole 
career,  no  competitor.  She  died  in 
London,  in  1801,  and  is  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  an  English 
architect,  born  in  London,  in  1795.  He 
was  knighted  in  1852,  and  died  sud- 
denly in  1860. 


Barry 

Barry,  John,  an  American  naval 
officer,  boru  in  Tacumshane,  Ireland, 
in  1745.  He  settled  in  Philadelphia, 
in  1760.  When  the  Revolutionary 
War  broke  out  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  "Lexington,"  with 
which  he  captured  the  British  tender 
"Edward,"  in  1776.  He  afterward 
took  command  of  the  "Raleigh," 
which  was  captured  by  the  British 
"Experiment ;"  but  in  his  next  com- 
mand, the  "Alliance,"  he  captured  the 
British  ships  "Atlanta"  and  "Tre- 
passy."  He  was  chosen  to  convey  La- 
fayette and  Noailles  back  to  France; 
and,  in  1794  was  appointed  commo- 
dore. He  died  Sept.  13,  1803. 

Barry,  Spranger,  an  Irish  actor, 
the  great  rival  of  Garrick,  born  in 
Dublin,  in  1719.  He  was  brought  up 
as  a  silversmith ;  but  his  matchless 
form  and  voice  led  him  to  try  the 
stage.  He  died  in  London,  in  1777. 

Barry,  Thomas  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer,  born  in  New 
York,  Oct.  13,  1855 ;  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1877;  was  a  brigadier-general  of  vol- 
unteers, serving  in  the  China  relief 
expedition  and  in  the  Philippines,  in 
1900-1 :  promoted  brigadier-general, 
U.  S.  A.,  Aug.  18,  1903,  and  major- 
general,  April  29,  1908;  commanded 
the  pacification  army  in  Cuba  in 
1907-9 ;  superintendent  United  States 
Military  Academy  1910-13 ;  comman- 
der of  the  Eastern  Department  of 
Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  1913-17; 
then  appointed  to  the  newly-created 
Central  Department. 

Barry,  William  Farquhar,  an 
American  military  o^icer,  born  in 
New  York  city,  Aug.  18,  1818;  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1838 ;  and  first  saw  active 
service  in  the  Florida  war  (1852- 
1853).  In  the  Mexican  War  he  acted 
as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Worth. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
was  made  chief  of  artillery,  and  or- 
ganized the  artillery  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  He  subsequently  be- 
came chief  of  artillery  to  Sherman, 
and  took  part  in  the  march  to  the  sea. 
In  1865  he  was  brevetted  Major-Gen- 
eral.  In  1867  he  had  charge  of  the 
Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe.  He 
died  near  Baltimore,  Md..  July  18» 
1879. 


Barry 

Barry,      William      Taylor,      an 

American  statesman,  born  in  Lunen- 
bure.  Va^  Feb.  5,  1784.  He  served 
in  the  War  of  1812;  and  from  1814- 
1816  was  United  States  Senator  from 
Kentucky.  In  1828  he  was  appointed 
Postmaster-General  under  Jackson ; 
and  was  on  his  way  as  Minister  to 
Snain  when  he  died  in  Liverpool,  Aug. 
30,  1835. 

Barry  more,  Ethel  (Mrs.  Rnssell 
G.  Colt),  an  American  actress,  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Aug.  15,  1879; 
made  her  debut  with  John  Drew  in 
1896;  appeared  in  leading  roles  with 
Henry  Irving,  and  subsequently 
starred. 

Barrymore,  John  (John  Ely  the), 
an  American  actor,  born  Feb.  15, 
1882,  member  of  a  notable  theatrical 
family ;  made  his  debut  in  Chicago  in 
1903;  later  appeared  in  London  and 
Australia;  became  leading  man  in  a 
players'  film  company. 

Bart,  Earth,  or  Baert,  Jean,  a 
French  sailor,  born  at  Dunkirk,  1650, 
the  son  of  a  poor  fisherman.  He  be- 
came captain  of  a  privateer,  and,  after 
some  brilliant  exploits,  was  appointed 
captain  in  the  Royal  Navy.  In  recog- 
nition of  his  services,  he  was  made 
commodore  and  ennobled.  He  died 
in  1702,  and  is  regarded  to  this  day 
as  the  typical  naval  hero  of  France. 

Bartn,  Heinrich,  a  German  trav- 
eler, born  in  Hamburg  in  1821.  His 
explorations,  which  extended  over  an 
area  of  about  2,000,000  square  miles, 
determined  the  course  of  the  Niger 
and  the  true  nature  of  the  Sahara. 
He  died  in  1865. 

Barthelemy  -  Saint  -  Kilaire, 
Jules,  a  French  statesman ;  born  in 
Paris,  Aug.  19,  1805.  He  was  on 
the  side  of  the  Moderate  party  in 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  during  the 
troublous  times  of  1870-1871  he  was 
closely  associated  with  M.  Thiers.  In 
1875  he  became  a  life  senator,  and  in 
the  cabinet  of  M.  Jules  Ferry,  consti- 
tuted 1880,  he  was  appointed  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs.  The  chief  event 
of  his  tenure  of  this  office  was  the  oc- 
cupation of  Tunis.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  25,  1895. 

Bartlioldi,  Frederic  Angnste,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  Colmar,  Al- 
sace, April  2,  1834;  received  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1865 ;  prin- 


Bartnolome-w 

cipal  works :  the  "  Lion  of  Belfort ;  " 
statue  of  Lafayette,  in  Union  Square, 
New  York ;  bronze  group  of  Lafayette 
and  Washington,  in  Paris  (1895)  ; 
and  the  colossal  figure  in  New  York 
harbor,  "  Liberty  Enlightening  the 
World."  He  died  in  Paris,  Oct,  1904. 

Bartholomew,  Edward  Shef- 
field, an  American  sculptor,  born  at 
Colchester,  Conn.,  in  1822;  studied  in 
New  York  and  in  Rome,  where  he 
lived  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life. 
Among  his  works  are  "  Blind  Homer. 
Led  by  His  Daughter,"  "  Eve,'1 
"  Youth  and  Old  Age,"  etc.  He  died 
in  Naples,  May  2,  1858. 

Bartholomew  Fair,  or  Bar- 
tlemy  Fair,  a  celebrated  fair,  which 
was  long  held  in  Smithfield,  England, 
at  Bartholomew-tide. 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of  St., 
the  slaughter  of  French  Protestants 
in  Paris,  beginning  Aug.  24,  1572.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Francis  II.,  Catherine 
de'  Medici  had  assumed  the  regency 
for  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  then  only 
10  years  old,  and  was  compelled,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Guises, 
to  issue  an  edict  of  toleration  in  favor 
of  the  Protestants.  The  party  of  the 
Guises  now  persuaded  the  nation  that 
the  Catholic  religion  was  in  the  great- 
est danger.  The  Huguenots  were 
treated  in  the  most  cruel  manner; 
Prince  Conde  took  up  arms ;  the  Guis- 
es had  recourse  to  the  Spaniards, 
Conde  to  the  English,  for  assistance. 
Both  parties  were  guilty  of  the  most 
atrocious  cruelties,  but  finally  con- 
cluded peace.  The  queen-mother 
caused  the  king,  who  had  entered  his 
14th  year,  to  be  declared  of  age,  that 
she  might  govern  more  absolutely  un- 
der his  name.  Duke  Francis  de  Guise 
had  been  assassinated  by  a  Huguenot, 
at  the  siege  of  Orleans ;  but  his  spirit 
continued  in  his  family,  which  consid- 
ered the  Admiral  Coligny  as  the  au- 
thor of  his  murder.  The  king  had 
been  persuaded  that  the  Huguenots 
had  designs  on  his  life,  and  had  con- 
ceived an  implacable  hatred  against 
them.  Meanwhile,  the  court  endeav- 
ored to  gain  time,  in  order  to  seize  the 
persons  of  the  prince  and  the  admiral 
by  stratagem,  but  was  disappointed, 
and  hostilities  were  renewed  with 
more  violence  than  ever.  In  the  battle 
of  Jarnac,  1569,  Conde  was  made  pris- 


Bartholomew 

oner  and  shot  by  Captain  de  Montes- 
quieu. Coligny  collected  the  remains 
of  the  routed  army ;  the  young  Prince 
Henry  de  Beam  (afterward  Henry 
IV.,  King  of  Navarre  and  France), 
the  head  of  the  Protestant  party  after 
the  death  of  Conde,  was  appointed 
coinmander-in-chief,  and  Coligny  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  the  Prince 
Henry  de  Conde,  who  swore  to  re- 
venge the  murder  of  his  father.  The 
advantageous  offers  of  peace  at  St. 
Germain-en-Laye  (Aug.  8,  1570) 
blinded  the  chiefs  of  the  Huguenots, 
particularly  Admiral  Coligny,  wnc 
was  wearied  with  civil  war.  The  king 
appeared  to  have  entirely  disengaged 
himself  from  the  influence  of  the 
Guises  and  his  mother;  he  invited  the 
old  Coligny,  the  support  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, to  his  court,  and  honored  him 
as  a  father.  The  most  artful  means 
were  employed  to  increase  this  delu- 
sion. The  sister  of  the  king  was  mar- 
ried to  the  Prince  de  Beam  (Aug.  18, 
1572),  in  order  to  allure  the  most 
distinguished  Huguenots  to  Paris. 
Some  of  his  friends  endeavored  to  dis- 
suade the  admiral  from  this  visit ;  but 
he  could  not  be  convinced  that  the 
king  would  command  an  assassination 
of  the  Protestants  throughout  his 
kingdom.  On  Aug.  22,  a  shot  from  a 
window  wounded  the  admiral.  The 
king  hastened  to  visit  him,  and  swore 
to  punish  the  author  of  the  villainy ; 
but,  on  the  same  day,  he  was  induced 
by  his  mother  to  believe  that  the  ad- 
miral had  designs  on  his  life.  "  God's 
death !  "  he  exclaimed :  "  kill  the  ad- 
miral ;  and  not  only  him,  but  all  the 
Huguenots ;  let  none  remain  to  dis- 
turb us !  "  The  following  night  Cath- 
erine held  the  bloody  council  which 
fixed  the  execution  for  the  night  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572.  Af- 
ter the  assassination  of  Coligny,  a  bell 
from  the  tower  of  the  royal  palace,  at 
midnight,  gave  to  the  assembled  com- 
panies of  burghers  the  signal  for  the 
general  massacre  of  the  Huguenots. 
The  Prince  of  Conde  and  the  King  of 
Navarre  saved  their  lives  by  going  to 
mass,  and  pretending  to  embrace  the 
Catholic  religion.  By  the  king's  or- 
ders, the  massacre  was  extended 
through  the  whole  kingdom ;  and  if, 
in  some  provinces,  the  officers  had 
honor  and  humanity  enough  to  dis- 
obey the  orders  to  butcher  their  inno- 


Bartlett 

cent  fellow  citizens,  yet  instruments 
were  always  found  to  continue  the 
massacre.  This  horrible  slaughter  con- 
tinued for  30  days,  in  almost  all  the 
provinces;  the  victims  are  calculated 
at  30,000.  At  Rome,  the  cannons  were 
discharged,  the  Pope  ordered  a  jubilee 
and  a  procession  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Louis,  and  caused  the  Te  Deum  to  be 
chanted.  Those  of  the  Huguenots  who 
escaped  fled  into  the  mountains  and 
to  Rochelle.  The  duke  of  Anjou  laid 
siege  to  that  city,  but,  during  the 
siege,  received  the  news  that  the  Poles 
had  elected  him  their  king.  He  con- 
cluded a  treaty,  July  6,  1573,  and  the 
king  granted  to  the  Huguenots  the 
exercise  of  their  religion  in  certain 
towns.  The  court  gained  nothing  by 
the  massacre  of  St  Bartholomew. 

Bartholomew,  St.,  the  apostle, 
probably  the  same  person  as  Nathan- 
ael,  mentioned,  in  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John,  as  an  upright  Israelite,  and  one 
of  the  first  disciples  of  Jesus. 

Bartholomew,  St.,  an  island,  one 
of  the  West  Indies,  in  the  Leeward 
group,  belonging  to  France,  being 
transferred  by  Sweden  in  1878.  It  is 
a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe.  The 
island  has  a  mountainous  surface  and 
is  about  24  miles  in  circumference. 

Bartlett,  Edwin  Julius,  an 
American  chemist,  born  in  Hudson, 
O.,  Feb.  16,  1851 ;  the  author  of  many 
papers  on  chemical  subjects. 

Bartlett,  Sir  Ellis  Ash  me  ad,  an 
English  politician,  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  of  American  parents,  in  1849; 
educated  in  England ;  was  Civil  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty  in  1885-1886,  and 
1886-1892,  and  brother  of  William 
Ashmead  Bartlett,  who  married  the 
BARONESS  BTTRDETT-COUTTS.  He  died 
in  London,  Jan.  18,  1902. 

Bartlett,  Homer  Newton,  an 
American  composer,  born  in  Olive,  N. 
Y.,  Dec.  28,  1846.  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  anthems,  quartets,  and 
glees,  etc.  He  died  in  1905. 

Bartlett,  John,  an  American  au- 
thor and  publisher,  born  in  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  June  14,  1820;  became  a  pub- 
lisher in  Cambridge.  1836,  and  head  of 
the  firm  of  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1878. 
He  died  Dec.  3,  1905. 

Bartlett,  John  Russell,  an 
American  author:  born  in  Providence, 
R.  L,  Oct  23,  1805 ;  was  educated  for 


Bartlett 


Barton 


a  mercantile  career.  After  1837,  he 
entered  the  book-importing  trade  in 
New  York.  In  1850,  he  was  appoint- 
ed one  of  the  commissioners  to  fix  the 
Mexican  boundary.  In  1855,  be  was 
made  Secretary  of  State  of  Rhode  Isl- 
and. He  wrote  various  valuable  rec- 
ords, genealogies,  local  histories,  etc. 
His  best  known  work  is  his  "Diction- 
ary of  Americanisms"  (1850).  He 
died  in  Providence,  May  28,  1886. 

Bartlett,  John  B.,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  New  York  in 
1843;  was  appointed  an  acting  mid- 
shipman in  the  navy  from  Rhode  Isl. 
in  1859.  During  the  Civil  War,  he 
took  part  in  many  important  naval 
conflicts,  from  New  Orleans  to  the 
capture  of  Fort  Fisher.  Subsequently 
he  was  on  surveying  duty  in  Nicaragua 
and  on  the  United  States  Coast  Sur- 
vey :  was  promoted  to  Captain,  July 
1,  1892;  and  was  retired  July  12, 
1897.  After  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Spain,  in  1898,  he  was  re- 
called to  active  service,  and  on  July 
9,  succeeded  Rear-Admiral  Erben  as 
commander  of  the  Auxiliary  Naval 
Squadron  for  the  protection  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  cities.  He  died  at 
St.  Louis,  Nov.  22,  1904. 

Bartlett,  Josiah,  an  American 
physician  and  statesman,  born  in 
Amesbury,  Mass.,  in  1729;  was  one  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, and  a  member  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  (1775-1776)  ;  be- 
came Chief  Justice  of  New  Hampshire 
(1788)  ;  and  first  Governor  of  New 
Hampshire  under  the  new  State  Con- 
stitution. He  died  in  1795. 

Bartlett,  Panl  Wayland,  Ameri- 
can sculptor ;  born  at  New  Haven, 
1865.  His  chief  works  are  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  General  McClellan  in 
Philadelphia,  and  the  statue  of  Lafa- 
yette, presented  to  France  by  the  chil- 
dren of  America,  and  now  in  Paris. 

Bartlett,  Samuel  Colcord,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Salisbury, 
N.  H.,  Nov.  25,  1817.  In  1877  he  ac- 
cepted the  presidency  of  Dartmouth 
College,  which  he  held  until  1892, 
•when  he  resigned.  He  died  in  Han- 
over, N.  H.,  Nov.  16,  1898. 

Bartlett,  William  Francis,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Haverhill,  Mass.,  Jan.  6,  1840;  was  a 
student  in  Harvard  University  at  the 


outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  but  left  to 
enter  the  army ;  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  suffering  the 
loss  of  a  leg ;  but  continued  in  the 
service ;  was  twice  wounded  at  Port 
Hudson ;  and  in  the  battles  of  the 
Wilderness,  while  leading  the  57th 
Massachusetts  Regiment,  was  again 
wounded,  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to 
Libby  Prison.  At  the  close  of  the  war, 
he  was  made  a  Major-General  of  Vol- 
unteers for  distinguished  services  in 
the  field.  He  died  Dec.  17,  1876. 

Bartolini,  Lorenzo,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  at  Vernio,  in  Tuscany, 
in  1777 ;  went  to  Paris  while  still  a 
young  man.  His  chief  patron  was  Na- 
poleon, who,  in  1808,  sent  him  to  Car- 
rara, to  establish  a  school  of  scupl- 
ture.  Besides  an  immense  number  of 
busts,  he.  produced  several  groups,  the 
most  celebrated  are  "  Charity,"  "  Her- 
cules and  Lycas."  He  died  1850. 

Bartolomeo,  di  San  Marco, 
Fra,  or  Baccio  Delia  Porta,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  masters  of 
the  Florentine  School  of  painting, 
born  at  Savignano,  in  Tuscany,  in 
1469.  He  was  a  warm  adherent  of 
Savonarola,  after  whose  tragical  end 
in  1500  he  took  the  habit  of  the  clois- 
ter. He  died  in  Florence  in  1517. 

Bartolozzi,  Francesco,  an  en- 
graver, born  at  Florence  in  1725,  or 
acording  to  others,  in  1730,  died  at 
Lisbon  1813.  In  Venice,  in  Florence, 
and  Milan  he  etched  several  pieces  on 
sacred  subjects,  and  then  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  received  great  encour- 
agement. After  forty  years'  residence 
in  London  he  went  to  Lisbon  on  the  in- 
vitation of  the  Prince  Regent  of  Port- 
ugal to  take  the  superintendence  of  a 
school  of  engravers,  and  remained 
there  till  his  death. 

Barton,  Andrew,  one  of  Scot- 
land's first  great  naval  commanders; 
flourished  during  the  reign  of  James 
IV.,  and  belonged  to  a  family  which 
for  two  generations  had  produced  able 
and  successful  seaman.  In  1497  he 
commanded  the  escort  which  accom- 
panied Perkin  Warbeck  from  Scotland. 
After  doing  considerable  damage  to 
English  shipping  he  was  killed  in  1512. 

Barton,  Clara,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist ;  born  in  Oxford,  Mass., 
in  1830;  was  educated  at  Clinton,  N. 
Y .  and  early  became  a  teacher,  and 


Barton 


Bascinet 


founded  at  Bordentown,  N.  J.,  a  free 
school,  opening  it  with  six  pupils. 
In  1854  it  had  grown  to  600,  when  she 
became  a  clerk  in  the  Patent  Office  in 
Washington.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War  she  resigned  her  clerkship, 
and  became  a  volunteer  nurse  in  the 
army  hospitals  and  on  the  battle-field. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  in  1870,  she  aided  the 
Grand  Duchess  of  Baden  in  preparing 
military  hospitals,  assisted  the  Red 
Cross  Society,  and,  at  the  request  of 
the  authorities,  superintended  the  dis- 
tribution of  work  to  the  poor  of  Stras- 
burg,  in  1871,  after  the  siege,  and  in 
1872  did  a  like  work  in  Paris.  At 
the  close  of  the  war,  she  was  decorated 
with  the  Golden  Cross  of  Baden  and 
the  Iron  Cross  of  Germany.  On  the 
organization  of  the  American  Red 
Cross  Society  in  1881,  she  was  made 
its  President  In  1889  she  had  charge 
of  movements  in  behalf  of  sufferers 
from  the  floods  at  Johnstown,  Pa. ; 
in  1892  distributed  .relief  to  the  Rus- 
sian famine  sufferers ;  in  1896,  per- 
sonally directed  relief  measures  at  the 
scenes  of  the  Armenian  massacres;  in 
1898  took  relief  to  the  Cuban  re- 
concentrados,  and  performed  field 
work  during  the  war  with  Spain ;  and 
in  1900  undertook  to  direct  the  re- 
lief of  sufferers  at  Galveston,  but 
broke  down  physically.  In  1903  she 
undertook  the  re-organization  of  the 
Red  Cross  Society  in  the  United 
States.  She  died  April  12,  1912. 

Barton,  George  Hnnt,  an  Amer- 
ican geologist,  born  in  Sudbury,  Mass., 
July  8,  1852;  was  graduated  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
in  1880;  assistant  on  Hawaiian  Gov- 
ernment survey,  1881-1883 ;  assistant 
in  Geology  in  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  in  1883-1884 ;  then 
Assistant  Professor  of  Geology  there; 
also  occupied  the  corresponding  chair 
in  Boston  University  and  the  Teach- 
ers' School  of  Science ;  and  was  As- 
sistant Geologist  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  In  1896  he  was  a 
member  of  the  sixth  Peary  expedition 
to  Greenland.  He  is  the  author  of 
many  technical  papers. 

Barton,  William,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Warren,  R. 
I.,  May  26,  1748 ;  learned  the  trade  of 
a  hatter ;  but  joined  the  Revolutionary 
Army  soon  after  Bunker  Hill.  On 


!  the  night  of  July  10,  1777,  he  per- 
j  formed  the  exploit  which  made  him 
I  famous.  Leading  38  men,  in  four 
whale-boats,  across  Narragansett  Bay, 
he  surprised  and  captured  the  British 
General,  Prescqtt,  at  his  headquarters, 
and  hurried  him  away  to  Washing^ 
!  ton's  camp  in  New  Jersey.  Barton 
received  a  sword  from  Congress,  and 
was  brevetted  Colonel.  He  was  after- 
ward a  member  of  his  State  Conven- 
tion which  adopted  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution. He  died  in  Providence,  Oct. 
22,  1831.  In  his  later  years,  like  some 
other  heroes  of  the  Revolution,  he  was 
much  reduced  in  circumstances  and 
spent  some  time  in  a  debtors'  prison. 

Barton,  William  Paul  Crillon, 
an  American  botanist,  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Nov.  17,  1786;  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Feb.  29,  1856. 

Bartram,  John,  an  American  bot- 
anist, born  in  Chester  county,  Pa., 
March  23,  1699;  died  at  Kingsessing, 
near  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Sept  22,  1777. 

Bartram,  William,  an  American 
botanist  and  ornithologist,  born  in 
Kingsessing,  Pa.,  Feb.  9,  1739 ;  a  son 
of  John  Bartram.  He  compiled  a  list 
of  American  birds,  which  was  the  best 
of  its  kind  up  to  the  time  of  Wilson. 
He  died  in  Kingsessing,  July  22,  1823. 

Barnch,  in  Church  history,  a  son 
of  Neriah,  who  was  a  friend  of  Jere- 
miah's, and  at  least  occasionally  acted 
as  his  amanuensis  (Jer.  xxxii :  12; 
xxxvi :  4,.  17,  32 ;  xliii :  6 ;  xlv :  1 ;  li : 
59).  Two  apocryphal  books  or  let- 
ters have  been  attributed  to  him. 

Barye,  Antoine  Louis,  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  24,  1795 ; 
died  in  Paris,  June  25,  1875. 

Baryta,  or  Barytes,  or  Oxide  of 
Barium,  the  earth  present  in  the  min- 
erals witherite  (carbonate  of  barium) 
and  heavy  spar  (sulphate  of  barium). 

Basalt,  a  word  said  to  have  been, 
derived  from  an  African  word,  and  to 
have  meant  basaltoid  syenite,  from 
Ethiopia  or  Upper  Egypt.  In  general 
the  name  is  given  to  any  trap  rock  of 
a  black,  bluish,  or  leaden  gray  color, 
and  possessed  of  a  uniform  and  com- 
pact texture. 

Bascinet,  or  Basnet,  a  light  hel- 
met sometimes  with,  but  more  fre- 
quently without,  a  visor,  in  general 
use  for  English  infantry  in  the  reigns 
of  Edward  II.  and  III.,  and  Richard  II. 


Baicom 

Bascom,  Florence,  an  American 
educator;  daughter  of  Dr.  John  Bas- 
com, was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin,  and  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  receiving  from  the  first 
the  degree  of  B.  A.  and  B.  L.  in  1882, 
B.  S.,  in  1884,  and  M.  A.  in  1887 ;  and 
from  the  latter  that  of  Ph.  D.,  in  1892. 
She  was  the  first  woman  to  whom 
Johns  Hopkins  granted  a  degree,  and 
the  first  to  receive  a  Ph.  D.  from  any 
American  college.  Subsequently,  she 
was  engaged  in  teaching ;  became  pro- 
fessor at  Bryn  Mawr  College ;  and,  in 
1899,  was  chosen  to  supervise  the  geo- 
logical survey  of  Chester  county,  Pa. 

Bascom,  Henry  Bidleman,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Han- 
cock, N.  Y.,  May  27,  1796.  In  1850 
he  was  made  a  Bishop  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church.  He  edited  the 
"  Quarterly  Review "  from  1846  till 
1850.  His  writings  were  published  in 
185S.  He  died  in  Louisville,  Ky., 
Sept.  8,  1850. 

Bascom,  John,  an  American  edu- 
cator and  philosophical  writer,  born 
at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  in  1827.  He  was 
President  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, in  1874-1887,  and  in  1891- 
1901  was  Professor  of  Political  Sci- 
ence in  Williams  College.  He  wrote 
many  works.  He  died  Oct.  3,  1911. 


2MJ-BAS6. 


CATCHER, 

BASE    BALL    DIAMOND. 

Base    Ball,    a    field    game    played 
principally  in  the  United  States.     It 


Basel 

originated  in  the  English  school-boy 
game  of  "  rounders ;"  but  it  has  been 
so  improved  and  so  generally  played 
as  to  merit  its  name  of  "  the  Na- 
tional game  of  America."  The  play- 
ing of  baseball  has  become  largely  a 
business  or  a  "  profession,"  and  skilled 
players  receive  large  salaries.  As  an 
amateur  game,  however,  it  is  also 
most  popular. 

Basel   Confession    of,   a   Calvin- 

istic  confession  introduced  by  CEcolam- 
padius  at  the  opening  of  the  Synod 
of  Basel  (1531).  It  was  adopted  by 
the  Protestants  of  Basle  in  1534.  Sim- 
ple and  comparatively  moderate  in  its 
terms,  it  occupies  an  intermediate 
place  between  Zwingli  and  Luther. 

Basel,  Council  of,  a  celebrated 
Ecumenical  council  of  the  Church, 
convoked  by  Pope  Martin  V.  and  his 
successor,  Eugenius  IV.  It  was  open- 
ed Dec.  14,  1431,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  Cardinal  Legate  Juliano  Cesa- 
hini  of  St.  Angelo.  The  objects  of  its 
deliberations  were  to  extirpate  here- 
sies (that  of  the  Hussites  in  particu- 
lar), to  unite  all  Christian  nations 
under  the  Catholic  Church,  to  put  a 
stop  to  wars  between  Christian 
princes,  and  to  reform  the  Church. 
But  its  first  steps  toward  a  peaceable 
reconciliation  with  the  Hussites  were 
displeasing  to  the  Pope,  who  author- 
ized the  Cardinal  Legate  to  dissolve 
the  Council.  That  body  opposed  the 
pretensions  of  the  Pope.  On  the  Pope 
continuing  to  issue  bulls  for  its  dis- 
solution the  Council  commenced  a  for- 
mal process  against  him,  and  cited  him 
to  appear  at  its  bar.  On  his  refusal 
to  comply  with  this  demand  the  Coun- 
cil declared  him  guilty  of  contumacy, 
and,  in  May,  1439,  it  declared  Eu- 
genius, on  account  of  his  disobedience 
of  its  decrees,  a  heretic,  and  formally 
deposed  him.  Excommunicated  by 
Eugenius,  they  proceeded,  in  a  regular 
conclave,  to  elect  the  Duke  Amadeus 
of  Savoy  to  the  papal  chair.  Felix  V. 
—  the  name  he  adopted  —  was  ac- 
knowledged by  only  a  few  princes,  cit- 
ies, and  universities.  After  this  the 
moral  power  of  the  Council  declined; 
its  last  formal  session  was  held  May 
16,  1443,  though  it  was  not  technical- 
ly dissolved  till  May  7,  1449,  when  it 
gave  in  its  adhesion  to  Nicholas  V.§ 
the  successor  of  Eugenius. 


Baslian 

Bashan,  a  rich,  hilly  district,  ly- 
ing B.  of  the  Jordan,  and  between  the 
mountains  of  Hermon  on  the  N.,  and 
those  of  Gilead  and  Ammon  on  the  S. 
The  country  takes  its  name  ("  fat," 
"  fruitful  ")  from  its  soft  and  sandy 
soil.  It  is  celebrated  in  Scripture  for 
its  stately  oaks,  fine  breeds  of  cattle, 
and  rich  pasturage. 

i  Baslif ord,  James  Whitford,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Fayette, 
Wis.,  May  27,  1849;  graduated  at  the 
Theological  School  of  Boston  Uni- 
versity in  1876;  became  instructor  of 
Greek  at  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin in  1874;  president  of  the  Wesley- 
an  University  of  Ohio  iu  1889;  and 
a  bishop  in  1904. 

Baslii  Bazouks,  a  body  of  irreg- 
ular troops  in  the  service  of  the  Turk- 
ish Sultan.  They  are  principally  of 
Asiatic  races,  and  formed  a  contin- 
gent of  the  Turkish  army  during  the 
Russian  War,  1853-1856.  As  light 
cavalry  they  are  considered  excellent. 

Bashkirtseff,  Marie,  a  Russian 
author,  born  in  Russia  in  1860.  She 
died  in  Paris  in  1884. 

Basil,  St.,  sur mimed  THE  GREAT, 
Bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappadocia, 
where  he  was  born  about  326.  Af- 
ter extensive  travels,  St.  Basil  re- 
tired to  the  Desert  of  Pontus,  and 
there  founded  an  order  of  monks.  He 
succeeded  Eusebms  in  the  See  of 
Csesarea  in  370.  He  died  in  380. 

Basilan,  the  largest  island  of  the 
Sulu  Archipelago,  Philippine  Islands. 
This  island  is  very  mountainous,  and 
most  of  it  is  covered  by  virgin  forests. 
The  soil  is  extremely  rich  and  produces 
e  variety  of  valuable  crops,  including  j 
cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  chocolate,  tobac- 
co, indigo,  and  spices  of  all  sorts.  Ba- 
silan has  about  15,000  inhabitants  and 
three  excellent  harbors.  The  name 
Basilan  is  also  applied  to  the  whole 
group  of  34  adjacent  islets.  The  lead- 
ing port  is  Isabela,  on  Basilan  Strait. 

Basilica,  originally  the  hall  or 
court-room  in  which  the  King  admin- 
istered the  laws  made  by  himself  and 
the  chiefs  who  formed  his  council. 
Many  of  the  oldest  and  most  splendid 
of  the  Roman  churches  are  built  on 
the  plan  of  the  basilica,  and  are  call- 
ed basilicas  in  consequence. 

Basilisk,  a  fabulous  creature  for- 
merly believed  to  exist,  and  variously 


Bas-Relief 

regarded  as  a  kind  of  serpent,  lizard, 
or  dragon.  The  name  is  now  applied 
to  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles  with  a 
crest  along  the  back  and  tail. 

Basket  Ball,  an  indoor  game  play- 
ed upon  a  circumscribed  space  on  a 
floor,  usually  by  five  players  on  each 
side.  At  each  end  of  this  playing 
space  a  basket  is  placed  at  a  height 
of  about  10  feet.  The  ball  is  round, 
somewhat  lighter  than  a  foot-ball,  and 
is  passed  from  one  player  to  another 
by  throwing,  or  striking  with  the 
hands  only ;  the  ultimate  object  being 
to  lodge  it  in  the  opponent's  basket, 
which  action  counts  one  point.  The 
rules  as  to  interference,  playing  out  of 
bounds,  etc.,  are  adapted  from  those 
of  foot-ball. 

Baskett,  James  Newton,  an 
American  zoologist,  born  in  Kentucky, 
Nov.  1,  1849;  graduated  at  the  Mis- 
souri State  University  in  1872.  He 
has  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
comparative  vertebrate  anatomy,  with 
ornithology  as  a  specialty. 

Basking  Shark,  a  shark,  called 
in  English  also  the  sun  fish  and  the 
sail  fish ;  it  is  the  largest  known  shark, 
sometimes  reaching  36  feet  in  length, 
but  it  has  little  of  the  ferocity  seen  in 
its  immediate  allies.  It  is  called 
basking  because  it  has  a  habit  of  ly- 
ing motionless  on  the  water,  as  if  en- 
joying the  warmth  of  the  sun. 

Basques,  or  Biscayans  (in  their 
own  language,  Euscaldunac) ,  a  re- 
markable race  of  people  dwelling  part- 
ly in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  France,  but 
mostly  in  the  N.  of  Spain  adjacent  to 
the  Pyrenees.  They  are  probably  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Iberi,  who 
occupied  Spain  before  the  Celts.  They 
preserve  their  ancient  language,  for- 
mer manners,  and  national  dances,  and 
make  admirable  soldiers,  especially  in 
guerrilla  warfare. 

Bas-Relief,  that  is,  low  relief,  as 
applied  to  sculpture;  a  representation 
of  one  or  more  figures,  raised  on  a  flat 
surface  or  background,  in  such  a  man- 
ner, however,  as  that  no  part  of  them 
shall  be  entirely  detached  from  it. 
Alto-rilievo,  or  high  relief,  is  that  in 
which  the  figures  project  half  of  their 
apparent  circumference  from  the  back- 
ground. Mezzo-rilievo,  or  middle  re- 
lief, is  a  third  species,  between  the 
two.  But,  generally  speaking,  the 


Bass 

first  term  is  made  to  comprehend  both 
the  others. 

I  Bass,  in  music.  (1)  The  string 
(Which  gives  a  bass  sound.  (2)  An 
instrument  which  plays  the  bass  part ; 
especially  of  the  violoncello  or  bass- 
viol,  and  the  contrabasso  or  double 
bass.  (3)  The  lowest  of  the  prin- 
cipal human  voices ;  those  higher  in 
pitch  being,  respectively,  baritone, 
tenor,  alto  or  contralto,  mezzo-soprano, 
soprano. 

Bass,  the  name  of  a  number  of 
fishes  of  several  genera,  but  originally 
belonging  to  a  genus  of  sea  fishes  of 
the  perch  family,  distinguished  from 
the  true  perches  by  Laving  the  tongue 
covered  by  small  teeth  and  the  preoper- 
culum  smooth. 

Bass,  Edward,  first  Protestant 
Episcopal  Bishop  of  Massachusetts, 
born  in  Dorchester,  Nov.  23,  1726. 
During  the  Revolution  he  omitted 
from  the  church  service  all  refer- 
ence to  the  royal  family  and  the 
British  Government  For  this  he 
was  expelled  from  the  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel.  In  1797 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  finally  also  of  New 
Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island.  He 
died  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Sept.  10, 
1803. 

Basset,  a  name  used  with  some 
latitude  in  France  for  any  very  short- 
legged  dogs,  but  especially  for  various 
breeds  of  sporting  dogs  resembling 
(though  considerably  larger  than)  the 
dachshund. 

Bassett,  James,  a  Canadian-Amer- 
ican missionary,  born  in  Glenford, 
Ontario,  Jan.  31,  1834;  served  as  a 
chaplain  in  the  Union  army  in  1862- 
1863 ;  and  afterward  in  1871,  he  went 
as  a  missionary  to  Persia  under  the 
direction  of  the  Presbyterian  Board. 
There  he  finally  obtained  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  United  States  legation 
in  Persia.  He  died  in  1906. 

Bassett,  John  Spencer,  an 
American  historian,  born  in  Tarboro, 
N.  C.,  Sept.  10.  1867;  Professor  of 
History  in  Trinity  College,  N.  C.,  in 
1893-1906,  then  at  Smith  College. 

Bassia,  the  mohra  or  moho  tree. 
A  large  tree  growing  in  the  East 
Indies ;  it  is  also  found  in  Africa. 
The  flowers  have  a  heavy,  sickening 
smell,  and  an  intoxicating  spirit  is 


Bastille 

distilled  from  them.  It  is  the  Indian 
butter  tree. 

Bassora,  or  Bussora,  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  here  called  the  Shat- 
el-Arab,  56  miles  from  its  mouth  in 
the  Persian  Gulf.  The  population, 
once  150,000,  had  sunk  in  1854  to 
5,000,  but  the  establishment  of  the 
English  Tigris  and  Euphrates  Steam- 
ship Company  has  altogether  changed 
the  prospects  of  Bassora  and  the  town 
now  probably  contains  at  least  40,000 
inhabitants,  most  of  them  actively  en- 
gaged in  commerce. 

Bass  Strait,  a  channel  beset  with 
islands,  which  separates  Australia 
from  Tasmania,  120  miles  broad,  dis- 
covered by  George  Bass,  a  surgeon  in 
the  Royal  navy,  in  1798. 

Basswood,  the  American  lime  tree 
or  linden,  a  tree  common  in  North 
America,  yielding  a  light,  soft  timber. 

Bastard,  an  illegitimate  child.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  law,  one  born 
out  of  wedlock  might  be  legitimated  by 
subsequent  marriage  and  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  parents.  The  Roman  law 
has  been  long  adopted  in  Scottish  law, 
and  in  that  of  some  of  the  United 
States. 

Bastian,  Adolf,  a  German  trav- 
eler and  ethnologist,  born  in  1826. 
He  has  travelled  ve^ry  extensively  and 
his  numerous  writings  throw  light  on 
almost  every  subject  connected  with 
ethnology  or  anthropology,  as  well  as 
psychology,  linguistics,  non-Christian 
religions,  geography,  etc.  D.  in  1905. 

Bastian,  Henry  Charlton,  an 
English  biologist,  born  in  Truro  in 
1837 ;  was  an  advocate  of  spontaneous 
generation.  He  died  Nov.  17,  1915. 

Bastion-Lepage,  Jules,  a  French 
painter,  born  at  Damvilliers,  Nov.  1, 
184&  De  died  at  the  height  of  his 
fame,  Dec.  10,  1884. 

Bastille,  properly  means  any 
strong  castle  provided  with  towers, 
but  as  a  proper  name  is  applied  to  a 
famous  castle  which  once  existed  in 
Paris,  in  which  State  prisoners  and 
other  persons  arrested  by  lettres  de 
cachet  were  confined.  It  was  founded 
by  Hugues  d'  Aubriot  in  1369,  and 
completed  by  the  addition  of  four 
towers  in  1383.  The  lettres  de  cachet 
mentioned  above  were  issued  in  the 
name  of  the  king,  but  the  names  of 


Bastion 

the  individuals  were  inserted  by  the 
ministers,  who  were  the  depositaries 
of  these  letters. 

The  invention  of  the  lettres  de 
cachet  immediately  opened  the  door  to 
the  tyranny  of  ministers  and  the  in- 
trigues of  favorites,  who  supplied 
themselves  with  these  orders,  in  order 
to  confine  individuals  who  had  become 
obnoxious  to  them.  These  arrests  be- 
came continually  more  arbitrary,  and 
men  of  the  greatest  merit  were  liable 
to  be  imprisoned.  On  July  14,  1789, 
the  Bastille  was  surrounded  by  a  tu- 
multuous mob,  who  first  attempted  to 
negotiate  with  the  governor,  Delaunay, 
but  this  failing  attacked  the  fortress. 
For  hours  they  continued  the  siege 
without  being  able  to  effect  more  than 
an  entrance  into  the  outer  court  of 
the  Bastille,  but  at  last  the  arrival  of 
some  of  the  Royal  Guard  with  a  few 
pieces  of  artillery  forced  the  governor 
to  let  down  the  second  drawbridge  and 
admit  the  populace.  The  governor  was 
seized,  but  on  the  way  to  the  Hotel  de 
Ville  he  was  torn  from  his  captors  and 
put  to  death.  The  next  day  the  de- 
struction of  the  Bastille,  commenced. 
A  bronze  column  has  been  erected  on 
its  site.  The  event  considered  by  it- 
self was  of  no  great  national  impor- 
tance, but  it  marked  the  beginning  of 
the  French  Revolution. 

Bastion,  a  projecting  mass  of 
earth  or  masonry  at  the  angle  of  a 
fortification,  having  two  faces  and 
two  flanks,  and  so  constructed  that 
every  part  of  it  may  be  defended  by 
the  flank  fire  of  some  other  part. 

Basutoland,  a  native  province  and 
British  South  African  possession, 
bounded  by  the  provinces  of  the 
Orange  Free  State,  Natal,  and  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope;  area,  11,716 
square  miles ;  pop.  (1911)  404,507  na- 
tives and  1,396  Europeans ;  capital, 
Maseru.  The  province  is  divided  into 
seven  districts,  and  each  district  into 
wards,  mostly  presided  over  by  hered- 
itary chiefs.  The  Basutos  belong 
chiefly  to  the  Bechuanas,  and  have 
made  greater  advances  in  civilization 
than  any  other  South  African  race. 

Bat,  the  common  name  of  all  ani- 
mals of  the  class  mammalia  which  are 
furnished  with  true  wings,  and  so  are 
capable  of  really  flying  or  propelling 
themselves  in  the  air.  Bats  are  now 
generally  placed  by  naturalists  ill  the 


Batchelder 

order  cheiroptera,  although,  like  many 
other  animals  of  that  great  order,  most 
of  them  are  by  no  means  exclusively 


LONG-EARED    BAT. 

carnivorous.  Upward  of  130  species 
have  been  described,  and  there  is  great 
probability  that  the  actual  number  ex- 
isting is  very  much  greater. 

Batanes,  a  group  of  small  islands 
in  the  extreme  N.  of  the  Philippines, 
over  which,  and  Cagayan,  nearby, 
American  control  was  established  in 
March,  1900.  Pop.  (1903)  46,787. 

Batangas,  a  province  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands;  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  the  main  body  of  Luzon; 
area,  1,108  square  miles;  pop.  (1903) 
257,715,  all  civilized;  dominant  race, 
Tagalog;  capital,  Batangas.  It  con- 
tains 22  pueblos. 

Batavia,  properly  the  name  of  the 
island  occupied  by  the  ancient  Ba- 
rtavi,  became  at  a  later  date  the 
Latin  name  for  Holland  and  the 
whole  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

Batavia,  village  and  capital  of 
Genesee  county,  N.  Y.;  on  Tona- 
wanda  creek  and  the  New  York 
Central  &  Hudson  River  and  other 
railroads;  37  miles  E.  of  Buffalo;  is 
in  a  farming  section;  has  varied  in- 
dustries; and  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Institution  for  the  Blind  and  the 
Dean  Richmond  Memorial  Library. 
Pop.  (1910)  11,613. 

Batavia,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Ja- 
va, on  the  N.  coast  of  the  island,  the 
capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
founded  in  1619.  Its  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Malay,  with  an  admixture 
of  Chinese  and  a  small  number  of  Eu- 
ropeans. Pop.  (1905)  138,551. 

Batchelder,  Richard  Napoleon, 
an  American  military  officer,  born  in 
Lake  Village,  N.  H.,  July  27,  1832; 


Batcheller 


Bates 


entered  the  Union  army  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  War;  and  was  bre- 
vetted  Brigadier-General,  United 
States  Volunteers,  March  13,  1865; 
became  Brigadier-General  and  Quar- 
termaster-General, United  States 
Army,  June  26,  1890 ;  and  was  retired 
July  27,  1896.  He  was  awarded  aj 
Congressional  medal  of  honor  for  dis- 
tinguished gallantry  during  the  Civil 
War.  He  died  Jan.  4,  1901. 

Batcheller,  George  Sherman, 
an  American  jurist ;  born  in  Batchel- 
lerville,  N.  Y.,  July  25,  1837;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1858 ;  entered  the 
Union  army  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War;  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Harper's  Ferry,  and  exchanged  in 
1863.  In  1889  he  became  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury; in  1890,  United  States  Minister- 
Resident,  and  Consul-General  to  Portu- 
gal; and  in  1897,  a  member  of  the 
International  Tribunal  of  Egypt 
again.  In  the  last  year  he  received 
from  King  Humbert  the  decoration  of 
the  great  cordon  of  the  Order  of  the 
Crown  of  Italy,  in  recognition  of  his 
services  as  President  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Congress  which  met  in  Wash- 
ington in  May,  1897.  D.  in  1908. 

Bate,     William     Brimage,     an 

American  legislator,  born  near  Cas- 
talian  Springs,  Tenn.,  Oct.  7,  1826. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  rose  from  pri- 
vate to  the  rank  of  Major-General 
in  the  Confederate  army,  and  was 
three  times  dangerously  wounded.  He 
was  an  Elector-at-Large  for  Tennes- 
see on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  1876; 
was  elected  Governor  in  1882  and 
a  U.  S.  Senator,  1887,  1893,  1899. 
He  died  Mar.  9.  1905. 

Bateman,    Kate    Josephine,    an 
American  actress,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Oct.   7,   1842.     About   1851  she 
and  her  sister  Ellen  began  to  act,  they 
being  known  as  the  Bateman  Sisters. 
She  became  rich  and  famous,  and,  hav- 
ing married  George  Crowe,  an  Eng- , 
lish  physician,  identified  herself  with ! 
the  management  of  a  London  theater. 

Bates,  Alfred  E.,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Monroe, 
Mich.,  July  15,  1840;  was  a  Briga- 
dier-General, U.  S.  V.,  in  the  war  with 
Spain  in  1898.  He  died  Oct  13,  1909. 


Bates,  Arlo,  an  American  author, 
born  in  East  Machias,  Me.,  Dec.  16, 
1850.  He  graduated  from  Bowdoin  in 
1876,  when  he  engaged  in  literary 
work  in  Boston,  and  afterward  be- 
came Professor  of  English  Literature 
in  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology. 

Bates,  Charlotte  Fiske,  an 
American  poet  and  miscellaneous 
prose-writer,  born  in  New  York  city, 
Nov.  30,  1838.  She  was  married  in 
1891  to  Adolphe  Roge,  who  died  in 
1S96. 

Bates  College,  an  educational  in- 
stitution at  Lewiston,  Me.  This  was 
the  first  college  in  the  East  to  provide 
for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
In  1916  it  had  a  faculty  of  30,  and 
472  students. 

Bates,  Ed-ward,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Belmont,  Va..  Sept.  4, 
1793.  He  was  Attorney-General  of 
ti*e  United  States  in  Lincoln's  first 
administration ;  and  had  been  a  candi- 
date for  the  presidential  nomination  in 
1860.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
March  25,  1869. 

Bates,  Harriet  Leonora  (Vose), 
better  known  as  ELEANOB  PUTNAM, 
an  American  story  and  sketch  writer, 
wife  of  Arlo  Bates,  born  in  1856 ;  died 
in  1886. 

Bates,  Henry  Walter,  an  Eng- 
lish naturalist,  born  in  Leicester,  Feb. 
18,  1825.  In  1848  he  began  an  ex- 
ploration of  the  Amazon  region  in 
Brazil.  He  died  in  London,  Feb.  16, 
1892. 

Bates,  John  Coalter,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer,  born  in  St. 
Charles  co.,  Mo.,  Aug.  26,  1842;  edu- 
cated at  Washington  University,  St 
Louis;  entered  the  regular  army  as  a 
Lieutenant  in  the  llth  United  States 
Infantry,  May  14,  1861 ;  served  on  the 
staff  of  General  Meade  from  the  battle 
of  Gettysburg  to  the  close  of  the  war ; 
promoted  Captain,  May  1,  1863;  Ma- 
jor, May  6,  1882;  and  Colonel  of  the 
2d  United  States  Infantry,  April  25, 
1892.  On  May  4,  1898,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  Brigadier-General  of  Volun- 
teers ;  on  July  8,  was  promoted  Major- 
General  for  his  services  in  the  Santi- 
ago campaign ;  on  April  13,  1899,  was 
honorably  discharged  under  this  com- 
mission, and  on  the  same  day  was  re- 
commissioned  a  Brigadier-General  of 


Bates 

Volunteers.  In  February,  1899,  he 
was  appointed  Military  Governor  of 
the  province  of  Santa  Clara,  Cuba, 
and  in  April  following,  was  ordered  to 
duty  in  the  Philippines,  where  he  sev- 
eral times  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  latter  part  of  that  year  and 
the  early  part  of  1900.  In  March, 
1900,  he  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  department  of  Southern 
Luzon ;  was  promoted  Major-General, 
U.  S.  A.,  June  9,  1902,  and  Feb.  1, 
1906,  was  promoted  Chief  of  Staff  and 
Lieutenant-General ;  retired. 

Bates,  Joshua,  an  American  finan- 
cier, born  in  Weymouth,  Mass.,  in 
1788.  Mr.  Bates  was  the  principal 
founder  of  the  Boston  Public  Library, 
and  in  1852,  the  first  year  of  its  ex- 
istence, he  made  it  a  gift  of  $50,000, 
and  later  gave  it  30,000  volumes. 
Died  in  London,  Sept.  24,  1864. 

Bates,  Katharine  Lee,  an  Amer- 
ican story  writer,  poet,  and  educator, 
born  in  Falmouth,  Mass.,  Aug.  12, 
1859 ;  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Eng- 
lish Literature  in  Wellesley  College 
in  1891 ;  has  edited  collections  of  bal- 
lads, etc. ;  and  written  juvenile  stories. 

Bates,  Samuel  Penniman,  an 
American  historian,  born  in  Mendon, 
Mass.,  Jan.  29,  1827 ;  State  Historian 
of  Pennsylvania,  1866-73;  died  1902. 

Batfish,  a  fish  found  in  the  waters 
of  Florida  and  the  West  Indies ;  noted 
for  its  peculiar  shape.  Its  ventral 
and  pectoral  fins  resemble  the  legs  of 
a  frog. 

Bath,  Order  of  the,  in  heraldry, 
etc.,  an  order  of  knighthood,  so  called 
because  the  recipients  of  the  honor 
were  required  formerly  to  bathe  the 
evening  before  their  creation.  It  was 
instituted  by  Henry  IV.  in  1399,  and, 
falling  into  disuse,  was  revived  by 
George  I.  in  1725. 

Bath  Chair,  a  small  carriage  or 
chair  on  wheels,  drawn  by  a  chairman, 
and  intended  for  the  conveyance  of  in- 
valids or  others  for  short  distances. 

Bathometer,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  depth  of  sea  beneath  a 
vessel  without  casting  a  line. 

Bathori,  a  Hungarian  family, 
which  gave  Transylvania  five  princes, 
and  Poland  one  of  its  greatest  kings. 

Bathori,  Elizabeth,  niece  of 
Stephen,  King  of  Poland,  and  wife  of 


Baton 

Count  Nadasdy,  of  Hungary ;  a  histor- 
ical monster.  By  means  of  large 
bribes,  she  induced  an  old  man  servant 
and  two  female  servants  to  kidnap 
and  convey  to  her,  either  by  stratagem 
or  force,  young  girls  from  the  neigh- 
boring country,  whom  she  slowly  put 
to  death  in  the  dungeons  of  her  castle 
by  the  most  horrible  tortures.  In- 
quiry was  at  length  made  into  the  ap- 
palling rumors,  when  it  was  discover- 
ed that  this  female  fiend  had  murdered 
in  cold  blood,  not  fewer  than  650 
maidens.  The  domestics  who  assisted 
her  were  either  beheaded  or  burned 
alive.  The  Countess,  who  merited  cer- 
tainly the  greater  punishment,  died 
quietly  in  1614,  in  her  fortress  of  Esej, 
where  she  had  been  confined  for  life. 

Bath-sheba,  the  wife  of  Uriah. 
David  caused  her  husband  to  be  slain, 
and  afterward  took  her  to  wife.  These 
sins  displeased  Jehovah,  who  sent  the 
prophet  Nathan  to  David,  with  the 
parable  of  the  ewe  lamb.  David  bit- 
terly repented,  but  yet  was  punished. 
Bath-sheba  was  the  mother  of  Solo- 
mon, whose  succession  to  the  throne 
she  took  pains  to  secure. 


COLLAB    AND    BADGE,    OBDEB    OF    BATH. 

Baton,  a  short  staff  or  truncheon, 
in  some  cases  used  as  an  official  badge, 
as  that  of  a  field  marshal.  The  con- 
ductor of  an  orchestra  has  a  baton 
for  the  purpose  of  directing  the  per- 


Baton  Rouge 


Battle 


formers  as  to  time,  etc.     In  heraldry 
the  bastard  bar  is  a  baton  sinister. 

Baton.  Rouge,  city  and  capital  of 
the  State  of  Louisiana  and  of  East 
Baton   Rouge  parish;  on  the   Missis- 
sippi river  and  several  railroads;  89 
miles  N.  W.  of  New  Orleans;  built 
on  a  bluff  commanding  a  fine  view  j 
of  its  environment.    Besides  the  State : 
Capitol,   it   contains   the    State    Uni- ,' 
versity,     State     Penitentiary,     State '. 
Asylums   for  the   Deaf,    Dumb,    and ; 
Blind,     insane     asylum,     and     many 
charitable   institutions.      It    was    the 
State  capital  in  1847-1864  and  since 
1880.     The  State  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion was  adopted  here  in  1861,  and 
the  city  was  held  by  Federal  troops 
in  1862-65.    Pop.  (1910)  14,897. 

Batonm,  or  Batumi,    a  Russian 
port  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Black  Sea.  | 

Battering  Ram,  an  ancient  mili-  j 
tary    contrivance    used    for    battering  I 
down    walls.     It    existed    among    the  i 
Assyrians,    the    Greeks,   and   the   Ro- 
mans.     It    consisted    of    a    pole    or 
beam    of    wood,    sometimes    as    much 
as    80,    100,    or    even    120    feet    in 
length.     It  was  suspended  by  its  ex- 
tremities from  a  single  point,  or  from 
two    points    in    another    beam    above,  j 
which    lay    horizontally    across    two 


BATTEBING  BAM. 

posts.  When  at  rest  it  was  level,  like 
the  beam  above  it.  When  put  in  ac- 
tion against  a  wall,  it  was  swung  hori- 
zontally by  men  who  succeeded  each 
other  in  constant  relays,  the  blow 
which  it  gave  to  the  masonry  at  each 


vibration  being  rendered  all  the  more 
effective  that  one  end  of  it  was  armed 
with  iron. 

Battery,  in  law,  the  unlawful 
beating  of  another,  or  even  the  touch- 
ing him  with  hostile  intent.  In  mil- 
itary usage,  a  certain  number  of  artil- 
lerymen united  under  the  command  of 
a  field  officer,  and  the  lowest  tacti- 
cal unit  in  the  artillery.  In  a  bat- 
tery there  are  gunners  who  work  the 
guns,  and  drivers  who  drive  the  horses 
by  which  these  guns  are  transported 
from  place  to  place.  Batteries  are 
usually  distinguished  as  horse,  field, 
and  garrison. 

Batthyanyi,  one  of  the  oldest  and 
most  powerful  of  the  noble  families 
of  Hungary,  which  traces  its  origin 
as  far  back  as  the  invasion  of  Pan- 
nonia  by  the  Magyars,  in  884  A.  D., 
and  has  given  to  Hungary  many  dis- 
tinguished warriors,  statesmen,  and 
churchmen. 

Battle,  a  town  in  Sussex,  Eng- 
land, 6  miles  N.  W.  of  Hastings.  An 
uninhabited  heathland  then,  Senlac 
by  name,  it  received  its  present  name 
from  the  battle  of  Hastings,  fought 
here  on  Oct.  14,  1066,  which  won 
England  for  the  Normans. 

Battle,  Cullen  Andrews,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Powelton,  Ga. ;  June  1,  1829.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  enter- 
ed the  Confederate  army,  and  during 
the  war  was  wounded  seven  times, 
promoted  Brigadier-General  on  the 
field  of  Gettysburg,  and  Major-Gen- 
eral  in  October,  1864.  After  the  war 
he  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  jour- 
nalism in  Newbern,  N.  C.  D.  in  1905. 

Battle,  Kemp  Plnmmer,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Frank- 
lin Co.,  N.  C.,  Dec.  19,  1831;  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  North  Car- 
olina in  1849;  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Convention  of  North  Carolina 
in  1861  that  passed  the  ordinance  of 
secession ;  State  Treasurer,  1866- 
1868;  president  of  the  University  of 
North  Carolina,  in  1876KL891;  and 
afterward  Professor  of  History  there. 

Battle,  Lorenzo,  an  Uruguayan 
military  officer ;  born  in  Montevideo, 
in  1812.  He  was  minister  of  war  in 
1866-1868;  and  president  of  the  re- 
public in  1868-1872,  when  he  resigned 
and  resumed  military  service. 


Battle 


Bauxite 


Battle,  Trial  by,  or  Wager  of 
(originally  battel),  an  old  method  of 
deciding  disputes  by  personal  combat. 

Battle  Creek,  a  city  in  Calhoun 
county,  Mich. ;  on  the  Kalamazoo 
river  and  the  Michigan  Central  and 
other  railroads ;  45  miles  S.  W.  of 
Lansing ;  is  largely  engaged  in  man- 
ufacturing, producing,  among  other 
commodities,  a  vast  amount  of  break- 
fast and  health  foods.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Battle  Creek  College  (Adv.),  and 
one  of  the  largest  sanitaria  in  the 
country.  Pop.  (1910)  25,267. 

Battle-Ground,  a   town   in    Tip- 

Eecanoe  Co.,  Ind.,  where  the  famous 
attle  of  Tippecanoe  was  fought  be- 
tween the  United  States  troops  under 
General  Harrison  and  the  Indians  un- 
der Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  "The 
Prophet,"  on  Nov.  7,  1811. 

Battleship,  a  term  specifically  ap- 
plied to  a  warship  designed  for  fight- 
ing in  the  first  line  of  battle,  and  to 
be  able  to  give  and  receive  the  sever- 
est possible  blows ;  hence  its  armor  is 
the  least  vulnerable,  its  guns  are  the 
heaviest,  and  the  qualities  of  the 
cruiser  and  armored  cruiser  are  sub- 
ordinated to  its  protection  and  arma- 
ment. The  development  of  the  battle- 
ship has  been  one  of  rapid  progress 
among  the  maritime  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, and  from  the  rivalry  to  secure 
the  most  formidable  type  have  come, 
in  recent  years,  the  Dreadnaught  and 
Super-Dreadnaught  classes.  In  1916 
the  United  States  navy  had  twenty- 
six  vessels  classed  as  battleships  of 
the  first  line  and  an  equal  number 
classed  as  battleships  of  the  second 
line.  Each  bore  the  name  of  a  State, 
and  all  ranged  in  displacement  from 
10,288  tons  to  32,000.  Several  of  the 
most  powerful  ones  are  popularly  des- 
ignated as  Dreadnaughts  and  Super- 
Dreadnaughts,  but  the  official  class- 
name  is  battleship. 

Batnm,  or  Batonm,  a  port  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  acquired 
by  Russia  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  on 
condition  that  its  fortifications  were 
dismantled  and  it  were  thrown  open 
as  a  free  port.  It  rapidly  grew  to  be 
the  main  outlet  for  Transcaucasia,  in- 
cluding the  traffic  in  petroleum,  im- 
mense quantities  of  which  are  shipped  ; 
its  harbor  was  enlarged  for  alleged 
commercial  reasons ;  an  arsenal  was 

E  15. 


built  outside  it ;  it  was  connected  by  a 
military  road  with  Kars ;  and  finally, 
in  July,  1886,  the  Russian  govern- 
ment declared  it  to  be  a  free  port  no 
longer.  Its  importance  as  a  naval  and 
military  station  to  Russia,  is  unques- 
tionably great,  and  it  will  probably 
rank  as  one  of  the  strongest  positions 
on  the  Black  Sea.  The  water  is  of 
great  depth  close  inshore,  and  the  ship- 
ping lies  under  protection  of  the  over- 
hanging cliffs  of  the  Gouriel  Moun- 
tains. Pop.  (1913)  44,900. 

Baudelaire,  Charles,  a  French 
poet,  born  April  9,  1821;  died  1867. 
He  was  the  herald,  if  not  the  founder 
of  the  so  called  decadent  school  of 
Freach  literature.  He  seems  to  have 
striven  to  be  as  offensive  as  possible 
in  the  expression  of  his  peculiar  views 
of  lifo,  nature  and  God,  yet  his  work 
will  live  because  of  its  wonderful  tech- 
nique, which  is  not  equalled  in  French 
poetry. 

Bandry,  Paul,  a  French  painter, 
born  Nov.  7,  1828,  at  La  Roche-sur- 
Yon ;  died  Jan.  17,  1886. 

Bauer,  Wilhelm,  a  German  in- 
ventor, born  in  Dillingen,  in  1822.  He 
served  as  an  artilleryman  during  the 
Scbleswig-Holstein  War  (1866),  and, 
meanwhile,  conceived  the  plan  of  a 
submarine  vessel  for  coast  defense. 
It  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Russia. 
He  afterward  made  improvements  in 
torpedoes.  He  died  in  1875. 

Bauemfeld,  Eduard  von,  an 
Austrian  dramatist,  born  in  Vienna, 
Jan.  13,  1802 ;  died  Aug.  9,  1890. 

Banm,  Friedrich,  a  German  mili- 
tary officer  in  the  British  service  in 
the  Revolutionary  War.  He  arrived  in 
Canada  in  1776,  and  in  Burgoyne's 
expedition  acted  as  Lieutenant-Colonel 
of  the  Brunswick  dragoons.  He  was 
sent  out  with  800  men  and  two  pieces 
of  artillery  on  a  foraging  expedition. 
Near  Bennington.  Vt.,  be  was  attack- 
ed by  the  New  Hampshire  militia  un- 
der Stark,  and  utterly  defeated.  He 
himself  was  killed  Aug.  16,  1777. 

Bauxite,  a  mineral  occurring  in 
round,  concretionary,  disseminated 
grains:  found  extensively  in  France 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
United  States,  principally  in  Alabama 
and  Georgia.  The  purest  bauxite  is 
called  aluminum  ore,  because  com- 
mercial aluminum  is  made  from  it. 


Pa-asset 

Bausset,  Louis  Francois,  Car' 
dinal,  born  in  Pondiccherry,  India, 
Dec.  14,  174&  His  father,  who  held 
an  important  position  in  the  French 
Indies,  sent  young  Bausset  to  France 
when  he  was  but  12  years  of  age.  He 
was  educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and  be- 
came bishop  of  Alais  in  1784.  After  the 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  in  1815, 
he  entered  the  Chamber  of  Peers ;  the 
following  year  he  became  a  member  of 
the  French  Academy;  and,  in  1817, 
he  received  the  appointment  of  Cardi- 
nal. He  died  in  Paris,  June  21,  1824. 

Bautain,  Louis  Eugene  Marie, 
a  French  philosopher,  born  in  Paris, 
Feb.  17,  1796;  died  Oct.  18,  1867. 

Bavaria,  a  kingdom  of  Central 
Europe,  in  the  S.  of  Germany,  com- 
posed of  two  isolated  portions  of  un- 
equal size.  Bavaria  is  estimated  to 
contain  an  area  of  30,346  English 
square  miles,  and  is  divided  into  eight 
circles  (kreise).  The  total  population 
in  MHO  was  6,887,291. 

Bavaria  is  one  of  the  most  favored 
countries  in  Germany,  in  respect  of 
the  fruitfulness  of  its  spiL  In  the 
plains  and  valleys  the  soil  is  capable 
of  producing  all  kinds  of  crops.  The 
forests  of  Bavaria,  composed  chiefly  of 
fir  and  pine  trees,  cover  nearly  a  third 
of  its  entire  surface,  and  yield  a  large 
revenue  to  the  State;  much  timber 
being  annually  exported,  together  with 
potashes,  tar,  turpentine,  and  other 
products  peculiar  to  these  wooded  re- 
gions. The  principal  mineral  products 
are  salt,  coal,  and  iron.  Some  of  the 
mining  works  belong  to  the  State,  and 
contribute  something  to  the  public  rev- 
enue; but  the  minerals  are  not 
wrought  to  the  extent  they  might  be. 
In  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  sheep  the 
Bavarians  are  somewhat  backward. 
Swine  are  reared  in  great  numbers  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  and  poultry 
and  wild  fowl  are  abundant.  The 
wolves  and  bears,  with  which  the  for- 
ests of  Bavaria  were  at  one  time  in- 
fested, are  nearly  extinct 
^  The  manufactures  of  Bavaria  are 
singly  not  very  important,  being  most- 
ly on  a  small  scale,  and  conducted  by 
individuals  of  limited  capital.  The 
principal  articles  manufactured  are 
linens,  woolens,  cottons,  silks,  leather, 
paper,  glass,  earthen  and  iron  and 
steel  ware,  jewelry,  etc.,  but  the  sup- 
ply of  some  of  these  articles  is  inade- 


Bavaria 

quate  to  the  home  consumption.  Of 
leather,  paper,  glass,  and  ironware, 
rather  large  quantities  are  exported. 
The  optical  and  mathematical  instru- 
ments made  at  Munich  are  the  best  on 
the  Continent,  and  are  prized  accord- 
ingly. But  the  most  important  branch 
of  manufacture  in  Bavaria  is  the 
brewing  of  beer  —  the  universal  and 
favorite  beverage  of  the  country. 

There  are  over  7,500  schools  in  Ba- 
varia, attended  by  more  than  1,091,800 
pupils.  Attendance  at  school  is  com- 
pulsory up  to  16  years  of  age.  There 
are  three  universities  in  Bavaria — • 
two  of  which  (Munich  andWurzburg) 
are  Roman  Catholic,  and  one  (Erlan- 
gen)  Protestant.  The  capital,  Munich, 
contains  a  library  of  800,000  volumes, 
including  25,000  MSS. ;  several  scien- 
tific and  literary  institutions,  acade- 
mies, and  national  societies,  and  ex- 
tensive collections  of  works  of  art. 

The  religion  of  the  State  is  Roman 
Catholicism,  which  embraces  more 
than  70  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
The  Protestants  number  about  21  per 
cent. ;  the  Hebrews  1  per  cent.,  the  re- 
mainder being  Mennonites,  etc. 

Bavaria  was  formerly  a  member  of 
the  Germanic  Confederation,  and  now 
forms  part  of  the  German  empire.  The 
executive  is  in  the  hands  of  the  king. 
The  legislature  consists  of  two  cham- 
bers —  one  of  senators,  and  one  of 
deputies ;  the  former  composed  of 
princes  of  the  royal  family,  the  great 
officers  .of  the  State,  the  two  arch- 
bishops, the  heads  of  certain  noble 
families,  a  bishop  named  by  the  king, 
the  president  of  the  Protestant  Gen- 
eral Consistory,  and  any  other  mem- 
bers whom  the  king  may  create  hered- 
itary peers;  the  latter,  of  members 
chosen  indirectly,  one  to  every  38,000 
persons  of  the  total  population. 

In  1805  Bavaria  was  raised,  by  the 
treaty  of  Presburg  to  the  rank  of  a 
kingdom,  with  some  further  accessions 
of  territory,  all  of  which  were  con- 
firmed by  the  treaties  of  1814  and 
1815.  In  the  war  of  1866  Bavaria 
sided  with  Austria,  in  consequence  of 
which  it  was  obliged,  by  the  treaty  of 
August  22  in  the  same  year,  to  cede 
a  small  portion  of  its  territory  to 
Prussia,  and  to  pay  a  war  indemnity 
of  30,000,000  florins.  Soon  after  Ba- 
vaia  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Prussia,  and  in  1867  joined  the  Zoll- 


Baxter 

verein  under  Prussian  regulations.  In 
the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-1871 
Bavaria  took  a  prominent  part,  and 
since  1871  it  has  been  one  of  the  con- 
stituent States  of  the  German  empire, 
represented  in  the  Bundesrath  by  6 ; 
in  the  Reichstag  by  48  members.  In 
1886  King  Louis  II.  committed  suicide 
from  alienation  of  mind.  His  brother 
Otto  succeeded,  but  he  being  also  in- 
sane, his  uncle  Luitpold  became  re- 
gent. The  latter  died  Dec.  12,  1912, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  pro- 
claimed King  as  Ludwig  III.,  Nov.  5, 
1913.  Bavaria  staunchly  supported 
the  Kaiser's  policies  in  the  great 
World  War. 

Baxter,  Richard,  an  English 
Nonconformist  preacher  and  theologi- 
cal writer ;  born  in  Shropshire  in 
1615.  He  early  entered  the  Church, 
and,  taking  sides  with  the  Parliamen- 
tary party,  became  chaplain  to  one  of 
the  regiments  of  the  Commonwealth. 
But,  either  his  Republican  opinions 
were  offensively  prominent  or  his 
enemies  took  advantage  of  his  public 
preaching  to  denounce  him ;  for,  after 
enduring  much  persecution,  he,  then 
70  years  old,  was  brought  before  Judge 
Jeffreys,  who  abused  him  in  court, 
and  fined  him  £500,  with  imprison- 
ment till  paid.  Baxter  was  a  prolific 
writer,  a  large  portion  of  his  works 
being  polemical.  D.  Dec.  8,  1691. 

Baxter,  Sylvester,  an  American 
publicist,  born  in  West  Yarmouth, 
Mass.,  Feb.  6,  1850;  was  educated  in 
Germany ;  spent  many  years  as  a 
newspaper  correspondent  in  various 
parts  of  the  world ;  "father"  of  the 
Greater  Boston  movement. 

Bay,  an  arm  or  inlet  of  the  sea 
extending  into  the  land,  with  a  wider 
mouth  proportionally  than  a  gulf. 

Bay,  a  berry,  and  especially  one 
from  some  species  of  the  laurel ;  also 
the  English  name  of  the  laurus  nobilis. 
A  fine  tree,  with  deep  green  foliage 
and  a  profusion  of  dark  purple  or 
black  berries. 

Bayadere,  a  name  originally  given 
by  the  Portuguese  to  the  singing  and 
dancing  girls  of  Hindustan.  They  are 
of  two  kinds  —  those  who  are  em- 
ployed as  priestesses  in  the  temples, 
and  those  who  go  about  the  country 
as  itinerants.  The  former  class  cele- 
brate with  song  and  dance  the  festi* 


Bay  City 

vals  of  the  gods ;  the  latter  are  em- 
ployed by  the  grandees  of  India  to 
amuse  and  cheer  them  at  their  ban- 
quets. 

Bayamo,  or  San  Salvador,  a 
town  in  the  interior  of  the  E.  part  of 
the  island  of  Cuba,  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile and  healthy  district  on  the  north- 
ern slope  of  the  Sierra  Maestra.  It  is 
connected  by  a  railway  With  Manzan- 
illa. 

Bayard,  or  more  properly  Bayart, 
Pierre  du  Terrail,  Chevalier  de, 
called  the  "  knight  without  fear  and 
without  reproach  " ;  born  in  1476,  in 
the  castle  of  Bayard,  near  Grenoble, 
was  one  of  the  most  spotless  charac- 
ters of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  sim- 
ple and  modest;  a  true  friend  and 
tender  lover;  pious,  humane,  and  mag- 
nanimous. He  died  April  30,  1524. 

Bayard,  Thomas  Francis,  an 
American  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Wilmington.  Del.,  Oct.  29, 
1828.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1851  and  practiced  law  until  1868, 
when  he  succeeded  his  father,  James 
A.  Bayard,  in  the  United  States 
Senate.  In  the  Democratic  National 
Convention  of  1872  he  received  15 
votes  for  the  presidential  nomination, 
and  in  1880  and  18&4  his  name  was 
voted  on  in  the  National  conventions. 
In  1885  Mr.  Bayard  was  chosen  Sec- 
retary of  State,  and  in  1892,  was  ap- 
pointed United  States  Ambassador  to 
the  Court  of  St.  James,  being  the 
first  to  bear  that  title.  Mr.  Bayard 
filled  this  office  with  high  honor  to 
himself  and  his  country.  During  his 
official  residence  in  London  he  was 
the  recipient  of  marked  attentions, 
and  by  his  public  utterances  and  his 
engaging  personality  promoted  the 
best  feeling  in  both  social  and  govern- 
ment circles.  He  died  in  Dedham, 
Mass.,  Sept.  28,  1898. 

Bay  City,  city  and  capital  of  Bay 
county,  Mich.,  on  the  Saginaw  river 
and  several  railroads;  13  miles  N.  of 
Saginaw;  includes  since  1905  the 
former  city  of  West  Bay  City,  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  The 
city  is  a  port  of  entry;  is  in  a  rich 
farming  section;  and  is  engaged  in 
manufacturing,  the  salt  industry,  the 
fisheries,  and  the  cultivation  of  beet 
sugar  and  chicory.  Pop.  (1910) 
45,166. 


Baycux 

Bayenx,  an  ancient  city  of  Nor- 
mandy, in  the  French  Department  of 
Calvados,  on  the  Aure.  The  Gothic 
cathedral  —  the  oldest,  it  is  said,  in 
Normandy  —  was  rebuilt  after  a  fire 
by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1077; 
bat  the  present  edifice  dates  mainly 
from  1100  to  the  13th  century. 

Baycnx  Tapestry,  a  celebrated 
roll  of  linen  cloth  or  canvas,  214  feet 
in  length  and  20  inches  wide,  contain* 
Ing,  in  72  distinct  compartments,  a 
representation,  in  embroidery,  of  the 
events  of  the  Norman  invasion  of  Eng- 
land, from  Harold's  leave-taking  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  on  his  depart- 
ure for  Normandy,  to  the  battle  of 
Hastings.  It  contains  the  figures  of 
623  men,  202  horses,  55  dogs,  505  ani- 
mals of  various  kinds  n«t  hitherto 
enumerated,  37  buildings,  41  ships  and 
boats,  and  49  trees  —  in  all  1,512  fig- 
ures. These  are  all  executed  by  the 
needle,  and  are  believed  to  have  been 
the  handiwork  of  Matilda,  the  queen 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  by  her 
presented  to  the  Cathedral  of  Ha. you x. 
This  piec«  of  tapestry  is  exceedingly 
valuable,  lx>th  as  a  work  of  art  of  the 
referred  to,  and  as  correctly 
represent  ing  the  costume  of  the  time. 
It  has  been  engraved,  and  several 
works  upon  the  subject  nave  been  pub- 
lished. 

Bay  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the 
Bay  of  Honduras,  150  miles  8.  E.  of 
Knlizc.  The  cluster  was  proclaimed  a 
British  colony  in  1852,  but  in  1859 
they  were  ceded  to  the  Republic  of 
Honduras. 

Bayle,  Pierr«,  French  critic  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  the  son  of  a  Cal- 
vinfst  preacher,  born  at  Carlat  (Lan- 
guedoc)  in  1047,  died  at  Rotterdam 
1700.  His  chief  work  is  n  Dictionary 
of  History  and  Criticism,  which  he 
first  published  in  1««.  This  work, 
much  enlarged,  has  passed  through 
many  editions.  It  is  a  vast  store- 
house of  farts,  discussions,  and  opin- 
ions, and  though  it  was  publicly  <•< -n- 
xured  by  the  Rotterdam  consistory  for 
its  frequent  impurities,  its  pervading 
Hecptirism,  nnd  tacit  atheism,  it  long 
remained  n  favorite  l»ook  both  with 
literary  men  and  with  men  of  the 
world.  The  articlen  in  his  dictionary, 
in  themselves,  are  generally  of  little 
value,  and  serve  only  as  a  pretext  for 


Bayonet 

the  notes,  in  which  the  author  dis- 
plays, at  the  same  time,  his  learning 
and  the  power  of  his  logic. 

Bayley,  James  Roosevelt,  an 
American  theologian,  born  in  New 
York  city,  Aug.  23,  1814;  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  and  became 
minister  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church ;  but,  in  1842,  was  converted 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith ;  and,  af- 
ter studying  at  Paris  and  Rome,  be- 
came a  priest  in  1844.  After  serving 
as  secretary  to  Archbishop  Hughes,  be 
was  consecrated  the  first  Bishop  of 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1853.  In  1872  he 
became  Archbishop  of  Baltimore,  Md. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Seton  Hall 
College  and  several  other  institutions. 
He  died  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Oct.  3, 1877. 

Bayley,  William  Shirley,  an 
American  geologist,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md,  Nov.  10,  1801;  graduated  at 
Johns  Hopkins,  in  1883;  since  1887 
has  been  Assistant  Geologist  of  the 
Lake  Superior  division  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  and  since 
1886  associate  editor  of  the  "Ameri- 
can Naturalist" 

Baylor  University,  a  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Waco,  Tex. ;  now 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Baptist 
Church. 

Bayly.  Ada  Ellen,  an  English 
novelist,  best  known  as  EDNA  LYAJLL. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes,  an  Eng- 
lish song-writer  and  author;  born  in 
Bath,  Oct  13,  1797.  After  deserting 
successively  both  law  and  church,  Bay- 
ly, during  a  short  sojourn  in  Dublin, 
first  discovered  his  powers  as  a  ballad 
writer  nnd  achieved  his  earliest  suc- 
cesses. He  died  April  22,  1839. 

Baynes,  Thomas  Spencer,  an 
English  editor,  born  in  Wellington, 
Somerset,  in  1823.  He  studied  under 
Sir  William  Hamilton  at  Edinburgh, 
and  in  1804  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Chair  of  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  Meta- 
physics in  St.  Andrews  University,  a 
post  he  held  till  his  death,  in  London, 
in  1887. 

Bayonet,  a  straight  sharp-point- 
ed weapon,  generally  triangular,  in- 
tended to  be  fixed  upon  the  muzzle  of 
a  rifle  or  musket,  which  is  thus  trans- 
formed into  a  thrusting  weapon.  It 
was  probably  invented  about  1040,  in 
Bayonne  (though  this  is  doubtful). 
but  was  not  universally  introduced 


Bayonne 

until  after  the  pike  was  wholly  laid 
aside,  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. About  1690  the  bayonet  began 
to  be  fastened  by  means  of  a  socket 
to  the  outside  of  the  barrel,  instead  of 
being  inserted  as  formerly  in  the  in- 
side. A  variety  of  the  bayonet,  called 
the  sword  bayonet,  is  widely  used. 

Bayonne,  a  city  in  Hudson  county, 
N.  J.;  on  New  York  harbor.  Newark 
bay,  and  the  Contra]  Railroad  of 
New  Jersey;  7  miles  S.  W.  of  New 
York  city;  is  principally  engaged  in 
shipping  coal  and  refining  petroleum; 
and  has  a  fine  residential  section. 
Pop.  (1910)  55,545. 

Bayonne  Conference,  a  confer- 
ence held  at  Bayonne,  in  June,  1565, 
between  Charles  IX.  of  France,  the 
queen  mother,  Catherine  de  Medic-is, 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Spain,  and  the 
Duke  of  Alva,  envoy  of  Philip  II.,  to 
arrange  plans  for  the  repression  of  the 
Huguenots.  It  is  generally  believed 
that  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Day  was  determined  upon  at 
this  meeting. 

Bayonne,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of 
peace  agreed  to  May  4,  1808,  and 
signed  on  the  next  day,  between  Na- 
poleon I.  and  Charles  IV.,  King  of 
Spain.  The  latter  resigned  his  king- 
dom, and  Napoleon  I.  engaged  to  main- 
tain  its  integrity,  and  to  preserve  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  His  son, 
Ferdinand  VII.,  confirmed  the  cession 
May  10. 

Bayrenth.     See  BEYBOUT. 

Bayrlioffor,  Karl  Theodore,  a 
German  Hegelian  philosopher,  and 
radical  politician,  born  in  Marburg  in 
1812,  was  Professor  of  Philosophy 
there,  taking  the  chair  in  1845.  In 
1846  his  radical  views  caused  his  ex- 
pulsion. During  the  brief  rule  of  lib- 
eralism in  Hesse,  be  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  Chamber;  but,  in  1853. 
he  was  forced  to  flee  to  the  United 
States.  He  died  in  Jordan,  Wis.,  Feb. 
3,  1888. 

Bay  Rum,  an  aromatic,  spirituous 
liquid,  used  by  hair  dressers  and  per- 
fumers, prepared  in  the  West  Indies 
by  distilling  rum  in  which  bay  leaves 
have  been  steeped. 

Bay  Salt,  a  general  term  for 
coarse  grained  salt,  but  properly  ap- 
plied to  salt  obtained  by  spontaneous 


B  as  tan 

or  natural  evaporation  of  sea  water 
in  large  shallow  tanks  or  bays. 

Bay  Window,  a  window  projecting 
beyond  the  line  of  the  front  of  a 
house,  generally  either  in  a  semi-hex- 
agon or  semi-octagon. 

Bazaine,  Francois,  Achille,  a 
French  military  officer,  born  in  Ver- 
sailles, Feb.  13,  1811.  He  served  in 
Algeria,  in  Spain  against  the  Carlists, 
in  the  Crimean  War,  and  joined  the 
Mexican  expedition  as  general  or  di- 
vision, in  1862,  and,  in  1864,  was 
made  a  marshal  of  France.  He  com- 
manded the  3d  Army  Corps  in  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  when  he  capit- 
ulated at  Metz,  after  a  seven  weeks' 
siege,  with  an  army  of  175,000  men. 
For  this  act  he  was  tried  by  court- 
martial  in  1871,  found  guilty  of  trea- 
son and  condemned  to  death.  This 
sentence  was  commuted  to  20  years' 
seclusion  in  the  Isle  St.  Marguerite, 
from  which  he  escaped  and  retired  to 
Spain.  He  died  in  Madrid,  Sept  23, 
1888.  His  widow,  who  had  clunk 
faithfully  to  him  in  his  adversity,  and 
had  plotted  successfully  for  his  escape, 
died  in  Mexico  City,  Jan.  8,  1900. 
She  was  a  woman  of  aristocratic  birth 
and  much  beauty. 

Bazan,  Emilia  Par  do,  a  Span- 
ish author,  born  in  Coruna,  in  1852; 
published  works  on  history  and  phil- 
osophy, and  was  the  author  of  "  Stud- 
ies in  Darwinism,"  "  Saint  Francis  of 
Assisi,"  and  many  novels.  These, 
translated  into  English,  have  become 
very  popular. 

Bazar,  an  exchange;  a  market 
place;  a  place  where  goods  are  ex- 
posed for  sale.  Bazar  is  a  term  orig- 
inally derived  from  the  Arabic,  and 
literally  signifies  the  sale  or  exchange 
of  goods.  The  name  has  of  late  years 
been  adopted  in  many  American  and 
European  cities,  and  is  applied  to 
places  for  the  sale  of  fancy  goods,  etc. 

Baztan,  or  Bastan,  a  Pyrenean 
valley  in  the  extreme  N.  of  Spain; 
having  a  length  of  9  miles,  and  an 
average  breadth  of  4  miles.  It  is  in- 
habited by  about  8.000  people,  who 
form,  under  Spanish  supervision,  a 
sort  of  diminutive  republic,  at  the 
head  of  which  is  the  mayor  of  Elizon- 
do.  The  citizens  of  this  republic  rank 
with  the  Spanish  nobility  and  hold 
special  privileges,  which  were  granted 


Bdellium 

them  for  former  services  to  the  Span- 
ish crown. 

Bdellium,  in  Scripture,  is  in  He- 
brew bedholachh,  rendered  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  of  Gen.  ii:  12,  anthrax  (lit- 
erally, burning  coal).  Some  modern 
writers,  following  the  Septuagint 
translation,  make  it  a  mineral,  as  are 
the  gold  and  the  onyx  stone,  with 
which  it  is  associated  in  Gen.  ii :  12. 
Others  think  that  it  was  the  gum  de- 
scribed below;  while  the  Rabbins,  Bo- 
chart,  and  Gesenius  consider  that  it 
•was  a  pearl,  or  pearls. 

Beach,  Alfred  Ely,  an  American 
publisher  and  inventor,  born  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  in  1826;  son  of  Moses 
Yale  Beach,  editor  of  the  old  New 
York  "  Sun."  In  1846  he  established 
the  "  Scientific  American,"  in  connec- 
tion with  Orson  D.  Munn.  For  nearly 
50  years  he  was  editor  of  this  paper 
and  director  of  its  patent  business.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  Jan.  1,  1896. 

Beach,  Amy  Marcy  Cheney,  an 
American  composer,  and  one  of  the 
chief  of  the  few  women  who  are  dis- 
tinguished as  creative  musicians.  She 
was  born  in  New  Hampshire,  Sept.  5, 
1867.  Her  most  important  works  are 
"The  Gaelic  Symphony,"  for  full  or- 
chestra, a  "Jubilate,"  written  for  the 
dedication  of  the  Woman's  Building  at 
the  Chicago  Exposition,  and  a  cyclus 
of  fourteen  songs. 

Beach,  Moses  Tale,  an  American 
publisher  and  inventor,  born  1800 ; 
died  1868.  He  became  owner  of  the 
New  York  "  Sun  "  three  years  after  its 
establishment.  His  inventions  relate 
to  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  in- 
clude a  rag-cutting  machine. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli, Earl  of,  an  English  states- 
man and  author;  born  in  London, 
England,  Dec.  21,  1804 ;  the  eldest  son 
of  Isaac  D'Israeli,  the  well-known  au- 
thor of  the  "  Curiosities  of  Litera- 
ture " ;  his  mother  also  being  of  Jew- 
ish race.  Little  is  known  of  his  early 
education,  though  it  is  certain  he 
never  attended  a  public  school  or  a 
university.  In  1817  he  was  baptized 
into  the  Church  of  England.  He  ac- 
quired a  good  reputation  as  an  author, 
and  sought  eminence  in  politics. 

His  first  appointment  to  office  was 
in  1852,  when  he  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer  under  Lord  Derby.  In .' 


Beale 

February,  1868,  he  reached  the 
summit  of  his  ambition,  becoming 
premier  on  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Derby,  but  being  in  a  minority 
after  the  general  election  he  had 
i  to  give  up  office  the  following  Decem- 
i  ber.  In  1874  he  again  became  prime 
minister  with  a  strong  Conservative 
majority,  and  he  remained  in  power 
for  six  years.  This  period  was  marked 
by  his  elevation  to  the  peerage  in 
1876  as  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  and  by 
the  prominent  part  he  took  in  regard 
to  the  Eastern  question  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in 
1878,  when  he  visited  the  German 
capital. 

In  the  spring  of  1880  Parliament 
was  rather  suddenly  dissolved,  and 
the  new  Parliament  showing  an  over- 
whelming Liberal  majority,  he  re- 
signed office,  though  he  still  retained 
the  leadership  of  his  party.  Not  long 
after  this,  the  publication  of  a  novel 
called  "  Endymion  "  (his  last,  "  Lo- 
thair,"  had  been  published  10  years 
before)  showed  that  his  intellect  was 
still  vigorous.  His  physical  powers, 
however,  Were  now  giving  way,  and 
he  died  April  19,  1881,  after  an  ill- 
ness of  some  weeks'  duration.  His 
wife  had  died  in  1872  after  having 
been  created  Viscountess  Beaconsfield. 

Bead  Snake,  a  beautiful  little 
snake,  variegated  with  yellow,  car- 
mine, and  jet  black.  Though  venom- 
ous, it  rarely  uses  its  fangs.  It  is 
about  two  feet  long. 

Beagle,  a  small  hunting  dog. 

Beagle  Island,  an  island  discov- 
ered by  Admiral  Fitzroy,  during  a 
voyage  in  the  "  Beagle,"  to  survey 
Patagonia,  in  1828-1834.  The  chan- 
nel of  the  same  name  is  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  Island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Beal,  George  Lafayette,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  Nor- 
way, Me.,  May  21,  1825.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out,  he  was  captain 
of  the  Norway  Light  Infantry.  On 
Jan.  15,  1866,  he  was  mustered  out  of 
service  with  the  brevet  of  Major-Gen- 
eral of  Volunteers.  In  1880-:1885  he 
was  adjutant-general  of  Maine,  and 
in  1888-1894,  State  treasurer.  He 
died  in  Norway,  Me.,  Dec.  11,  1896. 

Beale,  Edward  Fitzgerald,  an 
American  diplomatist,  born  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  Feb.  4,  1822 ;  graduated 


Beale 

at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1842,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Mexican  War  was  assigned  to  duty  in 
California,  under  Commodore  Stock- 
ton. After  the  war,  he  resigned  his 
naval  commission  and  was  appointed 
Superintendent  of  Indian  Affairs  for 
California  and  New  Mexico.  He  was 
commissioned  a  Brigadier-General  in 
the  army  by  President  Pierce.  He 
served  in  the  Union  army  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  at  its  close  engaged  in  stock 
raising  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  till  1876, 
when  President  Grant  appointed  him 
United  States  Minister  to  Austria. 
He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  April 
22,  1893. 

Beale,  Lionel  Smith,  an  English 
physiologist  and  microscopist,  born  in 
London,  Feb.  5,  1828.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirur- 
gical,  the  Microscopical,  and  other 
English  and  foreign  societies,  and  is 
the  author  of  a  number  of  medical  and 
scientific  works. 

Beall,  John  Young,  a  Confeder- 
ate guerilla,  born  in  Virginia,  Jan.  1, 
1835 ;  was  appointed  an  acting  master 
in  the  Confederate  naval  service  in 
1863.  On  Sept  19,  1864,  he  and  a 
number  of  followers  were  shipped  on 
the  Lake  Erie  steamer  "  Philo  Par- 
sons "  as  passengers,  and  at  a  given 
signal,  took  possession  of  the  vessel, 
making  prisoners  of  the  crew.  They 
also  scuttled  another  boat,  the  "  Isl- 
and Queen,"  and  tried  to  wreck  a 
railroad  train  near  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  In 
spite  of  a  proclamation  of  Jefferson 
Davis  assuming  the  responsibility  of 
this  expedition,  Beall  was  hanged  on 
Governor's  Island,  New  York,  Feb. 
24,  1865,  on  the  ground  that,  if  act- 
ing under  orders,  he  should  have 
shown  some  badge  of  authority. 

Beam,  a  long,  straight  and  strong 
piece  of  wood,  iron,  or  steel,  especially 
when  holding  an  important  place  in 
some  structure,  and  serving  for  sup- 
port or  consolidation  ;  often  equivalent 
to  girder.  In  a  balance  it  is  the  part 
from  the  ends  of  which  the  scales  are 
suspended.  In  a  loom  it  is  a  cylin- 
drical piece  of  wood  on  which  weavers 
wind  the  warp  before  weaving;  also, 
the  cylinder  on  which  the  cloth  is 
rolled  as  it  is  woven.  In  a  ship,  one 
of  the  strong  transverse  pieces  stretch- 
ing across  from  one  side  to  the  other 


Bean 

to  support  the  decks  and  retain  the 
sides  at  their  proper  distance ;  hence, 
a  ship  is  said  to  be  on  her  beam  ends 
when  lying  over  on  her  side. 

Beaming,  the  art  of  winding  the 
web  on  the  weaver's  beam  in  a  manner 
suitable  for  weaving,  with  regard  to 
firmness  and  evenness.  It  is  to  some 
extent  a  special  employment,  followed 
by  workmen  trained  as  beamers. 

Bean,  a  well  known  cultivated 
plant  which  may  be  primarily  divided 
into  the  garden  bean  and  the  field 
bean.  Of  the  former,  there  are  numer- 
ous sub-varieties.  The  earliest  is  the 
mazagan,  which  is  small  seeded ;  while 
the  largest  is  the  Windsor.  The  field 
bean  runs  into  two  leading  sub-varie- 
ties, a  larger  and  a  smaller  one.  The 
navy  bean  is  the  common  white  bean 
used  as  an  article  of  diet. 

The  word  is  also  applied  to  any 
leguminous  plant  resembling  a  bean, 
though  not  of  the  genuine  genus.  Such, 
for  example,  as  the  Florida  bean, 
which  is  the  seed,  not  the  fruit,  of  a 
West  Indian  plant.  These  seeds  are 
washed  up  on  the  Florida  shore,  and 
are  sometimes  used  as  food,  and  some- 
times they  are  polished  and  used  as 
ornaments. 

Bean,  Nehemiah  S.,  an  Ameri- 
can inventor,  born  in  Gilmanton,  N. 
H.,  in  1818;  learned  the  machinist's 
trade.  In  the  winter  of  1857-1858  he 
built  his  first  steam  fire  engine,  which 
he  named  the  "  Lawrence,  and  sold 
it  to  the  city  of  Boston.  In  1859  be 
took  the  management  of  the  Amos- 
keag  Locomotive  Works  in  Manches- 
ter, where  he  had  been  employed  in 
1847-1850.  During  1859  he  built  the 
"  Amoskeag  Steam  Fire  Engine,  No. 
1,"  the  first  of  a  class  of  engines  which 
now  is  used  everywhere.  He  died  in 
Manchester,  N.  H.,  July  20,  1896. 

Bean,  Tarleton  Hoffman,  an 
American  ichthyologist,  born  in  Bain- 
bridge,  Pa.,  Oct.  8,  1846 ;  graduated  at 
Columbian  University  in  Washington, 
in  1876.  He  was  curator  of  the  De- 
partment of  Fishes,  United  States 
National  Museum,  in  1880-1895; 
represented  the  United  States  Fish 
Commission  at  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition  in  1893,  and  at  At- 
lanta in  1895.  Paris  in  1900,  and  St. 
Louis  in  1904;  became  New  York 
State  Fish  Culturist  in  1906. 


Bear 

Bear,  the  English  name  of  the  va- 
rious species  of  plantigrade  mammals 
belonging  to  the  ursus  and  some  neigh- 
boring genera.  The  term  plantigrade, 
applied  to  the  bears,  intimates  that 
they  walk  on  the  soles  of  their  feet; 
not,  like  the  digitigrade  animals,  on 
their  toes.  Though  having  six  incisor 
teeth  in  each  jaw,  like  the  rest  of  the 
carnivora,  yet  the  tubercular  crowns 
of  the  molar  teeth  show  that  their  food 
is  partly  vegetable.  They  grub  up 
roots,  and,  when  they  can  obtain  it, 
greedily  devour  honey.  They  hiber- 
nate in  winter.  The  best  known  spe- 
cies is  ursus  arctos,  the  brown  bear, 
the  one  sometimes  seen  dancing  to  the 
amusement  r*f  children  in  the  streets. 
They  are  wild  in  this  country,  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  in  Asia. 
The  grizzly  bear,  black  bear  and  Polar 
bear  are  well  known  in  menageries. 

In  Stock  Exchange  parlance,  a 
bear  is  one  who  contracts  to  sell  on  a 
specified  day  certain  stock  not  be- 
longing to  him,  at  the  market  price 
then  prevailing,  on  receiving  imagi- 
nary payment  for  them  at  the  rate 
which  obtains  when  the  promise  was 
maJe.  It  now  becomes  his  interest 
that  the  stock  on  which  he  has  specu- 
lated should  fall  in  price ;  and  he  is 
tempted  to  effect  this  end  by  circulat- 
ing adverse  rumors  regarding  it ;  while 
the  purchaser,  called  a  "  bull,"  sees  it 
to  his  advantage  to  make  it  rise.  The 
origin  of  the  term  is  uncertain. 

In  astronomy,  the  word  is  applied 
to  one  or  other  of  two  constellations, 
Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor,  called 
respectively  the  Great  Bear  and  the 
Little  Bear.  When  the  word  Bear 
stands  alone,  it  signifies  Ursa  Major. 

Beard,  the  hair  that  grows  on  the 
chin,  lips,  and  adjacent  parts  of  the 
face  of  men,  and  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  of  women.  Its  growth  is  the 
distinctive  sign  of  manhood. 

Beard,  Daniel  Carter,  an  Amer- 
ican artist  and  author,  born  in  Cincin- 
nati, O.,  June  21,  1850 ;  first  engaged 
in  civil  engineering,  but  later  stud- 
ied art  and  has  since  become 
known  as  a  Book  and  magazine  illus- 
trator. He  founded  and  became  teach- 
er of  the  Department  of  Animal  Draw- 
ing in  the  Woman's  School  of  Applied 
Design,  believed  to  be  the  first  class 
of  this  character  in  the  world. 


Bear  Lake 

Beard,  George  Miller,  an  Amer- 
ican physician  and  hygienic  writer, 
born  at  Montville,  Conn.,  May  8, 
1839 ;  made  a  specialty  of  the  study  of 
stimulants  and  narcotics,  hypnotism, 
spiritualism,  etc.  He  died  in  New 
York,  Jan.  23,  1883. 

Beard,  Henry,  an  American  paint- 
er, born  in  Ohio,  in  1841 ;  son  of 
James  Henry  Beard,  and  nephew  of 
William  Holbrook  Beard ;  served  in 
the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
War;  and,  after  his  removal  to  New 
York  city,  in  1877,  was  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  illustrating  books  and  period- 
icals. He  died  in  New  York,  Nov.  19, 
1889. 

Beard,  James  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican painter,  born  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
in  1814.  In  his  childhood  his  parents 
removed  to  Ohio.  He  became  a  por- 
trait painter  in  Cincinnati,  and  paint- 
ed the  portraits  of  Henry  Clay  and 
other  distinguished  men.  He  died  in 
Flushing,  N.  Y.,  April  4,  1893. 

Beard,  William  Holbrook,  an 
American  painter,  born  in  Paines- 
ville,  O.,  April  13,  1825;  brother  of 
James  H.  Beard ;  was  a  traveling  por- 
trait painter  from  1846  till  1851, 
when  he  settled  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  He 
made  many  studies  of  decorative  archi- 
tecture. He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Feb.  20,  1900. 

Beard  Moss,  a  lichen  of  gray 
color,  forming  a  shaggy  coat  on  many 
forest  trees. 

Beardsley,  Aubrey,  an  English 
author  and  illustrator,  born  in  Bright- 
on, in  1874;  died  in  Mentone,  France, 
March  16,  1898. 

Beardsley,  Samuel,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Hoosic,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  9, 
1790.  He  became  Associate  Judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  New  York  in 
1844,  and  three  years  later  succeeded 
Judge  Bronson  as  Chief  Justice.  On 
his  retirement  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  practice  of  his  profession.  He  died 
in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  May  6,  1860. 

Bearer  Company,  a  British  or- 
ganization for  removing  wounded  sol- 
diers from  the  field  of  battle  to  the 
dressing  station  or  temporary  hospital. 

Bear  Lake,  Great,  an  extensive 
sheet  of  fresh  water  in  the  Northwest 
Territory  of  Canada. 


Bear  River 

Bear  River,  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  400  miles  long ;  rises  in  the  N. 
of  Utah,  and  flows  N.  into  Idaho; 
turns  abruptly  S.,  re-enters  Utah,  and 
empties  into  Great  Salt  Lake. 

Bear's  Grease,  the  fat  of  bears, 
esteemed  as  of  great  efficacy  in  nour- 
ishing and  promoting  the  growth  of 
hair.  The  unguents  sold  under  this 
name,  however,  are  in  a  great  measure 
made  of  hog's  lard  or  veal  fat,  or  a 
mixture  of  both,  scented  and  slightly 
colored. 

Beast  Fables,  stories  in  which 
animals  play  human  parts,  a  widely 
spread  primitive  form  of  literature, 
often  surviving  in  more  or  less  devel- 
oped forms  in  the  more  advanced  civ- 
ilizations. 

Beat,  in  music,  the  beating  or  pul- 
sation resulting  from  the  joint  vibra- 
tions of  two  sounds  of  the  same 
strength,  and  all  but  in  unison.  Also 
a  short  shake  or  transient  grace-note 
struck  immediately  before  the  note  it 
is  intended  to  ornament. 

Beatification,  in  general,  the  act 
of  rendering  supremely  blessed,  also 
the  state  of  being  rendered  supremely 
blessed.  In  a  special  sense  an  act  by 
which  the  Pope  declares,  on  evidence 
which  he  considers  himself  to  possess, 
that  a  certain  deceased  person  is  in 
the  enjoyment  of  supreme  felicity  in 
Heaven.  It  is  the  first  step  toward 
canonization,  but  it  is  not  canoniza- 
tion itself. 

Beaton,  David,  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrew's,  Scotland,  born 
in  1494.  He  became  Abbot  of  Arb- 
roath  in  1525,  Lord  Privy  Seal  three 
years  later,  was  sent  on  several  mis- 
sions to  France,  received  a  cardinal's 
hat  in  1538,  and  in  the  following  year 
became  Primate.  On  the  death  of 
James  V.,  he,  by  craft  and  determina- 
tion, secured  to  himself  the  chief  pow- 
er in  Church  and  State,  being  named 
Lord  High  Chancellor  of  Scotland, 
and  Papal  Legate.  He  opposed  an 
alliance  with  England,  and  especially 
distinguished  himself  as  a  persecutor 
of  the  Reformers.  The  trial  and  burn- 
ing of  George  Wishart  for  heresy  took 
place  under  his  direction,  and,  a  short 
time  afterward  Beaton  was  assassinat- 
ed at  St.  Andrew's,  in  May,  1546. 
With  his  death,  church  tyranny  came 
to  an  end  in  Scotland. 


Beaufort 

Seattle,  James,  a  Scottish  poet 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  born  at 
Laureucekirk,  Kincardineshire,  Oct. 
25,  1735.  In  1765  he  published  a 
poem,  the  "Judgment  of  Paris,"  and 
in  1770  his  celebrated  "Essay  on 
Truth,"  for  which  the  University  of 
Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
LL.  D. ;  and  George  III.  honored  him, 
when  on  a  visit  to  London,  with  a 
private  conference  and  a  pension.  He 
died  in  Aberdeen,  Aug.  18,  1803. 

Beatty,  Sir  David,  a  British  nav- 
al officer  born  in  Cheshire,  -England, 
Jan.  17,  1871 ;  was  appointed  a  naval 
cadet  in  1884 ;  became  a  lieutenant  in 
1892 ;  accompanied  Lord  Kitchener's 
expedition  to  Egypt ;  was  in  China  at 
the  Boxer  uprising ;  was  promoted  to 
rear-admiral  in  1910  and  vice-admiral 
in  1914;  won  the  first  sea  battle  in 
the  World  War  off  Helgoland  Bight ; 
and  commanded  the  battle-cruiser  di- 
vision of  the  British  fleet  in  the  great 
naval  battle  off  Jutland,  May  31, 
1916.  Sir  David  married  Ethel,  only 
daughter  of  the  late  Marshall  Field  of 
Chicago.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Beatty,  John,  an  American  legis- 
lator, born  in  Bucks  county,  Pa.,  Dec. 
19,  1749 ;  was  educated  at  Princeton, 
and  took  up  the  study  of  medicine 
with  Dr.  Rush  of  Philadelphia.  He 
fought  with  distinction  through  the 
Revolutionary  War,  reaching  the  rank 
of  Colonel;  was  Delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1783-1785; 
Speaker  of  the  House;  served  in  the 
convention  which  adopted  the  Fed- 
eral Constitution ;  was  a  member  of 
Congress  in  1793-1795 ;  and  Secretary 
of  State  of  New  Jersey  in  1795-1805. 
He  died  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  AprU  30, 
1826. 

Beatty,  John,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer,  born  near  Sandusky,  O., 
Dec.  16,  1828.  He  fought  on  the 
Union  side  in  the  Civil  War,  rising 
from  private  to  Brigadier-General, 
and  showing  intrepid  courage  at  Stone 
River,  1862-1863.  He  was  a  member 
of  Congress  in  1868-1874;  Repub- 
lican Presidential  Elector-at-Large  in 
1884 ;  and  author  of  "  High  Tariff  or 
Low  Tariff,  Which?"  He  died  Dec. 
21,  1914. 

Beaufort,  Margaret,  an  English 
countess,  born  in  1441 ;  daughter  of 
John,  first  Duke  of  Somerset,  and 


Beanharnais 

mother  of  Henry  VII.,  King  oi  Eng- 
land. In  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  she 
and  her  son,  Henry,  became  more  or 
less  dangerous  to  the  Yorkists  and 
were  for  a  long  time  in  retirement  or 
exile.  Henry  was  attainted  by  a  Par- 
liament under  Richard  III.,  and  Mar- 
garet's estates  forfeited.  After  the 
accession  of  her  son  as  Henry  VII. 
she  took  no  part  in  public  affairs.  Her 
life  forms  one  of  the  romantic  episodes 
of  English  history.  She  was  devoutly 
religious,  and  founded  several  religious 
institutions. 

Beauharnais,  Eugene  de,  Viceroy 
of  Italy,  and  a  Prince  of  the  French 
Empire,  son  of  Alexandre  de  Beau- 
harnais and  Josephine,  born  in  Paris 
in  1781.  After  his  mother's  marriage 
to  Napoleon,  he,  in  1796,  became  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  latter,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  the  campaigns  of  Italy 
and  Egypt  Beauharnais  was  wound- 
ed at  Acre,  contributed  to  the  victory 
of  Marengo,  was  created  Prince  of  the 
Empire  in  1805,  and  Viceroy  of  Italy. 
In  1806,  he  married  the  Princess  Ama- 
lie  Augusta,  of  Bavaria,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  adopted  by  the  Em- 
peror as  his  son,  and  appointed  gover- 
nor of  Lombardy  and  Venice.  He 
served  in  the  campaign  of  1809,  de- 
feated the  Austrians  at  Raab,  and 
distinguished  himself  at  Wagram.  His 
military  talents  were  particularly 
evinced  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow, 
and  in  the  following  campaigns  of 
1813-1814.  To  Beauharnais  may  be 
mainly  ascribed  the  victory  of  Lutzen. 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  he  retired 
to  Munich,  was  allowed,  by  the  Treaty 
of  Fontainebleau  and  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  to  retain  his  extensive  posses- 
sions in  Italy,  and  took  his  place  as 
Duke  of  Leuchtenberg  among  the  Ba- 
varian nobles.  His  children  subse- 
quently ranked  as  members  of  the  im- 
perial family  of  Russia.  He  died  Feb. 
21,  1824. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Angus- 
tin,  Baron  de,  born  in  Paris,  Jan. 
24,  1732.  He  was  a  mar  of  singular 
versatility  of  talent,  being  by  turns 
politician,  artist,  dramatist,  and  mer- 
chant. At  the  beginning  of  the  Amer- 
ican War  of  Independence  (1777), 
Beaumarchais  entered  into  a  specula- 
tion for  supplying  the  colonies  with 
arms,  ammunition,  etc. ;  he  lost  sev- 
eral vessels,  three  of  which  were  taken 


Beauregard 

in  one  day  by  the  English  cruisers  in 
coming  out  of  the  river  of  Bordeaux, 
but  the  greater  number  arrived  in 
America,  and  inspired  the  colonists 
with  renewed  hope.  He  died  in  Paris. 
May  18,  1799. 

Beaumont,  city  and  capital  of 
Jefferson  county,  Tex.;  on  the  Neches 
river  and  the  Gulf  &  Interstate  and 
other  railroads;  30  miles  N.  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  is  in  a  region 
abounding  in  petroleum  and  yellow 
pine  and  cypress  forests;  raises  con- 
siderable rice;  ships  large  quantities 
of  lumber  and  shingles;  and  has  rice, 
saw,  shingle,  stave,  and  heading 
mills,  foundry  and  machine  shops, 
and  car  works.  Pop.  (1910)  20,640. 

Beaumont,  a  picturesque  town  in 
N.  France,  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Meuse,  12  miles  E.  by  S.  of  the  bat- 
tlefield of  Sedan  and  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  Belgian  border.  It  was 
conspicuous  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
war  of  1870,  and  later  in  the  great 
World  War.  See  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Beaumont,  Francis,  and  Fletch- 
er, John,  two  eminent  English  dra- 
matic writers,  contemporaries  of 
Shakespeare,  and  the  most  famous 
of  literary  partners.  The  former  was 
born  at  Grace-Dieu,  in  Leicestershire, 
in  1584.  At  the  age  of  16  he  pub- 
lished a  translation,  in  verse,  of  Ovid's 
fable  of  "  Salmacis  and  Hermaphrodi- 
tus."  He  died  March  6,  1616,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
JOHN  FLETCHEB  was  born  at  Rye, 
Sussex,  in  December,  1579.  His 
father  was  successively  Dean  of  Peter- 
borough, Bishop  of  Bristol,  Worcester, 
and  London.  The  "  Woman  Hater," 
produced  in  1606-1607,  is  the  earliest 
work  known  to  exist  in  which  he  had 
a  hand.  He  died  in  1625. 

Beaumont,  William,  an  Ameri- 
can surgeon,  born  in  Lebanon,  Conn., 
in  1785.  His  experiments  on  diges- 
tion with  the  Canadian  St.  Martin, 
who  lived  for  years  after  receiving  a 
gunshot  wound  in  the  stomach  which 
left  an  aperture  of  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  were  of  great  importance 
to  physiological  science.  He  died  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  April  25,  1853. 

Beau  regard,  Pierre  Gust  are 
Toutant,  an  American  military  offi- 
cer, born  in  St.  Martin's  parish,  La., 


Beaux 

May  28,  1818;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  and 
appointed  a  brevet  Second  Lieutenant 
of  Artillery  in  1838.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Mexican  War, 
where  he  won  the  brevet  of  Major. 
He  resigned  his  commission  after 
the  secession  of  Louisiana  in  Feb- 
ruary'following;  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Confederate  forces 
at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  there 
opened  the  hostilities  of  the  Civil  War 
by  bombarding  Fort  Sumter,  on  April 
11.  After  the  evacuation  of  the  fort 
by  Major  Anderson,  General  Beaure- 
gard  was  transferred  to  Virginia, 
where  he  commanded  the  Confederate 
forces  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  on 
July  21.  In  March,  1862,  he  was  or- 
dered to  the  Army  of  the  Mississippi, 
under  Gen.  Albert  S.  Johnston,  and  in  ' 
April  following  fought  the  battle  of 
Shiloh,  gaining  a  victory  over  the  Na- 
tional forces  the  first  day,  but  being 
defeated  by  General  Grant  on  the  sec- 
ond day.  Failing  health  kept  him 
from  active  duty  till  June,  1863,  when 
he  took  charge  of  the  defense  of 
Charleston  against  the  combined  land 
and  naval  forces.  He  remained  in 
command  there  till  April,  1864,  when 
he  was  ordered  to  Richmond  to 
strengthen  its  defenses.  On  May  16, 
he  attacked  General  Butler  in  front 
of  Drury's  Bluff,  and  forced  him  back 
to  his  intrencbments  between  the 
James  and  the  Appomattox  rivers. 
He  attempted  to  aid  General  Jo- 
seph E.  Johnston  in  opposing  Gen- 
eral Sherman,  but  in  April  surren- 
dered with  the  former  to  the  latter. 
lAiter  the  war  he  became  president  of 
the  New  Orleans,  Jackson  and  Missis- 
sippi Railroad  Company,  Adjutant- 
General  of  the  State,  and  a  manager 
of  the  Louisiana  State  Lottery.  In 
1866  the  chief  command  of  the  Ru- 
manian army  was  tendered  him,  and 
in  1869  that  of  the  army  of  the 
Khedive  of  Egypt,  both  of  which  he 
declined.  He  died  in  New  Orleans, 
Feb.  20,  1893. 

Beaux,  Cecilia,  an  American  art- 
ist, born  in  Philadelphia  about  1877. 
She  won  nearly  every  prize  for  which 
she  competed  in  America,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  in 
1892,  and  also  of  the  Soci£te  des 
Beaux-Arts  in  Paris.  Her  work  is 
exclusively  portraiture. 


Beaver 

Beaver,  a  quadruped  "of  the  order 
Rodentia,  or  gnawers,  the  only  species 
of  its  genus.  It  is  very  widely  dis- 


BEAVEB. 

tributed,  being  found  in  the  N.  parts 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  nowa- 
days most  abundantly  in  the  N.  and 
thinly  peopled  parts  of  North  Amer- 
ica, dwelling  in  communities  on  the 
banks  of  rivers  and  lakes. 

At  one  time  immense  numbers  of 
these  animals  were  killed  for  their  fur, 
which  was  largely  used  in  making 
hats,  but  in  more  recent  times  they 
have  suffered  less  persecution  on  this 
account,  their  fur  now  not  being  held 
in  the  same  estimation. 

The  beaver  is  about  two  feet  in 
length;  its  body  thick  and  heavy;  the 
head  compressed,  and  somewhat 
arched  at  the  front,  the  upper  part 
rather  narrow;  the  snout  much  so. 
The  eyes  are  placed  rather  high  on 
the  head,  and  the  pupils  are  rounded; 
the  ears  are  short,  elliptical,  and  al- 
most concealed  by  the  fur.  The  skin 
is  covered  by  two  sorts  of  hair,  of 
which  one  is  long,  rather  stiff,  elastic, 
and  of  a  gray  color  for  two-thirds  of 
its  length  next  the  base,  and  termin- 
ated by  shining,  reddish-brown  points ; 
the  other  is  short,  thick,  tufted,  and 
soft,  being  of  different  shades  of  sil- 
ver-gray or  light  lead  color.  The  hair 
is  shortest  on  the  head  and  feet.  The 
hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  fore,  and 
are  completely  webbed.  The  tail  is 
10  or  11  inches  long,  and,  except  the 
part  nearest  the  body,  is  covered  with 
hexagonal  scales. 


Bcauvais 

Beauvais,  a  town  of  N.  France,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Therain  and  Ave- 
lon,  49  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Paris.  It 
was  besieged  by  the  English  in  1346 
and  1433,  and  by  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy in  1472,  and  was  in  the  field 
of  operations  during  the  World  War. 
See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Beaver,  James  Ad  dams,  an 
American  military  officer  and  states- 
man, born  in  Millerstown,  Pa.,  Oct. 

21,  1837 ;  was  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College,    Canonsburg,    Pa.,    in    1856; 
and  studied  law  with  H.  N.  McAllis- 
ter, Bellefonte,  Pa.,  whose  partner  he 
afterward  became.     On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  made  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel of  the  45th   Pennsyl- 
vania    Volunteers.      At    the    battle 
of     Ream's     Station,     he     was     se- 
verely wounded  and  lost  a  leg;  and 
was  retired  with  the  rank  of  Brig- 
adier-General   of    Volunteers     (Dec. 

22,  1864).      He    then    resumed    the 
practice  of  law ;  became  Major-Gen- 
eral of  the   Pennsylvania   State   Mi- 
litia ;  was  defeated  as  a  Republican 
«andidate    for     Governor    in    1882 ; 
elected    in    1887;    President    of    the 
Board     of   Trustees     of     the     Penn- 
sylvania State  College;  Vice-Modera- 
tor of  the  Presbyterian  General  As- 
sembly in  1888  and  1895 ;  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Commission  on  Investiga- 
tion of  the  War  Department  in  1898. 
He  died  Jan.  31,  1914. 

Bebeerine,  in  chemistry,  an  un- 
crystallizable  basic  substance,  extract- 
ed from  the  bark  of  the  greenheart 
tree  of  Guiana.  In  pharmacy,  the 
sulphate  of  bebeerine  is  a ^ very  yalu- 
ble  medicine,  being  used  like  quinine 
as  a  tonic  and  febrifuge. 

Bebek,  a  beautiful  bay  on  the 
European  side  of  the  Bosphorus,  with 
a  palace  of  the  Sultan,  known  as  the 
Humayunabad,  and  built  in  1725. 

Bebel,  Ferdinand  August,  a 
German  Socialist,  born  in  Cologne  in 
1840.  He  settled  in  Leipsic  in  1860, 
joined  various  labor  organizations, 
and  became  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "Volkstaat"  and  the  better 
known  "  Vorwarts."  Membership  in 
the  North  German  Reichstag  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  election  to  the  German 
Reichstag,  of  which  he  was  a  member 
from  1871  to  1881,  and  which  he  en- 
tered again  in  1883.  He  died  Aug.  13, 
1913. 


Becker 

Bee,  a  celebrated  abbey  of  France, 
in  Normandy,  near  Brionne,  now  rep- 
resented only  by  some  ruins.  Lan- 
f  ranc  and  Anselm  were  both  connected 
with  this  abbey. 

Beccaria,  Cesare  Bonesana, 
Marquis  de,  an  Italian  political 
philosopher,  born  at  Milan,  March  15, 
1738.  He  is  chiefly  known  as  author 
of  the  celebrated  "Treatise  on  Crimes 
and  Punishments,"  which  first  appear- 
ed in  1764,  and  advocated  great  re- 
forms in  criminal  legislation.  He  died 
in  Milan,  Nov.  28,  1794. 

Becerra,  Caspar,  a  Spanish 
painter  and  sculptor,  born  in  1520. 
He  studied  under  Michael  Angelo  at 
Rome,  and  is  credited  with  the  chief 
share  in  the  establishment  of  the  fine 
arts  in  Spain.  He  died  in  1570. 

Beche,  Sir  Henry,  an  English 
geologist,  born  in  1796.  He  founded 
the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Brit- 
ain, which  was  soon  undertaken  by 
the  Government,  De  la  Beche  being 
appointed  director  general.  He  also 
founded  the  Museum  of  Practical  Ge- 
ology, and  the  School  of  Mines.  He 
died  in  1855. 

Bechnanaland,  an  extensive  tract 
in  South  Africa,  inhabited  by  the  Be- 
chuanas,  extending  from  28°  S.  lat.  to 
the  Zambesi,  and  from  20°  E.  long,  to 
the  Transvaal  border.  The  colony 
was  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  and  the 
protectorate  placed  under  a  British 
commissioner  in  1895. 

Beck,  James  Burnie,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  in  Dumfriesshire, 
Scotland,  Feb.  13,  1822;  came  to  the 
United  States  when  a  youth,  and  set- 
tled in  Kentucky.  He  was  elected  a 
Democratic  Representative  to  Con- 
gress in  1866,  1868,  1870,  and  1872, 
and  United  States  Senator  in  1876, 
1882,  and  1888.  He  died  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  May  3,  1890. 

Beck,  James  Montgomery,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  July  9,  1861 ;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1884 ;  and  was  assistant 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
in  ISge-^OO.  During  the  World  War 
he  published  a  number  of  critical  re- 
views of  conditions  which  attracted 
wide  attention. 

Becker,  George  Ferdinand,  an 
American  geologist,  born  in  New 
York,  Jan.  5, 1847 ;  graduated  at  Har- 


Becker 

vard  University  in  1868;  was  Instruc- 
tor of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  the 
University  of  California  in  1875- 
1879;  attached  to  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  since  1879,  and 
Special  Agent  of  the  10th  Census, 
1879-1883.  He  was  appointed  a  spe- 
cial agent  to  examine  into  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  Philippine  Islands  in 
1898. 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand,  a 
German  musician,  born  in  Leipsic, 
July  17,  1804;  died  in  Leipsic,  Oct. 
26,  18771 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand,  a  Ger- 
man philologist,  born  in  Liser,  April 
14,  1775;  died  in  Offenbach,  Sept.  5, 
1849. 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrick,  a  Ger- 
man historical  writer,  born  in  Berlin, 
1777 ;  wrote  various  popular  works 
on  historical  topics.  He  died  in  Ber- 
lin, March  15,  1800. 

Becket,  Thomas,  the  most  cele- 
brated Roman  Catholic  prelate  in  the 
English  annals ;  born  in  London  in 
1117  or  1118.  He  was  the  son  of 
Gilbert,  a  London  merchant.  His 
mother  is  said  to  have  been  a  Saracen 
lady,  to  whose  father  Gilbert  was  pris- 
oner in  Jerusalem,  having  become  a ! 
captive  during  the  Crusades.  The 
lady  is  said  to  have  fallen  in  love  with 
the  prisoner,  to  have  assisted  him  in 
obtaining  his  liberty  ,  and  afterwards 
to  have  followed  him  to  London, 
where  she  found  him  with  the  greatest 
difficulty.  After  studying  at  Oxford 
and  Paris,  Becket  studied  civil  law 
at  Bologna,  Italy,  and  returning  to 
England  was  made  Archdeacon  of  Can- 
terbury and  Provost  of  Beverly. 

In  1158  Becket  was  appointed  high- 
chancellor,  and  at  this  time  was  a 
complete  courtier,  conforming  in  every 
respect  to  the  humor  of  the  king. 
Henry  II.  raised  his  favorite  to  the 
primacy,  on  the  presumption  that  he 
would  aid  him  in  those  political  views, 
in  respect  to  Church  power,  which  all 
the  sovereigns  of  the  Norman  line  em- 
braced, and  which,  in  fact,  caused  a 
continual  struggle  till  its  termination 
by  Henry  VIII. 

Becket  was  consecrated  archbishop 
in  1162,  and  immediately  affected  an 
austerity  of  character  which  formed 
a  very  natural  prelude  to  the  part 
which  he  meant  to  play.  Pope  Alex- 


Becket 

ander  III.  held  a  general  council  at 
Tours  in  1163,  at  which  Becket  at- 
tended and  made  a  formal  complaint 
of  the  infringements  by  the  laity  on 
the  rights  and  immunities  of  the 
Church.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
began  to  act  in  the  spirit  of  this  rep- 
resentation, and  to  prosecute  several 
of  the  nobility  and  others  holding 
Church  possessions,  whom  he  also  pro- 
ceeded to  excommunicate.  Finding 
himself  the  object  of  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure, he  soon  after  attempted  to 
escape  to  France ;  but  being  intercept- 
ed, Henry,  in  a  Parliament  at  North- 
ampton, charged  him  with  a  violation 
of  his  allegiance,  and  all  his  goods 
were  confiscated. 

After  much  negotiation  a  sort  of 
reconciliation  took  place  in  1170,  on 
the  whole  to  the  advantage  of  Becket, 
who,  being  restored  to  his  see,  with 
all  his  former  privileges,  behaved  on 
the  occasion  with  excessive  haughti- 
ness. After  a  triumphal  entry  into 
Canterbury  the  young  Prince  Henry, 
crowned  during  the  lifetime  of  his 
father,  transmitted  him  an  order  to  re- 
store the  suspended  and  excommuni- 
cated prelates,  which  he  refused  to  do, 
on  the  pretence  that  the  Pope  alone 
could  grant  the  favor,  though  the  lat- 
ter had  lodged  the  instruments  of  cen- 
sure in  his  hands. 

The  deposed  prelates  thereupon  im« 
mediately  appealed  to  Henry  in  Nor- 
mandy, who  in  a  state  of  extreme  ex- 
asperation exclaimed,  "  What  an  un- 
happy prince  am  I,  who  have  not 
about  me  one  man  of  spirit  enough  to 
rid  me  of  a  single  insolent  prelate,  the 
perpetual  trouble  of  my  life !  "  These 
rash  and  too  significant  words  in- 
duced four  of  the  attendant  barons, 
Reginald  Fitz-Urse,  William  de  Tracy, 
Hugh  de  Morville,  and  Richard  Brete, 
to  resolve  to  wipe  out  the  king's  re- 
proach. Having  laid  their  plans,  they 
forthwith  proceeded  to  Canterbury, 
and  having  formally  required  the  arch- 
bishop to  restore  the  suspended  prel- 
ates, they  returned  in  the  evening  of 
the  same  day  (Dec.  29,  1170),  and 
placinc  soldiers  in  the  courtyard, 
rushed  with  their  swords  drawn  into 
the  cathedral,  where  the  archbishop 
was  at  vespers,  and  advancing  toward 
him  threatened  him  with  death  if  he 
still  disobeyed  the  orders  of  Henry. 
Becket,  without  the  least  tokei>  of 


Beckwith 


Bede 


fear,  replied  that  he  was  ready  to  die 
for  the  rights  of  the  Church;  and 
magnanimously  added,  "  I  charge  you 
in  the  name  of  the  Almighty,  not  to 
hurt  any  other  person  here,  for  none 
of  them  have  been  concerned  in  the 
late  transactions."  The  confederates 
then  strove  to  drag  him  out  of  the 
church;  but  not  being  able  to  do  so, 
On  account  of  his  resolute  deportment, 
they  killed  him  on  the  spot  with  re- 
peated wounds,  all  which  he  endured 
without  a  groan. 

Thus  perished  Thomas  Becket  in 
his  52d  year,  a  martyr  to  the  cause 
which  he  espoused,  and  a  man  of  un- 
questionable vigor  of  intellect.  He 
was  canonized  two  years  after  his 
death.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
his  body  was  taken  up  and  placed  in  a 
magnificent  shrine  erected  by  Arch- 
bishop Stephen  Langton;  and  of  the 
popularity  of  the  pilgrimages  to  his 
tomb  the  "  Canterbury  Tales "  of 
Chaucer  will  prove  an  enduring  testi- 
mony. 

Beckwitli,  Sir  George,  an  Eng- 
lish military  officer,  born  in  1753. 
His  scene  of  action  was  largely  in 
America  —  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  West  Indies.  He  fought  with  the 
English  in  the  American  Revolution 
in  1776-1782,  and  was  intrusted  with 
important  diplomatic  commissions  in 
1782-1791,  as  there  was  then  no  Brit- 
ish Minister  to  the  United  States.  In 
1804,  he  was  made  governor  of  St. 
Vincent,  and  four  years  later  gov- 
ernor of  Barbadoes.  As  England  was 
then  at  war  with  France,  he  organ- 
ized an  expedition  and  conquered  Mar- 
tinique, for  which  he  obtained  the 
thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Later  (1810)  he  conquered  Guade- 
loupe, the  last  possession  of  the 
French  in  that  part  of  the  world. 
When  he  returned  to  England,  after 
nine  years'  service  in  the  West  In- 
dies, a  set  of  silver  plate  was  given 
to  him  by  the  legislature  of  the  Bar- 
badoes, and  the  King  conferred  upon 
him  armorial  distinction.  He  died  in 
London,  March  20,  1823. 

Beckwitli,  James  Carroll,  an 
American  genre  painter,  born  in  Han- 
nibal, Mo.,  Sept.  23,  1852;  was  a  pu- 
pil of  Carolus  Duran,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  in 
1894. 


Beckwith,     John     Watrus,     an 

American  Episcopal  bishop,  born  in 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Feb.  9,  1831;  was 
graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart- 
ford, in  1852 ;  ordained  priest  in 
1855 ;  and  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Georgia,  being  consecrated  in  Savan- 
nah, April  2,  1868.  He  was  an  elo- 
quent and  powerful  preacher,  and  pub- 
lished several  sermons  and  addresses. 
He  died  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov.  24, 
1890. 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Cesar,  a 
French  physician,  and  member  of  the 
Institute,  born  in  Chatillon-sur-Loing, 
March  7,  1788.  In  early  life  he  served 
in  the  French  army  in  Spain  as  an 
officer  of  engineers.  He  invented  a 
new  psychometer  in  1866.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  18,  1878.  His  son,  AUEX- 
ANDRE  EDMOND  (1820-1891)  and  his 
grandson  ANTOINE  HETNRI  (1852-1908), 
son  of  Alexandre,  were  also  eminent 
physicists,  and  made  valuable  re- 
searches on  the  nature  and  chemical 
effects  of  light,  and  the  magnetic 
properties  of  many  substances.  The 
latter  discovered  the  luminous  ema- 
nations called  "  Becquerel  Rays." 

Bed,  in  ordinary  language,  an  ar- 
ticle of  domestic  furniture  to  sleep 
upon. 

In  law,  a  divorce  from  bed  and 
board,  is  the  divorce  of  a  husband  and 
wife,  to  the  extent  of  separating  them 
for  a  time,  the  wife  receiving  support, 
under  the  name  of  alimony,  during 
the  severance. 

In  mechanics,  a  bed  is  the  founda- 
tion piece  or  portion  of  anything  on 
which  the  body  of  it  rests,  as  the  bed 
piece  of  a  steam  engine ;  the  lower 
stone  of  a  grinding  mill;  or  the  box, 
body,  or  receptacle  of  a  vehicle. 

Bede,  or  Bseda,  generally  known 
as  the  Venerable  Bede,  the  greatest 
figure  in  ancient  English  literature, 
was  born  near  Monkwearmouth,  Dur- 
ham, about  G73.  Left  an  orphan  at 
the  age  of  six,  he  was  educated  in  the 
Benedictine  Abbey  at  Monkwear- 
mouth, entering  the  monastery  of  Jar- 
row,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in 
his  30th  year.  His  industry  was 
enormous.  Bede  wrote  homilies,  lives 
of  saints,  hymns,  epigrams,  works  on 
grammar  and  chronology,  and  the 
great  "  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eng- 
land," in  five  books,  gleaned  from  na- 


Bede 

tive  chronicles  and  oral  tradition. 
This  was  translated  from  Latin  into 
Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred.  The 
first  editions  were  issued  from  Stras- 
burg  in  the  15th  century.  He  died  in 
the  monastery  of  Jarrow,  May  26, 
735. 

Bede,  Cuthbert,  pseudonym  of 
EDWARD  BRADLEY,  an  English  author, 
born  in  Kidderminster  in  1827 ;  died 
in  Lenton,  Dec.  12,  1889. 

Bedell,  Gregory  Tliurston,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Hudson, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  27,  1817 ;  in  early  life  was 
rector  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  New  York 
city.  In  1859  he  was  consecrated  As- 
sistant Bishop  of  Ohio,  and  in  1873 
Bishop  of  that  State.  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  March  11,  1892. 

Bedford,  Gunning,  an  American 
patriot,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
about  1730;  was  a  lieutenant  in  the 
French  War ;  entered  the  Revolution- 
ary army  with  the  rank  of  Major; 
was  wounded  at  White  Plains ;  became 
Muster-Master-General  in  1776;  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress ;  and  was  elected  Governor  of 
Delaware  in  1796.  He  died  in  New- 
castle, Del.,  Sept  30,  1797. 

Bedford,  Gunning,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  in  1747;  was  graduated  at 
Princeton  in  1771 ;  became  a  lawyer ; 
acted  for  a  time  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Washington  ;  represented  Del- 
aware in  the  Continental  Congress  in 
1783-1786;  and  became  Attorney- 
General  of  the  State,  and  United 
State?  Judge  for  the  District  of  Dela- 
ware. He  died  in  Wilmington,  Del., 
March  30,  1812. 

Bedford,  Gunning  S.,  an  Amer- 
ican physician,  born  in  Baltimore, 
Md.,  in  1806;  introduced  into  the 
United  States  obstetrical  clinics  for 
the  gratuitous  treatment  of  poor 
women.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Sept.  5,  1870. 

Bedford  Level,  an  eastern  dis- 
trict of  England,  comprising  about 
450,000  acres.  It  was  a  mere  waste  of 
fen  and  marsh,  until  the  time  of 
Charles  I.,  when,  in  1634,  a  charter 
was  granted  to  Francis,  Earl  of  Bed- 
ford, who  undertook  to  drain  the  level, 
on  condition  of  being  allowed  95,000 
acres  of  the  reclaimed  land.  He  ac- 


Bee 

complished  the  undertaking  at  an 
enormous  expense,  and  it  now  forms 
one  of  the  most  fertile  and  grain-pro- 
ductive districts  of  the  kingdom. 

Bedlam,  a  contraction  from  Beth- 
lehem, a  famous  English  hospital  for 
lunatics. 

Bedloe's  Island,  an  island  in 
New  York  harbor ;  ceded  to  the  United 
States  Government,  in  1800;  the  site 
of  Fort  Wood,  erected  in  1841  and 
mounted  with  77  guns ;  now  the  loca- 
tion of  Bartholdi's  colossal  statue  of 
"  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World." 

Bedmar,  Alfonso  de  la  Cueva, 
Marquis  of,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ovk- 
do,  a  Spanish  diplomatist,  born  in 
1572.  He  was  created  Cardinal  in 
1622,  was  afterward  Spanish  gover- 
nor of  the  Netherlands,  made  himself 
detested  by  the  Flemings,  and  retired 
to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1655. 

Bedouins,  a  Mohammedan  people 
of  Arab  race,  inhabiting  chiefly  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
North  Africa.  They  lead  a  nomadic 
existence  in  tents,  huts,  caverns  and 
ruins,  associating  in  families  under 
sheiks  or  in  tribes  under  emirs. 

Bee,  the  common  name  given  to  a 
large  family  of  hymenopterous  or 
membranous-winged  insects,  of  which 
tne  most  important  is  the  common  hive 
or  honey  bee  (apis  mellifica).  It  be- 
longs to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  East' 
era  Hemisphere,  but  is  now  natural- 
ized in  the  Western.  A  hive  com- 
monly consists  of  one  mother  or  queen, 
from  600  to  800  males  or  drones,  and 


DRONE    BEE. 

from  15,000  to  20,000  working  bees, 
formerly  termed  neuters,  but  now 
known  to  be  imperfectly  developed  fe- 
males. The  last  mentioned,  the  small- 
est, have  twelve  Joints  to  their  anten- 
na?, and  six  abdominal  rings,  and  are 
provided  with  a  sting ;  there  is,  on  the 


"Beech 


Beeclier 


outside  of  the  hind  legs,  a  smooth, 
hollow,  edged  with  hairs,  called  the 
basket,  in  which  the  kneaded  pollen  or 
bee  bread,  the  food  of  the  larvae,  is 


QUEEN    BEE. 

stored  for  transit.  The  queen  has  the 
same  characteristics,  but  is  of  larger 
size,  especially  in  the  abdomen ;  she 
has  also  a  sting.  The  males,  or  drones, 
differ  from  both  the  preceding  by  hav- 
ing 13  joints  to  the  antennae ;  a 
rounded  head  with  larger  eyes,  elon- 
gated and  united  at  the  summit;  and 
no  stings.  The  queen  has  two  large 
ovaries,  consisting  of  a  great  number 
of  small  cavities,  each  containing  10 
or  17  eggs.  The  inferior  half-circles, 
except  the  first  and  last,  on  the  abdo- 
men of  working  bees,  have  I  each  on 
their  inner  surface  two  cavities,  where 
the  wax  secreted  by  the  bee  from  its 
saccharine  food,  is  formed  in  layers, 
and  comes  out  from  between  the  ab- 
dominal rings.  Respiration  takes  place 


WOBKEB  BEE. 

by  means  of  air  tubes  which  branch  out 
to  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  bee  being 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  an  impure 
atmosphere.  Of  the  organs  of  sense 
the  most  important  are  the  antennae, 
deprivation  of  these  resulting  in  a  spe- 
cies of  derangement.  The  majority  of 
entomologists  regard  their  function  as 
in  the  first  place  auditory,  but  they 
*.re  exceedingly  sensitive  to  tactual 
impressions,  and  are  apparently  the 
principal  means  of  mutual  communi- 


cation. Bees  undergo  perfect  meta- 
morphosis, the  young  appearing  first 
as  larvae,  then  changing  to  pupae,  from 
which  the  images  or  perfect  insecti 
spring. 

The  bumblebees,  or  bumblebees,  ot 
which  over  60  species  are  found  it 
North  America,  belong  to  the  genus 
bombus,  which  is  almost  world  wide  in 
its  distribution.  Of  these  species  soli- 
tary females  which  have  survived  the 
winter,  commence  constructing  small 
nests  when  the  weather  begins  to  be 
warm  enough ;  some  of  them  going 
deep  into  the  earth  in  dry  banks,  oth- 
ers preferring  heaps  of  stone  or  gravel, 
and  others  choosing  always  some  bed 
of  dry  moss.  In  the  nest  the  bee  col- 
lects a  mass  of  pollen  and  in  this  lays 


KOYAL  CELLS. 

some  eggs.  The  cells  in  these  nests  are 
not  the  work  of  the  old  bee,  but  are 
formed  by  the  young  insects  similarly 
to  the  cocoons  of  silk  worms ;  and  when 
the  perfect  insect  is  released  from 
them  by  the  old  bee,  which  gnaws  off 
their  tops,  they  are  employed  as 
honey-cups.  The  bumblebees,  how 
ever,  do  not  store  honey  for  the  win- 
ter, those  which  survive  till  the  cold 
weather  leaving  the  nest  and  penetrat- 
ing the  earth,  or  taking  up  some  other 
sheltered  position,  and  remaining  there 
till  the  spring. 

Beech,  a  tree.  The  wood  is  brittle 
and  not  very  lasting,  yet  it  is  used  by 
turners,  joiners,  and  millwrights.  The 
fine  thin  bark  is  employed  for  making 
baskets  and  band-boxes. 

Beeclier,  Catherine  Esther,  an 
American  author  and  educator,  daugh- 
ter of  Lyman,  and  sister  of  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  born  in  Easthampton, 
L.  I.,  Sept.  6,  1800.  The  latter 
part  of  her  life  was  devoted  to 


Beecher 

training  teachers  and  supplying  them 
to  needy  fields,  especially  in  the  West- 
ern and  Southern  States.  She  wrote 
numerous  works  on  education  and  on 
the  woman  question.  She  died  in  El- 
mira,  N.  Y.,  May  12,  1878. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  born  in  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  June  24,  1813.  He  was  the 
eon  of  Lyman  Beecher;  graduated 
from  Amherst  in  1834;  studied  in 
Lane  Theological  Seminary,  near 
Cincinnati,  Ohio ;  and  began  clerical 
duty  as  pastor  of  a  church  in  Law- 
renceburg,  Ind.,  removing  to  Indian- 
apolis in  1839.  From  1847  until  his 
death  he  was  Pastor  of  Plymouth 
Congregational  Church  in  Brooklyn. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
"  Independent  "  and  of  the  "  Christian 
Union"  (now  the  "Outlook").  He 
was  also  a  prominent  anti-slavery  ora- 
tor, as  well  as  a  famous  lecturer.  He 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  March  8,  1887. 

Beecher,  Lynian,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Oct.  2,  1775.  His  ancestors  were  Pu- 
ritans. He  graduated  from  Yale  in 
1796,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  in  East  Hampton, 
L.  I. ;  then  of  a  Congregational  church 
in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in  1S10;  and 
then  of  the  Hanover  Street  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Boston,  Mass.  In 
1832  he  became  President  of  Lane 
Theological  Seminary,  near  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  His  influence  throughout 
the  country  was  very  great,  especially 
on  the  questions  of  temperance  and  of 
slavery.  His  "  Six  Sermons  on  In- 
temperance "  had  a  great  effect,  and 
have  been  frequently  republished  and 
translated  into  many  languages.  His 
sermon  on  the  death  of  Alexander 
Hamilton,  in  1804,  with  his  "  Remedy 
for  Dueling"  (1809),  did  much 
toward  breaking  up  the  practice  of 
dueling  in  the  United  States.  He  died 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  June  10,  1863. 

Beecher,  Thomas  Kinnicntt, 
an  American  clergyman,  son  of  Ly- 
man, and  brother  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  born  in  Litchfield,  Conn., 
Feb.  10,  1824.  He  became  pastor  in 
Brooklyn  in  1852,  and  in  Elmira,  N. 
Y.,  in  1854.  He  was  a  very  success- 
ful lecturer  and  an  effective  writer  on 
current  topics.  He  died  in  Elmira, 
N.  Y.,  March  14,  1900. 

E.  16. 


Beers 

Beechey,  Frederick  William, 
an  English  naval  officer,  born  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  17,  1796.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Nov.  29,  1856.  Beechey  Island 
in  the  Arctic  Archipelago  was  named 
after  him. 

Bee  Eater,  in  the  singular  the 
English  name  of  a  genus  of  birds, 
more  fully  called  the  yellow  throated 
bee  eater  of  Africa. 

Beelzebub.  (1)  The  fly-god,  a  god 
worshipped  in  the  Philistine  town  of 
Ekron.  (II.  Kings  i:  3)  (2)  An  evil 
spirit.  (3)  Any  person  of  fiendish 
cruelty,  who  is  nicknamed  by  his  ad- 
versaries, or,  in  cpntempfc  of  moral 
sentiment,  appropriates  the  appella- 
tion to  himself  and  cherishes  it  as  if 
it  were  an  honorable  title. 

Beer,  an  alcoholic  drink  made  from 
the  malted  grains  of  barley,  boiled  with 
hops  and  then  fermented  with  yeast. 
The  manufacture  of  ale  or  beer  is  of 
very  high  antiquity.  Herodotus  ascribes 
the  invention  of  brewing  to  Isis,  and 
it  was  certainly  practised  in  Egypt. 
Xenophon  mentions  it  as  being  used  in 
Armenia,  and  the  Gauls  were  early  ac- 
quainted with  it.  Pliny  mentions  an 
intoxicating  liquor  made  of  corn  and 
water  as  common  to  all  the  nations  of 
the  west  of  Europe,  and  in  England 
ale-booths  were  regulated  by  law  as 
early  as  the  8th  century.  A  rude  pro- 
cess of  brewing  is  carried  on  by  many 
uncivilized  races ;  thus  chica  or  maize 
beer  is  made  by  the  South  American 
Indians,  millet  beer  by  various  Afri- 
can tribes,  etc.  The  beers  common  In 
the  United  States  are:  lager  beer — 
that  is,  store  beer,  the  name  being 
given  to  it  because  it  is  usually  kept 
for  four  to  six  months  before  being 
used.  In  brewing  it  the  fermentation 
is  made  to  go  on  rather  slowly  and  at 
a  low  temperature ;  Schenk  beer, 
brewed  in  winter  for  immediate  use; 
bock  beer,  brewed  extra  strong  and 
served  during  the  spring  months.  The 
alcohol  in  beer  averages  about  4  per 
cent. 

Beerboliin-Tree,  Herbert,  an 
English  actor,  born  in  London,  in 
1853.  In  1897  he  opened  his  new 
theatre,  Her  Majesty's,  in  the  Hay- 
market.  He  died  July  2,  1917. 

Beers,  Henry  Augustin,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Buffalo,  N. 


Beerslieba 

Y.,  July  2,  1847.  He  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1859 ;  became  tutor  there  in 
1871,  and  Professor  of  English  Liter- 
ature in  1880. 

Beersheba  (now  Bir-os-Seba, 
"the  well  of  the  oath"),  the  place 
where  Abraham  made  a  covenant  with 
Abiinelech,  and  in  common  speech, 
representative  of  the  southernmost 
limit  of  Palestine,  near  which  it  is  sit- 
uated. It  is  now  a  mere  heap  of  ruins 
near  two  large  and  five  smaller  wells, 
though  it  was  a  place  of  some  impor- 
tance down  to  the  period  of  the  cru- 
sades. 

Beet,  a  genus  of  plants  distin- 
guished by  its  fruit  being  inclosed  in  a 
tough  woody  or  spongy  five-lobed  en- 
larged calyx.  The  garden  beet,  or 
beet  of  general  cultivation,  is  of  bi- 
ennial duration,  and  has  a  tender 
fleshy  root.  Red  beet  is  principally 
used  at  table,  in  salad,  boiled,  and 
cut  into  slices,  as  a  pickle,  and 
sometimes  stewed  with  onions;  but 
if  eaten  in  great  quantity  it  is 
said  to  be  injurious  to  the  stom- 
ach. The  beet  may  be  taken  out  of 
the  ground  for  use  about  the  end  of 
August,  but  it  does  not  attain  its  full 
size  and  perfection  till  the  month  of 
October.  When  good  it  is  large  and 
of  a  deep  red  color,  and  when  boiled 
is  tender,  sweet,  and  palatable. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  one  of 
the  greatest  musical  composers  of 
modern  times,  was  born  in  Bonn,  in 
1770.  His  genius  was  very  early  dis- 
played, and  his  musical  education  was 
begun  by  his  father,  and  continued  by 
the  court  organist,  who  introduced  him 
to  the  works  of  Sebastian  Bach  and 
Handel.  He  soon  attempted  composi- 
tion, and  showed  wonderful  facility  in 
improvisation.  About  1790,  he  set- 
tled at  Vienna,  where  Mozart  quickly 
recognized  his  marvellous  powers. 
When  about  40  years  of  age,  he  was 
attacked  with  deafness,  which  became 
total,  and  lasted  through  life.  He  be- 
came, gradually,  the  victim  of  mor- 
bid irritability  and  hopeless  melan- 
choly, ending  in  confirmed  hypochon- 
dria, and,  finally,  dropsy  and  delirium. 
He  continued  to  compose,  however, 
long  after  he  had  ceased  to  hear  him- 
self play,  and  received  homage  and 
honors  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  He 
died  unmarried,  in  Vienna,  March  26, 


Beet  Sugar 

1827.  Vast  power,  intense  passion, 
and  infinite  tenderness-  are  manifested 
in  all  his  compositions,  which  abound 
no  less  in  sweetest  melodies  than  in' 
grand  and  complicated  harmonies.  A 
statue  of  Beethoven,  by  Ilulmel,  was 
erected  at  Bonn,  in  1845. 

Beet  Sugar,  the  sugar  obtained 
from  the  beet ;  similar  to  cane  sugar , 
but  inferior  in  sweetening  power.  Beet 
root  contains  an  average  of  about  10 
per  cent,  of  saccharine  matter;  sugar 
cane,  18  per  cent.  Of  the  varieties, 
the  white  Selvig  beet  is  richest. 

Of  the  985,508,640  pounds  of  sugar 
produced  in  the  United  States  in  1901, 
about  one-third  was  from  beets  and 
two-thirds  from  cane,  and  of  the  599,- 
774,613  pounds  of  beet  sugar  imported, 
484,344,004  pounds  came  unrefined. 
The  annual  statement  of  the  American 
Beet  Sugar  Company  furnishes  ample 
proof  of  the  advance  which  has  been 
made  by  the  beet  sugar  industry  in  the 
United  States.  In  1880  the  domestic 
production  of  beet  sugar  was  357  tons, 
and  in  1901  it  had  increased  to  124,- 
859  tons,  a  gain  in  20  years  of  nearly 
350  per  cent. 

The  quantity  of  beet  sugar  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  in  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1910,  was 
1,025,000,000  pounds,  against  73,000,- 
000  pounds  in  1899,  an  increase  of 
952,000,000  pounds  as  compared  with 
an  increase  of  181,000,000  pounds  of 
cane  sugar  in  the  same  period.  Of 
the  total  beet  sugar  production,  Ha- 
waii furnished  1,111,000,000  pounds; 
Porto  Rico,  569,000,000;  and  the 
Philippines,  176,000,000.  In  1905  there 
•>vere  ol  beet  sugar  factories  in  the 
United  States  which  had  a  combined 
product  valued  at  $24,393,794;  and  in 
1909  there  were  1,273  beet  sugar 
factories  in  Europe,  which  used 
40,067,000  tons  of  beets,  and  pro- 
duced 5,740,000  tons  of  sugar,  and, 
excluding  the  United  States,  the 
world's  production  was  6,061,000  tons. 

The  beet  sugar  industry  was  started 
by  Marggraf,  in  Germany,  in  1747, 
who  was  the  first  to  discover  that 
sugar  could  be  extracted  from  the  com- 
mon beet.  The  first  factory  for  its 
manufacture  was  erected  by  Archard, 
at  Kunern,  in  Silesia,  in  1802.  Na- 
poleon issued  an  imperial  decree  in 
the  early  part  of  his  reign  establish- 
ing this  industry  in  France,  and  in 


Beetle 

1812  he  ordered  the  building  of  10  fac- 
tories and  placed  Delessert  in  charge 
of  their  construction.  In  1830  at- 
tempts were  made  in  the  United  States 
,to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  the 
cugar  beet.  It  was  not,  however,  till 
1876  that  the  first  successful  beet 
sugar  factory  was  built,  being  erected 
in  Alvarado,  Cal. 

Beetle,  a  name  often  used  as  syn- 
onymous with  the  term  Coleoptera, 
but  restricted  by  others  to  include  all 
those  insects  that  have  their  wings 
protected  by  hard  cases  or  sheaths, 
called  elytra.  Beetles  vary  in  size  from 
a  mere  point  to  the  bulk  of  a  man's 
fist,  the  largest,  the  elephant  beetle  of 
S.  America,  being  4  inches  long.  The 
so  called  'black  beetles'  are  not  prop- 
erly beetles  at  all,  but  cockroaches, 
and  of  the  order  Orthoptera. 

Beggars,  a  term  first  applied  to 
the  300  Protestant  deputies  under 
Henri  de  Brederode  and  Louis  de  Nas- 
sau, who  protested  against  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Inquisition  in  Holland, 
in  April,  1566.  The  Dutch  patriots 
assumed  this  designation  when  they 
rebelled  against  Spain  in  1572. 

Beghards,  Begnards,  or  Be- 
gards,  various  spellings  of  a  name 
said  by  some  to  be  derived  from  their 
begging  favor  from  God  in  orayer,  and 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  religious 
mendicants. 

Begonia,  an  extensive  genus  of  suc- 
culent-stemmed herbaceous  plants,  or- 
der Begoniacese,  with  fleshy  oblique 
leaves  of  various  colors,  and  showy 
unisexual  flowers,  the  whole  perianth 
colored.  Tfiey  readily  hybridize,  and 
many  fine  varieties  have  been  raised 
from  the  tuberous-rooted  kinds.  From 
the  shape  of  their  leaves  they  have 
been  called  elephant's  ear.  Almost  all 
the  plants  of  the  order  are  tropical. 

Begnines,  Beguins,  or  Begui- 
nse.  Associations  of  praying  women 
which  arose  in  the  Netherlands  in  the 
13th  century,  the  first  being  formed 
at  Nivelles,  in  Brabant,  in  A.  D.  1226, 
and  spread  rapidly  in  the  adjoining 
countries.  They  used  to  weave  cloth, 
live  together  under  a  directress,  and 
leave  on  being  married,  or  indeed 
whenever  they  pleased.  They  still  ex- 
ist in  some  of  the  Belgian  towns, 
notably  at  Ghent,  where  they  are  re- 
nowned as  makers  of  lace,  though  un- 


Beliistnn 

der  different  rules  from  those  formerly 
observed. 

Begum  (a  feminine  form  corre- 
sponding to  beg,  or  bey),  an  Indian 
title  of  honor  equivalent  to  princess, 
conferred  on  the  mothers,  sisters,  or 
wives  of  native  rulers.  The  Begum 
of  Oudh  is  well  known  in  Indian  his- 
tory. 

Beliaim,  or  Behem,  Martin,  a 
German  mathematician  and  astrono- 
mer, born  in  Nuremberg  about  1430. 
He  colonized  the  Island  of  Fayal, 
where  he  remained  for  several  years, 
and  assisted  in  the  discovery  of  the 
other  Azores ;  was  afterward  knighted, 
and  returned  to  his  native  country, 
where,  in  1492,  he  constructed  a  tep 
restrial  globe,  still  preserved.  He  died 
in  Lisbon  in  1506. 

Behemoth,  the  animal  described 
in  Job  xi:  15-24.  It  is  probably  the 
hippopotamus,  which,  in  the  time  of 
Job,  seems  to  have  been  found  in  the 
Nile  below  the  cataracts,  though  now 
it  is  said  to  occur  only  above  them. 
A  second  opinion  entertained  is  that 
Job's  behemoth  was  the  elephant; 
while  a  few  scholars  make  the  less 
probable  conjecture  that  it  was  the 
rhinoceros. 


BEGONIA.    BEX. 

Behistun,  or  Bisutun,  a  moun- 
tain near  a  village  of  the  same  name 
in  Persian  Kurdistan,  celebrated  for 
the  sculptures  and  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions cut  upon  one  of  its  sides  —  a 
rock  rising  almost  perpendicularly  to 
the  height  of  1,700  feet.  These  works, 
which  stand  about  300  feet  from  the 
ground,  were  executed  by  the  orders 


Bell  ni 


Bel  and  the  Dragon 


of  Darius  I.,  King  of  Persia,  and  set 
forth  his  genealogy  and  victories.  To 
receive  the  inscriptions,  the  rock  was 
carefully  polished  and  coated  with  a 
hard,  siliceous  varnish.  Their  prob- 
able date  is  about  515  B.  c.  They  were 
first  copied  and  deciphered  by  Rawlin- 
BO  n. 

Bclim,  Ernst,  a  German  geog- 
rapher, born  in  Gotha,  Jan.  4,  1830 ; 
died  in  Gotha,  March  15,  1884. 

Behn,  Aphra,  or  Afra,  or  Aph- 
ara,  an  English  author ;  born  in 
Wye,  in  1640.  Early  in  life  she  spent 
several  years  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  she  met  the  Indians,  who  be- 
came the  model  of  her  famous  "  Oroo- 
noko."  She  was  the  first  woman 
writer  in  England  who  earned  a  live- 
lihood by  her  pen.  She  died  in  Lon- 
don, April  16,  1689. 

Behring,  another  spelling  of  BEE- 
ING. 

Beissel,  Johann  Conrad,  a  Ger- 
man mystic,  born  in  Eberbach,  in 
1690.  He  settled  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1720,  and  established  the  German 
Seventh-Day  Baptists,  at  Ephrata,  in 
1728.  He  died  in  Ephrata,  in  1768. 

Beit,  Alfred,  So.  African  finan- 
cier, b.  Hamburg,  1853,  d.  London, 
July  16,  1906.  He  was  associated 
with  Cecil  Rhodes  (q.  v. )  and  left  an 
immense  fortune  in  benefactions. 

Beitzke,  Heinrich  Imdwig,  a 
German  historian,  born  in  Muttrin, 
Feb.  15,  1798 ;  died  in  Berlin,  May  10, 
1867. 

Bejapoor,  a  ruined  city  of  Hin- 
dustan, in  the  Bombay  Presidency, 
one  of  the  largest  cities  in  India  until 
its  capture  by  Aurungzebe  in  1686. 
The  ruins  are  chiefly  Mohammedan, 
the  principal  being  Mahomet  Shah's 
tomb,  with  a  dome  visible  for  14  miles. 
Pop.  13,245. 

Beke,  Charles  Tilstone,  an 
English  geographer,  explorer,  and  au- 
thor, born  in  London,  Oct.  10,  1800. 
In  1834  he  published  "  Origines  Bib- 
licae ;  or,  Researches  in  Primeval  His- 
tory," one  of  the  first  attempts  to 
reconstruct  historv  on  the  principles 
of  the  young  science  of  geology.  He 
explored  Abyssinia,  Godjam  and  the 
countries  lying  to  the  W.  and  S.,  pre- 
viously almost  entirely  unknown  to 
Europeans.  He  died  in  London,  July 
31,  1874. 


Bekker,  Immannel,  a  German 
scholar  distinguished  by  his  recensions 
of  the  texts  of  Greek  classics,  born  in 
Berlin,  May  21,  1785 ;  died  in  Berlin, 
June  7,  1871. 

Bel,  in  Accadian,  Assyrian  and  Bab- 
ylonian mythology,  a  god ;  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  in  Is.  xlvi :  1 ;  Jer.  1:2,' 
li :  44 ;  in  the  Septuagint,  in  Baruch 
vi:  40,  and  in  the  apocryphal  addi- 
tions to  the  Book  of  Daniel,  as  well 
as  by  classical  authors.  It  has 
been  discovered  that,  prior  to  1600 
B.  c.,  the  highly  interesting  Turan- 
ian people  called  Accadians,  the  in- 
ventors of  the  cuneiform  writing, 
who  wielded  extensive  authority  in 
Western  Asia  before  the  Semitic  As- 
syrians and  Babylonians  had  come 
into  notice,  worshipped  as  their 
first  triad  of  gods,  Anu,  ruling  over 
the  heaven ;  Elu,  Belu,  or  Bel,  over 
the  earth ;  and  Ea,  over  the  sea.  Bel's 
three  children,  or  three  of  his  children, 
were  Shamas,  the  sun-god ;  Sin,  the 
moon-god ;  and  Ishtar,  the  Accadian 
Venus.  Sayce  shows  that  some  first 
born  children  were  vicariously  offered 
in  sacrifice  by  fire  to  the  sun-god. 
From  the  Accadians,  human  sacrifice 
passed  to  various  Semitic  tribes  and 
nations.  Bel's  name  Elu  identifies  him 
with  the  Phoenician  El,  who,  in  a  time 
of  trouble,  offered  his  first  born  son, 
"  the  beloved,"  on  a  high  place,  by 
fire.  It  is  not  settled  whether  or  not 
Bel  was  the  same  also  as  the  Phoeni- 
cian Baal.  To  the  wrath  of  Bel  the 
deluge  was  attributed.  In  Scripture 
times  he  was  known  exclusively  as  a 
Babylonian  divinity,  being  distinguish- 
ed from  both  Nebo  and  Merodach. 
In  the  later  Babylonian  Empire,  how- 
ever, Merodach  came  to  be  generally 
identified  with  Bel,  though  sometimes 
distinguished  from  him,  being  called 
"  the  lesser  Bel." 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  one  of  the 
books  of  the  Apocrypha,  or,  more  pre- 
cisely, certain  apocryphal  chapters  ad- 
ded to  the  canonical  Book  of  Daniel. 
The  Jews  consider  them  as  no  part  of 
their  Scriptures.  They  were  penned 
probably  by  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  the 
language  used  being  not  Hebrew,  nor 
Aramaean,  but  Greek.  The  Church  of 
Rome  accepts  Bel  and  the  Dragon  as 
part  of  the  Holy  Scripture ;  most,  if 
not  all,  Protestant  churches  reject  it. 
The  story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  tells 


Belcher 

how  Daniel  enlightened  Cyrus,  who  is 
represented  as  having  been  a  devout 
worshiper  of  Bel,  by  proving  that  the 
immense  supplies  of  food  laid  before 
the  idol  were  really  consumed,  not  by 
it  or  by  the  inhabiting  divinity,  but 
by  the  priests  and  their  families.  On 
Cyrus  urging  that  the  dragon,  also 
worshipped,  was  at  least  a  living  God, 
Daniel  poisoned  it,  for  which  he  was 
thrown  into  a  lions'  den,  where  the 
Prophet  Habakkuk  fed  him.  Ulti- 
mately he  was  released,  and  his  perse- 
cutors put  to  death. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  an  Eng- 
lish naval  officer,  born  in  1799. 
Knighted  in  1843,  and  for  five  years 
employed  on  surveying  service  in 
the  East  Indies,  he  was,  in  1852 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
unfortunate  expedition  sent  out  by 
the  government  to  search  for  Sir 
John  Franklin.  He  died  March  18, 
1877.  Belcher  Channel,  an  inlet  of 
Jones'  Sound  (Baffins  Bay),  is  named 
from  him,  its  discoverer. 

Belem,  a  town  in  Portugal,  W.  of 
Lisbon ;  noted  for  a  monastery  found- 
ed in  1500,  to  commemorate  the  voy- 
age of  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  now  used 
as  an  orphan  asylum. 

Belemnite,  a  genus  of  fossil 
chambered  shells. 

Belfast,  a  seaport  and  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Ireland 
(in  1888  declared  a  city),  principal 
town  of  Ulster,  and  county  town  of 
Antrim,  built  on  low,  alluvial  land  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Lagan,  at  the 
head  of  Belfast  Lough.  Previous  to 
about  1830  the  cotton  manufacture 
was  the  leading  industry  of  Belfast, 
but  nearly  all  the  mills  have  been  con- 
verted to  flax  spinning.  The  iron  ship- 
building trade  is  also  of  importance, 
and  there  are  breweries,  distilleries, 
flour  mills,  oil  mills,  foundries,  print 
works,  tan  yards,  chemical  works, 
rope  works,  eta  The  commerce  is 
large.  An  extensive  direct  trade  is 
carried  on  with  British  North  Amer- 
ica, the  Mediterranean,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  the  Baltic,  besides 
ports  of  the  British  Islands.  Belfast 
is  comparatively  a  modern  town.  It 
returns  four  members  to  Parliament. 
Pop.  (1911)  386,947. 

Belgium,  a  kingdom  of  Europe, 
bounded  N.  by  Holland,  N.  W.  by  the 


Belgium 

North  Sea,  W.  and  S.  by  France,  and 
E.  by  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  Rhen- 
ish Prussia,  and  Dutch  Limburg ; 
greatest  length,  165  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  120  miles ;  area,  about  11,400 
square  miles.  For  administrative  pur- 
poses it  is  divided  into  nine  provinces 
—  Antwerp,  South  Brabant,  East 
Flanders,  West  Flanders,  Hainaut, 
Liege,  Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Na- 
mur.  Pop.  (1912)  7,571,387. 

The  greater  part  of  the  country  is 
well  adapted  for  agricultural  opera- 
tions, and  the  inhabitants  have  so  hap- 
pily availed  themselves  of  their  nat- 
ural advantages  that  they  early  began, 
and  in  some  respects  still  deserve,  to 
be  regarded  as  the  model  farmers  of 
Europe. 

The  mineral  riches  of  Belgium  are 
great,  and,  after  agriculture,  form  the 
most  important  of  her  national  inter- 
ests. They  are  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  four  provinces  of  Hainaut, 
Liege,  Namur,  and  Luxemburg,  and 
consist  of  lead,  manganese,  calamine 
or  zinc,  iron,  and  coal.  All  these 
minerals,  however,  are  insignificant 
compared  with  those  of  iron  and  coal. 
The  coal  field  has  an  area  of  above 
500  square  miles.  The  export  is  about 
5,000,000  tons,  forming  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Belgian  exports,  and  employing  about 
125,000  persons.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
this  coal  is  taken  by  France. 

The  industrial  products  of  Belgium 
are  very  numerous,  and  the  superiority 
of  many  of  them  to  those  of  most  oth- 
er countries  is  confessed.  The  fine 
linens  of  Flanders,  and  lace  of  South 
Brabant  are  of  European  reputation. 
Scarcely  less  celebrated  are  the  car- 
pets and  porcelain  of  Tournay,  the 
cloth  of  Verviers,  the  extensive  foun- 
dries, machine  works,  and  other  iron 
and  steel  establishments  of  Liege,  Se~ 
raing,  and  other  places.  The  cotton 
and  woolen  manufactures,  confined 
chiefly  to  Flanders  and  the  province 
of  Antwerp,  have  advanced  greatly. 
Other  manufactures  include  silks, 
beet  sugar,  beer.  Prior  to  1914  there 
were  17  active  pig  iron  works  ;  46  iron 
manufactories ;  15  steel  works ;  123 
sugar  factories ;  and  25  refineries ; 
and  240  distilleries. 

The  railways  have  a  length  of  about 
2,900  miles,  three-fourths  belonging  to 
the  State.  The  value  of  the  general 


Belgium 

commerce  in  1913  was :  imports, 
$916,725,000  and  exports  $715,365,- 
000.  In  the  first  six  months  of  1914, 
immediately  preceding  the  outbreak  of 
the  great  war  and  the  German  viola- 
tion of  Belgian  territory,  the  imports 
were  $460,630,000  and  exports  $370,- 
795,000. 

The  Belgian  population  is  composed 
of  two  distinct  races — Flemish,  who 
are  of  German,  and  Walloons,  who 
are  of  French  extraction. 

Almost  the  entire  population  belong 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Prot- 
estantism is  fully  tolerated,  and  even 
salaried  by  the  State,  but  cannot 
count  above  a  mere  fraction  (some 
10,000)  of  the  population  among  its 
adherents.  Education  is  in  a  very  un- 
satisfactory state.  At  the  census  of 
1890  nearly  27  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation above  15  years  of  age  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  French  is  the 
official  language  of  Belgium  and  in 
general  use  among  the  educated  class- 
es, and  there  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  a  national  literature. 

The  Belgian  constitution  combines 
monarchical  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
the  democratic  principles.  The  execu- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  hereditary 
king ;  the  legislative  in  the  king  and 
two  chambers — the  Senate  and  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives — the  for- 
mer elected  for  eight  years,  the  latter 
for  four,  but  one-half  of  the  former 
renewable  every  four  years,  and  one- 
half  of  the  latter  every  two  years.  The 
senators  are  elected  partly  directly, 
partly  indirectly  (by  the  provincial 
councils)  and  must  be  40  years  of 
age.  Their  numbers  depend  on  popu- 
lation. The  deputies  or  representatives 
are  elected  directly,  one  for  every  40,- 
000  inhabitants  at  most.  In  1914  the 
Senators  numbered  120,  and  the  Rep- 
resentatives 186. 

According  to  a  new  military  law 
passed  in  1913  the  army  is  recruited 
by  annual  calls  to  the  colors  by  vol- 
untary engagements,  the  calls  com- 
prising 49  per  cent,  of  those  inscribed 
on  the  rolls.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory for  those  called  to  the  colors. 
Active  army  service  is  eight  years,  fol- 
lowed by  five  years  in  the  reserves. 
The  field  army  consisted  of  six  army 
divisions  and  two  cavalry  divisions. 
The  army  estimates  for  1914  aggre- 
gated $20,219,250. 

After    being    for    centuries    under 


Belgium 

Spanish,  Austrian  and  French  dom- 
ination, Belgium  was  united  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  to  Holland,  under 
the  title  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands. A  most  injudicious  measure 
of  the  Dutch  government,  an  at- 
tempt to  assimilate  the  language  of 
the  provinces  by  prohibiting  the  use 
of  French  in  the  courts  of  justice, 
excited  an  opposition,  which,  en- 
couraged by  the  success  of  the  French 
revolution  of  1830,  broke  out  into 
revolt.  The  electoral  system,  more- 
over, gave  the  preponderance  to  the 
N.  provinces,  though  inferior  in 
population,  and  the  interests  of  the 
provinces  were  diametrically  opposed 
in  matters  of  taxation.  Belgium 
was  agricultural  and  manufacturing, 
Holland  commercial ;  the  one  wished 
to  tax  imports  and  exports,  the  other 
property  and  industry.  In  the  cham- 
bers three  different  languages  were 
spoken,  Dutch,  German,  and  French ; 
and  the  members  frequently  did  not 
understand  each  other.  Nothing  but 
the  most  skillful  government  could 
have  overcome  these  difficulties,  and 
no  statesman  appeared  fitted  to 
grapple  with  them.  The  revolutionary 
movement  became  general  in  the  S., 
and  the  Dutch  troops,  at  first  success- 
ful before  Brussels,  were  finally  re- 
pulsed, and  compelled  by  the  arrival 
of  fresh  bands  of  insurgents  from  all 
quarters  to  retire.  The  Flemings  sa- 
luted the  volunteers  of  Liege,  Mons, 
and  Tournay  by  the  ancient  title  of 
Belgians,  and  this  name,  which  prop- 
erly distinguished  only  a  section  of  the 
people  of  the  S.  provinces,  became 
henceforth  recognized  as  the  patriotic 
designation  of  the  whole. 

A  convention  of  the  great  powers 
assembled  in  London  to  determine  on 
the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands  and 
stop  the  effusion  of  blood.  It  favored 
the  separation  of  the  provinces,  and 
drew  up  a  treaty  to  regulate  it.  In 
the  meantime  the  National  Congress 
of  Belgium  offered  the  crown  to  the 
Duke  of  Nemours,  second  son  of  Louis 
Philippe,  and,  on  his  declining  it,  they 
offered  it,  on  the  recommendation  of 
England,  to  Leopold,  Prince  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  who  acceded  to  it  under  the 
title  of  Leopold  L,  on  July  21,  1831. 
In  November  of  the  same  year  the 
five  powers  guaranteed  the  crown  to 
him  by  the  treaty  of  London. 


Belgrade 


During  the  reign  of  Leopold,  a  pros- 
perous period  of  34  years,  Belgium 
became  a  united  and  patriotic  com- 
munity. Arts  and  commerce  flour- 
ished, and  a  place  was  taken  in  the 
family  of  nations  upon  which  the  Bel- 
gian people  could  look  with  compla- 
cency. Leopold  II.  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther in  1865.  In  recent  years  the 
chief  feature  of  Belgian  politics  has 
been  a  keen  struggle  between  the  cler- 
ical and  the  liberal  party.  At  the  elec- 
tions in  June,  1878,  the  liberals  gained 
a  majority,  which  they  lost  in  1884, 
and  failed  to  regain  in  1890,  but,  after 
a  revision  of  the  constitution,  they 
were  returned  by  a  large  majority  in 
1894.  In  1908  Belgium  annexed  the 
KONGO  FREE  STATE  (q.  v.).  King 
Leopold  II.  died  Dec.  17,  1909,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  as  Ax- 
BEBT  I.  (q.  v.). 

Belgium  was  the  first  victim  of 
Teutonic  ruthlessness  in  the  war  in 
Europe.  It  was  invaded  by  the  Ger- 
mans, notwithstanding  that  Germany 
was  one  of  the  guarantors  of  its  in- 
tegrity, Aug.  3,  1814 ;  the  capital  was 
removed  to  Antwerp,  Aug.  18,  to  Os- 
tend,  Oct.  8,  and  to  Havre,  France, 
Oct.  12.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Belgrade,  a  city  and  capital  of 
Servia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dan- 
ube in  the  angle  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Save  with  that  river,  con- 
sists of  the  citadel  or  upper  town,  on 
a  rock  100  feet  high ;  and  the  lower 
town,  which  partly  surrounds  it.  Of 
late  years  many  modern  improvements 
have  been  introduced  and  many  fine 
edifices  have  been  built.  It  man- 
ufactures carpets,  silks,  etc.  The  city 
suffered  severely  in  the  various  move- 
ments that  led  to  the  crushing  of 
Servia.  See  APPENDIX:  World  War. 
Pop.  (1911)  90,890. 

Belisarius,  the  great  general  of 
the  Roman  Emperor  Justinian,  was 
a  native  of  Illyria.  He  commanded 
an  expedition  against  the  King  of 
Persia  about  530;  suppressed  an  in- 
surrection at  Constantinople ;  con- 
quered Gelimer,  King  of  the  Vandals, 
and  put  an  end  to  their  dominion  in 
Africa ;  was  recalled  and  honored  with 
a  triumph.  In  535,  Belisarius  was 
sent  to  Italy  to  carry  on  war  with 
the  Goths,  and  took  Rome  in  537.  He 
was  there  unsuccessfully  besieged  by 


Vitiges,  whom  he  soon  after  besieged 
in  turn,  and  captured  at  Ravenna,  but 
was  recalled,  through  jealousy,  before 
he  had  completed  the  conquest  of 
Italy.  Belisarius  recovered  Rome  from 
Totilus  in  547,  and  was  recalled  the 
next  year.  He  was  afterward  sent 
against  the  Huns.  He  was  charged, 
in  563,  with  conspiracy  against  Jus- 
tinian, but  was  acquitted.  That  he 
was  deprived  of  sight,  and  reduced  to 
beggary,  appears  to  be  a  fable  of  late 
invention.  Died  in  565. 

Belize,  or  BH+fsh  Honduras,  a 
British  colony  washed  on  the  E.  by 
the  Bay  of  Honduras,  in  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  and  elsewhere  surrounded 
by  Guatemala  and  Mexico.  It  forms 
the  S.  E.  part  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan,  and  measuring  180  by  60 
miles,  has  an  area  of  7,562  square 
miles.  Since  1862  Belize  has  ranked 
as  a  British  colony,  with  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  whose  rank  was  raised,  in 
1884,  to  that  of  governor.  Pop.  (1901) 
36,998.  Belize,  the  capital,  is  a  depot 
for  foreign  goods  for  Central  America, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  6,600. 

Belknap,  George  Eugene,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  New- 
port, N.  H.,  Jan.  22,  1832;  was  ap- 
pointed midshipman  in  the  navy  in 
1852,  rose  to  Rear-Admiral  in  1889; 
and  was  retired  in  1894.  He  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  the  Barrier 
Forts  on  the  Canton  river,  China,  in 
1856;  and  in  the  Civil  War.  In  1873, 
while  engaged  in  deep  sea  sounding  in 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  he  made  dis- 
coveries concerning  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
that  found  high  favor  among  scientists. 
He  was  appointed  Superintendent  of 
the  United  States  Naval  Observatory 
in  1885.  He  died  in  1903. 

Belknap,  William  Worth,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Newburg,  N.  Y.,  Sept  22,  1829 ;  grad- 
uated at  Princeton,  and  read  law  in 
Keokuk,  la.,  where  he  was  elected  to 
the  Legislature  in  1857.  In  1861  he 
entered  the  Union  army  as  Major  of 
the  15th  Iowa  Volunteers  and  was 
engaged  at  Shiloh,  Corinth,  and  Vicks- 
burg ;  but  became  most  prominent  in 
Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign.  He 
was  promoted  to  Brigadier-General, 
July  30,  1864,  and  Major-General, 
March  13,  1865.  He  was  collector  of 
internal  revenue  in  Iowa  from  1865 
to  Oct.  13,  1869,  when  he  was  ap- 


Bell 


Bell 


pointed  Secretary  of  War,  which  of- 
fice he  occupied  till  March  7,  187G. 
He  resigned  in  consequence  of  accusa- 
tions of  official  corruption.  Subse- 
quently he  was  tried  and  acquitted. 
He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C.f  Oct. 
12,  1890. 

Bell,  a  holloa,  sounding  instru- 
ment of  metal.  The  metal  from  which 
bells  are  usually  made  ( by  founding ) , 
is  an  alloy,  called  bell-metal,  com- 
monly composed  of  80  parts  of  copper 
and  20  of  tin. 

Bells,  as  the  term  is  used  on  ship- 
board, are  the  strokes  of  the  ship's 
bell  that  proclaim  the  hours.  Eight 
bells,  the  highest  number,  are  rung  at 
noon  and  every  fourth  hour  after- 
wards, i.  e:,  at  4,  8,  12  o'clock,  and 
BO  on.  The  intermediary  periods  are 
indicated  thus:  12:30,  1  bell;  1 
o'clock,  2  bells ;  1 :30,  3  bells,  etc., 
until  the  eight  bells  announce  4 
o'clock,  when  the  series  recommences 
4:30,  1  bell;  5  o'clock,  2  bells,  etc. 
The  even  numbers  of  strikes  thus  al- 
ways announce  hours,  the  odd  numbers 
half  hours. 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  in- 
ventor of  the  telephone,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  March  3,  1847;  son  of 
Alexander  Melville  Bell.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Edinburgh  and  in  Germany, 
and  settled  in  Canada  in  1870.  In 
1872  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  introduced  for  the  education  of 
deaf  mutes  the  system  of  visible 
speech  contrived  by  his  father.  He 
became  Professor  of  Vocal  Physiology 
in  Boston  University,  and  at  the  Phil- 
adelphia Exhibition,  in  1876,  exhibit- 
ed his  telephone,  designed  and  partly 
constructed  some  years  before.  He 
was  also  the  inventor  of  the  photo- 
phone  in  1880,  of  the  graphophone  in 
1887,  and  of  kindred  instruments. 

Bell,  Alexander  Melville,  a 
Scotch  elocutionist,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1819.  He  is  inventor  of  the 
system  of  visible  speech,  in  which  all 
the  possible  articulations  of  the  hu- 
man voice  have  corresponding  'char- 
acters designed  to  represent  the  re- 
spective positions  of  the  vocal  organs. 
This  system  has  been  successfully  em- 
ployed in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb 
to  speak.  Besides  writing  on  this 
subject  he  has  written  on  elocution, 
stenography,  etc.  Died  Aug.  7,  1905, 


Bell,  Andrew  James,  a  Cana- 
dian educator,  born  in  Ottawa,  May 
12,  1856 ;  educated  at  the  University 
of  Toronto,  and  at  Breslau  Universi- 
ty;  became  Professor  of  Latin  and 
Literature  in  Victoria  University,  in 
1889.  He  is  an  active  member  of  the 
Canadian  Institute,  and  has  contrib- 
uted some  important  papers  to  its 
"  Transactions." 

Bell,  Benjamin  Taylor  A.,  a 
Scotch-Canadian  mining  expert,  born 
in  Edinburgh,  July  2,  1863 ;  was  edu- 
cated in  Edinburgh ;  went  to  Canada 
in  1882.  In  1890  he  organized  the 
General  Mining  Association  of  the 
Province,  and  in  1892  he  was  instru- 
mental in  uniting  the  coal,  gold,  and 
other  mineral  interests  of  Nova  Scotia 
into  a  like  organization. 

Bell,  Henry,  a  Scotch  engineer, 
born  in  Linlithgowshire  in  1767.  In 
1798  he  turned  his  attention  es- 
pecially to  the  steamboat,  the  prac- 
ticability of  steam  navigation  hav- 
ing been  already  demonstrated.  In 
1812  the  "Comet,"  a  small  30-ton 
vessel  built  at  Glasgow  under  Bell's 
directions,  and  driven  by  a  three 
horse-power  engine  made  by  him- 
self, commenced  to  ply  between 
Glasgow  and  Greenock,  and  continued 
to  run  till  she  was  wrecked  in  1820. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  steam  navi- 
gation in  Europe.  Bell  is  also  cred- 
ited with  the  invention  of  the  "  dis- 
charging machine "  used  by  calico 
printers.  He  died  in  Helensburgh,  in 
1830.  A  monument  has  been  erected 
to  his  memory  at  Dunglass  Point  on 
the  Clyde. 

Bell,  Henry  Haywpod,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  born  in  North  Caro- 
lina, about  1808;  was  appointed  a 
midshipman  irom  that  State  in 
1823.  Shortly  after  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War,  he  became  Fleet 
Captain  of  the  Western  Gulf  Squad- 
ron. He  commanded  one  of  the 
three  divisions  of  the  fleet  which  cap- 
tured New  Orleans,  and  was  sent  to 
raise  the  United  States  flag  over  the 
custom  house  and  the  city  hall.  In 
1866  he  was  promoted  to  Rear-Ad- 
miral ;  and,  in  1867,  retired.  He  was 
drowned  at  the  mouth  ef  the  Osaka 
river,  Japan,  Jan.  11,  1868. 

Bell,  Isaac,  an  American  philan- 
thropist, born  in  New  York  city.  Aug. 


Bell 

4,  1814 ;  died  in  New  York  city,  Sept. 
30,  1S97. 

Bell,  James  Franklin,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer,  born  in  Shelby- 
ville,  Ky.,  Jan.  9,  1856;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1878 ;  was  promoted  to 
First  Lieutenant,  Dec.  29,  1890 ;  Cap- 
tain, March  2,  1899,  and  Colonel  of 
the  36th  United  States  Infantry,  July 
5  following.  In  an  action  with  the 
Filipino  insurgents  near  Porac,  Lu- 
zon, Sept.  9,  following,  he  so  signally 
distinguished  himself  that  President 
McKinley  directed  that  a  Congression- 
al medal  of  honor  be  presented  to  him. 
He  had  much  to  do  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  United  States  War 
School  for  Cavalry  and  Light  Artil- 
lery at  Fort  Riley,  Kan. ;  was  chief 
of  staff,  U.  S.  A.,  1906-10;  became 
commander  of  the  Eastern  Depart- 
ment, Governor's  Island,  New  York, 
in  March,  1917. 

Bell,  John,  an  American  states- 
man, born  near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb. 
18,  1797;  "was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1816 ;  member  of  Congress  from  1827 
to  1841;  Speaker  in  1834,  and  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  1841.  During  this 
period  he  became  from  an  ardent  free 
trader,  a  protectionist  and  supporter 
of  the  Whigs,  and  favored  the  recep- 
tion of  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia ; 
afterward  (1858)  he  vigorously  op- 
posed the  admission  of  Kansas  as  a 
slave  State.  He  sat  in  the  United 
States  Senate  from  1847  to  1859,  and, 
in  18GO,  was  nominated  for  the  Presi- 
dency by  the  "  Constitutional  Union  " 
Party,  but  received  only  39  electoral 
votes,  cast  by  the  States  of  Tennes- 
see, Kentucky  and  Virginia.  He  after- 
ward took  no  active  share  in  politics, 
and  died  at  Cumberland  Ironworks, 
Sept.  10,  1869. 

Bell,  Liberty,  a  famous  bell 
•which  was  rung  when  the  Continental 
Congress  declared  the  independence  of 
the  United  States  in  1776.  The  order 
for  founding  it  was  given  in  1751.  The 
State  House  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Phil- 
adelphia, work  on  which  had  been  sus- 
pended for  a  number  of  years,  was 
then  approaching  completion.  The 
lower  floors  were  already  occupied  by 
the  Supreme  Court  in  the  Chamber, 
while  in  the  other  assembled  the  Free- 


Bell 

men  of  the  Province  of  Pennsylvania, 
then  consisting  of  one  body.  A  com- 
mittee was  appointed  by  the  Freemen, 
with  Peter  Norris  as  chairman,  and 
empowered  to  have  a  new  bell  cast  for 
the  building.  The  commission  for  the 
bell  was,  in  the  same  year,  awarded 
to  Robert  Charles,  of  London,  the 
specification  being  that  the  bell  should 
weigh  2,000  pounds  and  cost  £100 
sterling.  It  was  to  be  made  by  the 
best  workmen,  to  be  examined  care- 
fully before  being  shipped,  and  to  con- 
tain, in  well  shaped  letters  around  it, 
the  inscription :  "  By  order  of  the 
Province  of  Pennsylvania  for  the 
State  House  in  the  City  of  Philadel- 
phia, 1752."  An  order  was  given  to 
place  underneath  this  the  prophetic 
words  from  Leviticus  xxv  :  10 :  "  Pro- 
claim liberty  throughout  the  land  and 
to  all  the  inhabitants  thereof."  The 
reason  for  the  selection  of  this  text 
has  been  a  subject  of  much  conjecture, 
but  the  true  reason  is  apparent  when 
the  full  text  is  read.  It  is  as  follows : 
"And  ye  shall  hallow  the  50th  year 
and  proclaim  liberty  throughout  the 
land  and  to  all  the  inhabitants  there- 
of." In  selecting  the  text  the  Quakers 
had  in  memory  the  arrival  of  William 
Penn  and  their  forefathers  more  than 
half  a  century  before.  In  August, 
1752,  the  bell  arrived,  but  though  in 
apparent  good  order,  it  was  cracked 
by  a  stroke  of  the  clapper  while  being 
tested.  It  was  recast  successfully,  and 
placed  in  position  in  June,  1753.  Af- 
ter the  Declaration  of  Independence  it 
rang  out  the  memorable  message  of 
"  Liberty  throughout  the  land  and  to 
all  the  inhabitants  thereof."  For  50 
years  the  bell  continued  to  be  rung  on 
every  festival  and  anniversary,  until 
it  eventually  cracked.  An  ineffectual 
attempt  was  made  to  cause  it  to  con- 
tinue serviceable  by  enlarging  the 
cause  of  its  dissonance  and  chipping 
the  edges.  It  was  removed  from  its 
position  in  the  tower  to  a  lower  story, 
and  only  used  on  occasions  of  public 
sorrow.  Subsequently,  it  was  placed 
on  the  original  timbers  in  the  vesti- 
bule of  the  State  House,  and,  in  1873, 
it  was  suspended  in  a  prominent  posi- 
tion immediately  beneath  where  a 
larger  bell,  presented  to  the  city  in 
1866,  now  proclaims  the  passing 
hours.  In  1893  it  was  taken  to  Chi' 


BeU ^ 

cago  and  placed  on  exhibition  at  the 
World's  Columbian  Exposition. 

Bell,  Lilian,  an  American  novel- 
ist, born  in  Kentucky  in  1867. 

Bell,  Robert,  a  Canadian  geolo- 
gist, born  in  the  township  of  Toronto, 
Ont,  June  3,  1841;  author  of  about 
130  reports  and  papers,  a  list  of  which 
is  found  in  the  "  Biblio  of  the  Royal 
Society." 

Bell,  Samuel  Dana,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  in  Francestown,  N. 
H.,  Oct.  9,  1798;  died  in  Winchester, 
N.  H.,  July  31,  1868. 

Belladonna,  a  European  plant, 
atropa  belladonna,  or  deadly  night- 
shade, natural  order  solanaceae.  It  is 
native  in  Great  Britain.  All  parts  of 
the  plant  are  poisonous,  and  the  in- 
cautious eating  of  the  berries  has  often 
produced  death.  The  inspissated  juice 
is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of 
extract  of  belladonna.  It  is  narcotic 
and  poisonous,  but  is  of  great  value 
in  medicine,  especially  in  nervous  ail- 
ments. It  has  the  property  of  causing 
the  pupil  of  the  eye  to  dilate.  The 
fruit  of  the  plant  is  a  dark,  brownish- 
black  shining  berry.  The  name  signi- 
fies beautiful  lady,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  given  from  the  use  of  the  plant 
as  a  cosmetic. 

Bellamy,  Edward,  an  American 
writer,  born  in  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass., 
March  29,  1850.  He  was  educated  in 
Germany ;  admitted  to  the  bar ;  was 
on  the  staff  of  the  "  Evening  Post  "  of 
New  York  in  1871-1872;  and  on  his 
return  from  the  Sandwich  Islands  in 
1877,  he  founded  the  Springfield 
"  News."  He  is  best  known  by  his 
novel  "Looking  Backward"  (1888), 
a  socialistic  work,  of  which  an  im- 
mense number  of  copies  were  sold  in 
two  years.  He  died  in  Chicopee  Falls, 
Mass.,  May  22,  1898. 

Bellamy,  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Whitfield,  (Groom),  an  American 
novelist,  writing  under  the  pseudonym 
KAMBA.  THORPE,  born  at  Quincy,  Fla., 
1839.  She  died  in  1900. 

Bell  Bird,  a  bird,  called  also  the 
arapunga.  It  is  pure  white  in  color, 
about  a  foot  in  length,  and  has  a  voice 
like  the  tolling  of  a  bell.  It  inhabits 
Guiana. 

Belle  de  Nnit,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  Marvel  of  Peru  (mira- 


Belligerent 

bilis  jalapa),  sometimes  also  to  cer- 
tain tropical  American  and  West  In- 
dian species  of  convolvulacese,  with 
extremely  beautiful  and  fragrant  flow- 
ers, which  open  only  during  the  night. 

Belle  -  Isle,  or  Belle  -  Isle  -  en 
Mer,  a  French  island  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  Department  of  Morbihan,  8 
miles  S.  of  Quiberon  Point ;  length,  11 
miles ;  greatest  breadth,  6  miles.  Pop. 
about  10,000,  largely  engaged  in  the 
pilchard  fishing.  The  capital  is  Le 
Palais,  on  the  N.  E.  coast. 

Belle-Isle,  a  rocky  island  9  miles 
long,  at  the  E.  entrance  to  the  Strait 
of  Belle-Isle,  the  channel,  17  miles 
wide,  between  Newfoundland  and  the 
coast  of  Labrador. 

Belle-Isle,  an  island  in  the  James 
river,  near  Richmond,  Va.,  where 
Union  prisoners  were  confined  during 
the  Civil  War. 

Belles  Lettres,  polite,  or  elegant 
literature :  a  word  of  somewhat  vague 
signification.  Rhetoric,  poetry,  fiction, 
history,  and  criticism,  with  the  lan- 
guages in  which  these  works  are 
written  come  under  this  head. 

Belleville,  city  and  capital  of  St. 
Clair  county,  111.;  on  the  Illinois 
Central  and  other  railroads;  14  miles 
S.  E.  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  is  in  a 
wheat,  corn,  oats,  hay,  and  vegetable 
section;  has  valuable  coal  mines 
nearby;  and  manufactures  traction 
engines,  glass,  stoves  and  ranges, 
machinery,  bricks,  and  farming  im- 
plements. Pop.  (1910)  21,122. 

Bellville,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Hastings  district,  Ontario, 
Canada;  on  the  Moira  river,  Quinte 
bay,  and  Grand  Trunk  railroad;  113 
miles  E.  of  Toronto;  has  a  fine  har- 
bor; superior  water-power,  and  steamer 
connection  with  Canadian  and  United 
States  points;  is  the  seat  of  Albert 
College  (M.  E.);  and  is  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing  and  farming. 
Pop.  (1911)  9,876. 

Belligerent,  a  nation  or  a  large 
section  of  a  nation  engaged  in  carry- 
ing on  war.  When  a  revolted  party 
of  great  numerical  strength  are  able 
to  form  a  regular  government  and  rule 
over  the  whole,  or  part  of  the  territory 
which  they  claim,  humanity  dictates 
that  they  should  not  be  treated  as 
rebels  guilty  of  treason,  but  should, 
if  captured,  be  regarded  as  prisoners 


Bellingliam 


Bellows 


of  war.  To  attain  this  result,  it  is 
needful  for  those  who  have  risen  in 
arms  against  the  government  to  make 
every  effort  to  obtain  for  their  party 
the  position  of  belligerents.  In  the 
contest  between  the  Federals  and  Con- 
federates, in  the  war  of  1861-1865, 
the  latter,  at  the  commencement  of 
the  struggle,  claimed  the  privilege  of 
belligerents.  Their  demand  was  ac- 
ceded to  by  the  British  Government, 
on  which  the  Federal  authorities 
took  umbrage,  contending  that  the 
recognition  had  been  premature. 

Bellingliam,  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  capital  of  Whatcom  county, 
Wash.;  on  Bellingham  bay  and  sev- 
eral railroads;  80  miles  N.  of  Seattle; 
comprises  the  former  cities  of  Fair 
Haven  and  Whatcom,  united  in  1903; 
has  an  excellent  harbor  on  Puget 
sound,  state  normal  school,  two  Car- 
negie libraries  gnd  varied  manufac- 
tures. Pop.  (1910)  24,298. 

Bellingham,  Richard,  an  Eng- 
lish colonial  governor,  born  in  1592 ; 
arrived  in  Boston  in  1634,  and  in  the 
following  year  became  deputy  gover- 
nor of  Massachusetts.  In  1641  he  was 
candidate  for  governor  against  Win- 
throp,  and  was  elected ;  was  re-elected 
in  1654  and  1665 ;  and  held  the  gover- 
norship at  the  time  of  his  death.  In 
1664  he  refused  to  go  to  England  at 
the  command  of  the  King,  to  defend 
his  administration.  He  became  Majpr- 
General  in  the  same  year.  He  died 
Dec.  7,  1672. 

Bellini,  the  name  of  a  Venetian 
family  which  produced  several  re- 
markable painters.  GIOVANNI  BELLI- 
NI, born  in  1426,  died  in  1512,  was 
the  founder  of  the  older  Venetian 
school  of  painting,  and  contributed 
greatly  to  its  progress.  His  best  works 
are  altar  pieces. 

Bellinzona,  a  town  of  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  the  canton  of  Ticino ; 
charmingly  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ticino,  about  5  miles  from  its 
embouchure  in  in  the  N.  end  of  Lago 
Maggiore.  It  occupies  a  position  of 
great  military  importance. 

Bellman,  Carl  Michael,  a  Swe- 
dish poet,  born  in  Stockholm,  Feb.  4, 
1740.  His  poems  were  often  improvisa- 
tions, and  the  airs  of  his  songs  were 
largely  of  his  own  composition.  As 
singer  of  the  rollicking  life  of  a  capi- 


tal city,  he  is  unsurpassed.  A  colossal 
bronze  bust  of  Bellman,  by  Bystrom, 
was  erected  in  the  Zoological  Garden 
at  Stockholm  in  1829,  and  there  a 
popular  festival  is  held  yearly  in  his 
honor.  He  died  in  Stockholm,  Feb. 
11,  1795. 

Bello,  Andres,  a  Spanish-Ameri- 
can diplomatist  and  author,  born  in 
Caracas,  Venezuela,  Nov.  30,  1780. 
From  1810  to  1828  he  represented 
Venezuela  in  London ;  in  1829,  became 
an  official  of  the  Bureau  of  Finance; 
in  1834,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
for  Chile;  in  1842,  the  first  rector  of 
Santiago  University.  He  was  the  au- 
thor of  "  Principles  of  International 
Law"  (1832),  and  his  entire  works 
were  printed  after  his  death  at  the 
expense  of  the  State.  He  died  in  San- 
tiago, Chile,  Oct.  15,  1865. 

Bellona,  the  goddess  of  war,  and 
sister  or  wife,  or  sister-wife  and  chari- 
oteer of  Mars. 

Bellot,  Joseph  Rene,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  in  Paris  in  1826. 
In  1851  he  joined  the  expedition  to 
the  Polar  regions  in  search  of  Sir 
John  Franklin,  and  took  part  in  sev- 
eral explorations.  He  was  drowned 
in  an  attempt  to  carry  despatches  to 
Sir  Edward  Belsher  over  the  ice,  in 
1853.  His  diary  was  published  in 
1855. 

Bellot  Strait,  the  passage  on  the 
N.  coast  of  North  America,  which 
separates  North  Somerset  from  Boo- 
thia Felix,  and  connects  Prince  Re- 
gent Inlet  with  Franklin  Channel.  Its 
E.  entrance  was  discovered  in  1852  by 
Lieut.  Joseph  Rene  Bellot. 

Bellows,  an  instrument  for  blow- 
ing the  fire  in  manufactories,  forges  or 
private  houses. 

Bellows,  Albert  F.,  an  American 
painter  born  in  Milford,  Mass.,  Nov. 
20,  1829 ;  was  one  of  the  first  to  suc- 
ceed with  water  colors.  He  died  in 
Auburndale,  Mass.,  Nov.  24,  1883. 

Bellows,  Henry  'Whitney,  an 
American  Unitarian  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Walpole,  N.  H.,  June 
11,  1814;  became  pastor  of  All  Souls 
Church,  New  York,  1839;  was  chief 
founder  and  long  editor  of  the  "  Chris- 
tian Inquirer"  (1846);  chief  origi- 
nator of  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission,  and  its  President  during 
the  Civil  War  (1861-1865).  He  was 


Bellows  Fish. 

an  effective  preacher  and  public  speak- 
er. He  died  in  New  York,  Jan.  30, 
1882. 

Bellows  Fish,  called  also  the  trum- 
pet fish  or  sea  snipe.  It  is  4  or  5 
inches  long,  and  has  an  oblong,  oval 
body  and  a  tubular  elongated  snout, 
which  is  adapted  for  drawing  from 
among  sea-weed  and  mud  the  minute 
Crustacea  on  which  it  feeds. 

Bell  Rock,  or  Inch.  Cape,  a  dan- 
gerous reef  surmounted  by  a  light- 
house, situated  in  the  German  Ocean, 
about  12  miles  from  Arbroath,  nearly 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river  Tay. 
It  is  said  that  in  former  ages  the 
monks  of  Aberbrothock  caused  a  bell 
to  be  fixed  on  this  reef,  which  was 
rung  by  the  waves,  and  warned  the 
mariners  of  this  dangerous  place.  The 
reef  is  partly  uncovered  during  the  ebb 
tides. 

Bell-Smith,   Frederic   Marlett, 

an  English  artist,  born  in  London, 
Sept.  26,  1846;  went  to  Canada  in 
1866.  He  was  for  seven  years  Art  Di- 
rector at  Alma  College,  St.  Thomas, 
and  teacher  of  drawing  in  the  public 
schools  of  London,  Ont.  About  1888 
he  became  a  portrait  and  figure  paint- 
er ;  but  he  is  best  known  as  a  painter 
of  landscapes. 

Belmont,  a  town  in  the  E.  part 
of  Cape  Colony,  midway  between 
Orange  River  Junction  and  Kimber- 
ley.  It  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the 
earliest  engagements  in  the  war  of 
1899-1900,  between  the  Boers  and  the 
British  under  Gen.  Lord  Methuen. 
The  town  was  attacked  by  the  British 
on  Nov.  23,  1899,  while  on  the  march 
to  the  relief  of  Kimberley,  and  the 
battle  resulted  in  a  victory  for  them. 
Two  days  later  Lord  Methuen  took 
Graas  Pan,  10  miles  N.  of  Belmont, 
after  again  defeating  the  Boers. 

Belmont,  August,  an  American 
banker,  born  in  Alzey,  Germany;  ed- 
ucated at  Frankfort,  and  was  appren- 
ticed to  the  Rothschild's  banking 
house  in  that  city  when  14  years  old. 
In  1837  he  went  to  Havana  to  take 
charge  of  the  firm's  interests,  and  soon 
afterward  was  sent  to  New  York  city, 
where  he  established  himself  in  the 
banking  business  and  as  the  represent- 
ative of  the  Rothschilds.  He  was 
Consul-General  of  Austria,  in  1844- 
1850 ;  became  Charge  d'Affaires  at 


Beloit 

The  Hague  in  1853;  and  was  Minis- 
ter-Resident there  in  1854-1858.  He 
was  a  delegate  to  the  Democratic  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1860,  and  when 
a  portion  of  the  delegates  withdrew 
and  organized  the  convention  in  Balti- 
more, he  was  active  in  that  body,  and 
through  it  became  Chairman  of  the 
National  Democratic  Committee,  an 
office  he  held  till  1872.  He  was  an 
active  worker  in  the  party  till  1876, 
when  he  closed  his  political  career. 
He  died  in  New  York  city,  Nov.  24. 
1890. 

Belmont,  August,  an  American 
banker,  born  in  New  York  city,  Feb. 
18,  1853 ;  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  University 
in  1875 ;  at  once  entered  his  father's 
banking  house,  and  on  the  death  of 
his  father  became  head  of  the  firm  of 
August  Belmont  &  Co.,  also  repre- 
senting the  European  banking  firm  of 
the  Rothschilds.  In  February,  1900, 
he  organized  the  Rapid  Transit  Sub- 
way Construction  Company  to  back 
John  B.  McDonald,  who  had  been 
awarded  the  $35,000,000  contract  for 
the  construction  of  the  rapid  transit 
system  in  New  York  city.  He  became 
largely  interested  in  railroad  and 
banking  affairs. 

Belmont,  Perry,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  New  York,  Dec.  28, 
1851 ;  son  of  August  Belmont ;  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1872, 
and  at  Columbia  College  Law  School 
in  1876 ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
practiced  in  New  York  till  1881,  when 
he  was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  Con- 
gress, and  served  till  1887,  being  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign 
Affairs.  In  1885  he  was  appointed 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  For- 
eign Affairs,  and  in  1888  United 
States  Minister  to  Spain.  He  was 
one  of  the  principals  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  great  contract  for  the 
construction  of  a  rapid  transit  sys- 
tem in  New  York  city,  in  1900. 

Beloit,  a  city  in  Rock  county, 
Wis.;  on  the  Rock  river  and  the 
Chicago  &  Northwestern  and  other 
railroads;  84  miles  S.  W.  of  Milwau- 
kee; is  the  seat  of  Beloit  College 
(Cong.);  has  ample  power  from  the 
river  for  its  factories;  and,  besides 
one  of  the  largest  wood-working  ma- 
chinery plants  in  the  world,  manu- 


Belsliazzar 


Ben 


factures  wind-mills,  towers  and 
tanks,  shoes,  and  building  paper. 
Pop.  (1910)  15,125. 

Belsliazzar,  the  last  of  the  Baby- 
lonian kings,  who  reigned  conjointly 
with  his  father  Nabonadius.  He  per- 
ished B.  C.  538,  during  the  successful 
storming  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus. 

Belt,  in  astronomy,  a  varying  num- 
ber of  dusky,  belt-like  bands  or  zones 
encircling  the  planet  Jupiter  parallel 
to  his  equator,  as  if  the  clouds  of  his 
atmosphere  had  been  forced  into  a 
series  of  parallels  through  the  rapidity 
of  his  rotation,  and  the  dark  body  of 
the  planet  was  seen  through  the  com- 
paratively clear  spaces  between. 

In  physical  geography,  two  pas- 
sages or  straits  connecting  the  Baltic 
with  the  German  Ocean,  viz.  (a)  the 
Great  Belt,  between  the  islands  of 
Seeland  and  Laland  on  the  N.  and 
Fuhnen  and  Langeland,  on  the  W. 
(b)  The  Little  Belt,  between  the 
mainland  of  Denmark  on  the  W.,  and 
the  island  of  Fuhnen  on  the  E. 

Beltane,  a  superstitious  observ- 
ance now  or  formerly  practiced  among 
the  Scottish  and  Irish  Celts,  as  well 
as  in  Cumberland  and  Lancashire. 
The  Scotch  observe  the  Beltane  f°sti- 
val  chiefly  on  the  1st  of  May  (old 
style),  though  in  the  W.  of  that  coun- 
try St.  Peter's  Day,  June  29,  was  pre- 
ferred. In  Ireland  there  were  two 
Beltanes,  one  on  the  1st  of  May,  and 
the  other  on  the  21st  of  June.  The 
ceremonies  varied  in  different  places, 
but  one  essential  part  of  them  every- 
where was  to  light  a  fire.  At  Cal- 
lander,  in  Perthshire,  the  boys  went 
to  the  moors,  cut  a  table  out  of  sods, 
sat  round  it,  lit  a  fire,  cooked  and  ate 
a  custard,  baked  an  oatmeal  cake,  di- 
vided it  into  equal  segments,  black- 
ened one  of  these,  drew  lots,  and  then 
compelled  the  boy  who  drew  out  the 
blackened  piece  to  leap  three  times 
through  the  fire.  Merry-makings  came 
at  length  to  attend  the  Beltane  festi- 
val. 

Beluga,  a  species  of  fish — the 
great  or  Hausen,  sturgeon.  It  is 
sometimes  12  to  15  feet  in  length,  and 
weighs  1,200  pounds,  or  in  rare  cases 
even  3,000.  The  best  isinglass  is  made 
from  its  swimming  bladder.  Its  flesh, 
though  sometimes  eaten,  is  occasional- 
ly unwholesome.  It  is  found  in  the 


Caspian  and  Black  Seas  and  the  large 
rivers  which  flow  into  them.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  a  cetacean.  It 
is  called  also  the  white  whale.  It  is 
from  18  to  21  feet  in  length,  and  in- 
habits Davis  Straits  and  the  other 
portions  of  the  Northern  Seas,  and 
sometimes  ascends  rivers. 

Being,  the  Roman  name  of  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  divinity 
called  Bel  in  Isaiah  xlvi :  1. 

Belns,  a  Phoanician  river  at  the 
base  of  Mt.  Carmel.  Its  fine  sand, 
according  to  tradition,  first  led  the 
Phoenicians  to  the  invention  of  glass. 

Belns,  Temple  of,  an  enormous 
temple  in  ancient  Babylon,  rebuilt  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  about  604  B.  c.  Its 
site  is  thought,  by  some  authorities, 
to  be  the  modern  Bers-Nimrud,  and  by 
others,  Babil. 

Belvedere,  in  architecture  the  up- 
permost story  of  a  building  open  to 
the  air,  at  least  on  one  side,  and  fre- 
quently on  all,  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining a  view  of  the  country  and  for 
enjoying  cool  air.  A  portion  of  the 
Vatican  has  this  name. 

Bembo,  Fietro,  an  Italian  schol- 
ar, born  at  Venice  in  1470.  Pope 
Paul  III.  conferred  on  him,  1539,  the 
hat  of  a  cardinal,  and  soon  after  the 
bishoprics  of  Gubbio  and  Bergamo. 
He  died  in  1547. 

Bemis,  Edward  Webster,  an 
American  economist,  born  in  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  April  7,  I860;  graduated 
at  Amherst  College  in  1880 ;  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Economical  Science  in  the 
Kansas  State  Agricultural  College, 
1897-9 ;  later  engaged  in  economic 
research  work  in  Cleveland,  O.,  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  New  York  city,  and  else- 
where ;  author  of  numerous  papers 
and  articles  on  city  administration. 

Bemis  (incorrectly  BEMUS) 
Heights,  a  village  in  Saratoga  coun- 
ty, N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson  river,  fam- 
ous as  the  scene  of  the  first  battle  of 
Stillwater,  Sept.  19,  1777. 

Ben  (Hebrew,  "son"),  a  prepos- 
itive syllable  signifying  in  composition 
"  son  of,"  found  in  many  Jewish 
names,  as  Bendavid,  Benasser?  etc. 

Ben,  a  Gaelic  word  signifying 
mountain,  prefixed  to  the  names  of 
many  mountains  in  Scotland  N.  of  the 
Firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth;  as,  Ben 
Nevis,  Ben  MacDhui,  etc. 


Benaiah 

Benaiah,  the  name  of  12  different 
persons  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the 
one  chiefly  important  being  a  son  of 
Jehoida,  a  chief  priest.  He  was  made 
commander-in-chief  in  Joab's  place  by 
Solomon. 

Benalcazor,  Belasazor,  or  Ve- 
lalcazor,  Sebastian  de,  the  name 
given  to  SEBASTIAN  MOVANO  from  his 
native  town ;  a  Spanish  soldier  who 
figured  in  the  Spanish  conquests  in 
South  America.  His  gallant  conduct 
attracted  the  attention  of  Pizarro, 
w.ho  promoted  him.  He  took  the  city 
of  Quito,  made  an  expedition  into  Co- 
lombia and  reduced  Popayan,  and  was 
appointed  governor  of  that  part  of 
the  country  in  1538.  He  was  forced 
to  resign  this  office  in  consequence  of 
legal  complications  and  died  when 
about  to  return  to  Spain,  in  1550. 

Benares,  a  town  in  Hindustan, 
Northwest  Provinces,  administrative 
headquarters  of  a  district  and  division 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  from  which  it  rises  like 
an  amphitheater,  presenting  a  splen- 
did panorama  of  temples,  mosques, 
palaces,  and  other  buildings,  with 
their  domes,  minarets,  etc.  Fine 
ghauts  lead  down  to  the  river.  It  _is 
one  of  the  most  sacred  places  of  pil- 
grimage in  all  India,  being  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Hindu  religion.  The 
principal  temple  is  dedicated  to  Siva, 
whose  sacred  symbol  it  contains.  It 
is  also  the  seat  of  government  and 
other  colleges,  and  of  the  missions  of 
various  societies.  Benares  carries  on 
a  large  trade  in  the  produce  of  the 
district  and  in  English  goods,  and 
manufactures  silks,  shawls,  embroid- 
ered cloth,  jewelry,  etc.  The  popula- 
tion in  (1911)  203,804. 

Benbow,  John,  an  English  admi- 
ral, born  in  Shrewsbury  about  1650, 
died  1702.  For  his  skill  and  valor  in 
an  action  with  a  Barbary  pirate  he 
was  promoted  by  James  II.  to  the  com- 
mand of  a  ship  of  war.  William  III. 
employed  him  in  protecting  the  En- 
glish trade  in  the  Channel,  which  he 
did  with  great  effect,  and  he  was  soon 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral. 
In  1701  he  sailed  to  the  West  Indies 
with  a  small  fleet,  and  in  August  of 
the  following  year  he  fell  in  with  the 
French  fleet  under  Du  Casse,  and  in 
the  heat  of  action  a  chain-shot  carried 


Benedict 

away  one  of  his  legs.  At  this  critical 
instant,  being  most  disgracefully  aban- 
doned by  several  of  the  captains  under 
his  command,  the  whole  fleet  effected 
its  escape.  Benbow,  on  his  return  to 
Jamaica,  brought  the  delinquents  to  a 
court-martial,  by  which  two  of  them 
were  condemned  to  be  shot  He  him- 
self died  of  his  wounds. 

Bench  Warrant,  a  warrant  is- 
sued by  the  court  before  which  an  in- 
dictment has  been  found  to  arrest  the 
accused,  that  he  may  appear  and  find 
bail  for  his  appearance  at  the  trial. 
It  is  used  extensively  in  the  United 
States  to  bring  into  court  persons  who 
have  neglected  to  obey  an  order  of 
court,  such  as  delinquent  jurymen. 

Bencoolen,  a  seaport  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Sumatra  Island,  Dutch  East 
Indies ;  capital  of  a  Residency  of  the 
same  name.  It  was  founded  in  1685 
by  the  English  and  ceded  to  the  Dutch 
in  1824.  Area  of  Residency,  9,399 
square  miles ;  pop.  of  Residency,  214,- 
272;  of  town,  5,000. 

Bendemann,  Eduard,  a  German 
painter,  born  in  Berlin,  Dec.  3,  1811s 
died  in  Dusseldorf,  Dec.  27,  1889. 

Bendire,  Charles  Emil,  a  Ger- 
man-American military  officer  and  or- 
nithologist, born  in  Darmstadt,  Ger- 
many, April  27,  1836,  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1852,  and  entered 
the  army  in  1854.  He  served  through 
the  Civil  War,  becoming  a  Captain  in 
the  1st  Cavalry.  After  the  war  he 
was  transferred  to  the  West,  and  was 
retired  April  24,  1886.  During  his 
stay  in  the  West  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  ornithology,  and  collected 
a  vast  amount  of  material  in  various 
branches  of  natural  history.  In  1870 
he  began  to  collect  the  eggs  of  North 
American  birds,  which  finally  number- 
ed more  than  8,000  specimens,  and 
this  collection  he  presented  to  the 
United  States  National  Museum.  He 
is  the  author  of  "  The  Life  Histories 
of  North  American  Birds,  with  Spe- 
cial Reference  to  their  Breeding  Hab- 
its and  Eggs." 

Benedetti,  Vincent,  Count  de, 
a  French  diplomatist  of  Italian  ex- 
traction,  born  in  Bastia,  Corsica, 
April  29,  1817;  died  in  Paris,  March 
28,  1900. 

Benedict,  a  married  man ;  from 
the  Latin  benedictus  (a  happy  man). 


Benedict  VII. 

Benedict  VII.,  Pope,  succeeded 
John  XIII.  in  972.  After  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  Otho  I.,  the  Romans 
imprisoned  Benedict,  who  was  stran- 
gled in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  in 
974. 

Benedict  XIV.,  Pope,  was  born 
at  Bologna  in  1075,  of  the  noble  fam- 
ily of  Lambertini.  Benedict  was 
learned,  not  only  in  theology,  but  in 
history  and  literature,  and  had  also 
a  taste  for  the  fine  arts.  His  works 
were  published  at  Rome,  in  12  vol- 
umes quarto.  He  died  in  1758,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Clement  XIII. 

Benedict  XV.,  Pope  (Giacoma 
Cardinal  Delia  Chiesa),  born  in  Pog- 
li,  Italy,  Nov.  21,  1854 ;  was  educated 
at  the  Academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics 
in  Rome ;  ordained  in  1878 ;  became 
archbishop  of  Bologna  in  1907,  a  car- 
dinal in  1914,  and  Pope,  in  succession 
to  Pius  X.,  on  Sept  3,  1914.  He  had 
a  thorough  training  in  diplomacy, 
which  was  utilized  in  attempts  to 
ameliorate  conditions  in  the  warring 
countries  and  to  bring  about  a  speedy 
peace.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Benedict,  St.,  the  founder  of  the 
Order  of  the  Benedictine  Monks,  was 
born  at  Nursia,  in  the  Dukedom  of 
Spoleto,  in  Italy,  in  480  A.  D.  Authors 
are  not  agreed  upon  the  time  and 
place  of  his  death. 

Benedict,  Frank  Lee,  an  Amer- 
ican novelist  and  poet,  born  in  New 
York  in  1834. 

Benediction  (from  the  Latin  be- 
nedicere,  literally,  "  to  speak  well  of ;" 
"to  commend"),  a  solemn  invocation 
of  the  Divine  blessing  upon  men  or 
things.  The  ceremony  in  its  simplest 
form  may  be  considered  almost  coeval 
with  the  earliest  expressions  of  religi- 
ous feeling.  The  Sabbath  is  said  to 
have  been  blessed.  Christ  "  took  bread  | 
and  blessed  it,"  and  "  lifting  up  His 
hands,"  blessed  His  disciples.  In  the 
primitive  Church  the  custom  gradual- 
ly developed  itself  in  various  liturgi- 
cal forms.  In  Protestant  churches  a 
form  of  benediction  is  used  at  the 
close  of  religious  services.  In  the  Ro- 
man Church  a  priestly  benediction  has 
been  defined  as  a  formula  of  impera- 
tive prayer,  which,  in  addition  to  the 
desire  which  it  expresses,  transmits  a 
certain  grace  or  virtue  to  the  object 
over  which  it  is  pronounced. 


Benevolence 

Benedictns,  the  name  given  to 
the  hymn  of  Zacharias  (Luke  i:  68), 
used  as  a  canticle  in  the  morning  ser- 
vice of  the  Episcopal  Church  to  fol- 
low the  lessons.  This  position  it  has 
occupied  from  very  ancient  times.  It 
is  also  used  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Benefice,  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem, an  estate  held  by  feudal  tenure. 
Formerly,  and  even  sometimes  yet, 
the  word  was  applied  to  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal living  of  any  kind,  any  church  en- 
dowed with  a  revenue,  whether  a  dig- 
nity or  not. 

Benefit  of  Clergy,  the  advantage 
derived  from  the  preferment  of  the 
plea  "  I  am  a  clergyman."  When  in 
medieval  times,  a  clergyman  was  ar- 
raigned on  certain  charges  he  was 
permitted  to  put  forth  the  plea  that 
with  respect  to  the  offense  of  which 
he  was  accused,  he  was  not  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts,  but, 
being  a  clergyman,  was  entitled  to  be 
tried  by  his  spiritual  superiors.  The 
cases  in  which  the  benefit  of  clergy 
might  be  urged  were  such  as  affected 
the  life  or  limbs  of  the  offender,  high 
treason,  however,  excepted.  The  ex- 
emption has  never  been  recognized  in 
Ame.rica,  and  is  abolished  in  Great 
Britain. 

Benevento  (ancient  Beneventum), 
a  city  of  Southern  Italy,  32  miles  N. 
E.  of  Naples,  and  is  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  same  name.  Near  Bene- 
vento, in  1266,  was  fought  the  great 
battle  between  Charles  of  Anjou  and 
his  rival,  Manfred,  in  which  the  latter 
was  killed,  and  his  army  totally  de- 
feated. During  the  reign  of  Napo- 
leon I.,  Benevento  was  formed  into  a 
principality  conferred  on  Talleyrand. 
In  1815,  it  again  reverted  to  the  Pope. 
In  1860,  it  was  annexed  to  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  Pop.,  province  (1911), 
254,726;  city,  25,123. 

Benevolence,  in  the  history  of 
the  law  of  England,  was  a  species  of 
forced  loan  or  contribution,  levied  by 
kings  without  legal  authority.  It  was 
first  so  called  in  1473,  when  asked 
from  his  subjects  by  Edward  IV.  as  a 
mark  of  good  will  toward  his  rule. 
James  I.  tried,  but  with  little  success, 
to  raise  money  by  this  expedient,  and 
it  was  never  again  attempted  by  the 
crown;  Charles  I.  expressly  declining 
to  have  recourse  to  it. 


Benezeth 


Benhani 


Benezcth,  Anthony,  a  French- 
iAjnerican  philanthropist,  was  born  in 
St.  Quentin's,  France,  Jan.  31,  1713; 
lived  from  infancy  in  England  and  the 
United  States.  The  greater  part  of 
his  writings  were  in  the  form  of  tracts 
against  the  slave  trade  and  in  favor 
of  the  American  Indians.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  May  3,  1784. 

Benfey,  Theodor,  a  German  Ori- 
entalist and  comparative  philologist, 
born  of  Jewish  parents  near  Got- 
tingen,  Jan.  28,  1809.  In  1862  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  San- 
skrit and  Comparative  Philology  in 
the  University  of  Gottingen,  which  he 
held  till  his  death,  June  26,  1881. 

Benga,  an  African  tribe,  living  on 
the  Spanish  island,  Corisco,  off  the 
W.  coast,  having  moved  from  the  in- 
terior within  a  few  generations.  The 
American  Presbyterian  Board  of  Mis- 
sions have  translated  books  into  the 
language,  which  closely  resembles  the 
Kamerun  and  Dualla. 

Bengal,  a  province  in  British  In- 
dia, formerly  a  presidency,  reconsti- 
tuted a  province  in  1912 ;  comprises 
the  deltas  and  .  lower  valleys  of  the 
Ganges ;  area,  78,412  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1911)  45,483,077;  area  with  the 
native  States  of  Cooch  Behar  and 
Hill  Tippera  included,  83,805,  pop. 
46,305,655.  The  chief  town  and  port 
is  Calcutta,  pop.  (1911)  1,222,315. 

The  English  first  got  a  firm  footing 
in  Bengal  about  1644,  and  in 
1707,  Calcutta  was  erected  into  a 
presidency,  and  the  foundation  of 
British  power  in  India  laid.  A  bill 
conferring  upon  agricultural  tenants 
a  transferable  interest  in  their  hold- 
ings and  protecting  them  against  evic- 
tion was  passed  in  1885. 

Bengal,  Bay  of,  that  portion  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  which  lies  between 
Hindustan  and  Farther  India,  or  Bur- 
ma, Siam,  and  Malacca,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  extending  S.  to  Ceylon 
and  Sumatra.  It  receives  the  Ganges, 
Brahmaputra,  and  Irrawadi. 

Bengal,  or  Bengola,  Light,  a 
kind  of  firework,  giving  a  vivid  and 
Bustained  blue  light  It  is  used  for 
signals  at  sea. 

Bengongh,  John  'Wilson,  a  Ca- 
nadian poet,  born  in  Toronto,  April  5, 
1851 :  studied  in  the  Whitley  District 
and  Grammar  School.  In  1873  be  es- 


tablished the  "  Grip,"  a  humorous 
weekly,  in  Toronto.  His  political  car- 
toons in  this  paper  were  highly  artis- 
tic. He  is  also  widely  known  as  a 
lecturer  and  a  poet. 

Bengnela,  a  district  belonging  to 
the  Portuguese  on  the  W.  coast  of 
South  Africa;  bounded  N.  by  Angola, 
and  S.  by  the  Kunene  river;  founded 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1617. 

Benguet,  a  province  of  Luzon, 
Philippines;  separated  from  the  cen- 
tral W.  coast  by  the  province  of  La 
Union;  area,  990  square  miles;  pop. 
(1903)  22,745;  capital,  Baguio,  143 
miles  N.  of  Manila;  native  races, 
Ilocano  and  Igarrotes. 

Ben-Hadad,  or  Benhaddad,  the 
name  of  three  kings  of  Syria.  The 
first  was  a  contemporary  of  Asa,  King 
of  Judah  (929-873  B.  c.),  I  Kings, 
xv.  The  second  (860-824  B.  c.)  of 
the  time  of  Ahab,  King  of  Israel,  I 
Kings,  xx.  The  third  at  the  time  of 
Jehoahaz,  King  of  Israel  (856-839 
B.  C.),  II  Kings,  xiii. 

Benhani,  Andrew  Ellicott 
Kennedy,  an  American  naval  officer, 
born  in  New  York,  April  10,  1832; 
entered  the  navy  in  1847 ;  was  com- 
missioned Rear-Admiral  in  1890,  and 
was  retired  in  1894.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  served  in  the  South  Atlantic 
and  West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadrons. 
In  April,  1893,  he  commanded  one  of 
the  divisions  in  the  great  naval  display 
at  New  York ;  in  1894,  as  commander 
of  a  squadron  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bra- 
zil, he  forced  the  commander  of  the  in- 
surgents' squadron  to  raise  the  block- 
ade of  the  city  and  to  cease  firing  on 
American  vessels  ;  in  1898  was  naval 

gize  commissioner  in  Savannah,  Ga. 
e  died  Aug.  11,  1905. 
Benhani,  Henry  W.,  an  Ameri- 
can military  engineer,  born  in  Ches- 
hire, Conn.,  in  1816;  was  graduated 
at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1837;  and  became  Colonel  of  the 
United  States  Engineers,  and  Brevet 
Major-General,  United  States  army. 
He  commanded  the  engineer  brigade 
and  laid  several  pontoon  bridges  under 
fire  during  the  Chancellorsville  bat- 
tles ;  constructed  and  commanded  the 
defenses  at  City  Point ;  devised  the 
picket  shovel ;  and  made  many  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of 
pontoon  bridges,  in  which  he  was  a 


Beni 

recognized   expert.     He   died   in    New 
York,  June  1,  1884. 

Beni,  a  river  of  Bolivia,  South 
America ;  formed  by  the  union  of  all 
the  streams  flowing  down  the  Eastern 
Cordillera. 

Beni-Hassan,  a  village  of  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Nile, 
remarkable  for  the  grottoes  or  cata- 
combs in  the  neighborhood. 

Beni-Israel,  a  race  in  the  W.  of 
India  (the  Konkan  sea  board,  Bom- 
bay, etc.)  who  keep  a  tradition  of 
Jewish  origin,  and  whose  religion  is  a 
modified  Judaism ;  supposed  to  be  a 
remnant  of  the  ten  tribes. 

Benin,  a  former  negro  kingdom  of 
West  Africa,  on  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
extending  along  the  coast  on  both  sides 
of  the  Benin  river,  W.  of  the  lower 
Niger,  and  to  some  distance  inland. 
The  chief  town  is  Benin  (pop.  15,- 
000),  situated  on  the  river  Benin, 
one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Niger. 

In  February,  1897,  the  Benin  coun- 
try was  included  within  the  Niger 
Coast  Protectorate,  and  a  British 
Resident  was  installed  in  the  chief 
town.  The  whole  territory  was  then 
between  3,000  and  4,000  square  miles 
in  extent,  contained  about  400  towns 
and  villages,  and  had  a  population  of 
which  no  trustworthy  estimate  could 
be  formed. 

Benin,  Bight  of,  part  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  West  Africa,  which 
extends  into  the  land  between  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Volta  and  that  of 
the  Nun. 

Benjamin,  the  youngest  son  of 
Jacob  and  Rachel  (Gen.  xxxv:  16- 
18).  Rachel  died  immediately  after 
he  was  born,  and  with  her  last  breath 
named  him  Ben-oni,  the  "  son  of  my 
sorrow ;"  but  Jacob  called  him  Ben- 
jamin, "  son  of  my  right  hand.'* 

.The  tribe  of  Benjamin,  small  at  first, 
was  almost  exterminated  in  the  days 
of  the  Judges,  but  afterward  it  great- 
ly increased.  On  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  Benjamin  adhered  to  the 
camp  of  Judah ;  and  the  two  tribes 
ever  afterward  closely  united.  King 
Saul  and  Saul  of  Tarsus  were  both 
Benjamites. 

Benjamin,  Jndali  Philip,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  St.  Croix. 
iWest  Indies,  Aug.  11,  1811;  was  of 

E.  17. 


Bennett 

English  parentage  and  of  Jewish 
faith.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  Or- 
leans, in  1832 ;  and  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  in  1852  and 
1858.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil 
War,  he  resigned  from  the  Senate  and 
declared  his  adhesion  to  the  State  of 
Louisiana.  In  1861  he  accepted  the 
office  of  Attorney-General  in  the  Cab- 
inet of  Jefferson  Davis,  and  afterward 
became  successively  Confederate  Sec- 
retary of  War  and  Secretary  of  State. 
After  the  war  he  went  to  London, 
England,  where  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1806.  He  gained  a  suc- 
cessful practice,  and  in  1872  was  for- 
mally presented  with  a  silk  gown.  He 
wrote  a  "  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Sale 
of  Personal  Property"  (1868).  He 
died  in  Paris,  May  7,  1884. 

Benjamin,  Park,  an  American 
journalist,  poet,  and  lecturer,  born  at 
Demerara,  British  Guiana,  Aug.  14, 
1809.  He  studied  law  originally.  His 
poems,  of  a  high  order  of  merit,  have 
never  been  collected.  He  died  in  New 
York,  Sept.  12,  1804. 

Benjamin,  Park,  an  American 
lawyer,  editor,  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in 
New  York,  May  11,  1849.  A  gradu- 
ate of  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy (1867),  he  ser-ved  on  Admiral 
Farragut's  flagship,  but  resigned  in 
1869.  As  a  lawyer  he  has  been  a 
patent  expert.  He  edited  the  "  Scien- 
tific American  "  (1872-1878). 

Benjamin,  Samuel  Green 
Wheeler,  an  American  traveler, 
artist,  and  miscellaneous  writer,  born 
at  Argos,  Greece,  Feb.  13,  1837.  He 
was  United  States  Minister  to  Persia 
(1883-1885).  He  died  July  19,  1914. 

Bennett,  Charles  Wesley,  an 
American  Methodist  clergyman  and 
educator,  born  at  East  Bethany,  N. 
Y.,  July  18,  1828;  was  Principal  of 
Genesee  Wesleyan  Seminary  (1869- 
1871),  Professor  of  History  and 
Logic  at  Syracuse  University  (1871- 
1885),  Professor  of  Historical  Theol- 
ogy at  Garrett  Biblical  Institute, 
Evanston  (1885-1891).  He  died  at 
Evanston,  111.,  April  17,  1891. 

Bennett,  Edmund  Hatch,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Manches- 
ter, Vt,  April  6,  1824 ;  was  gk-aduated 
at  the  University  of  Vermont  in  1843. 


Bennett 


Benson 


and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1847. 
From  1871  he  was  Professor  and  Dean 
at  the  Law  School  of  Boston  Univer- 
sity. He  died  Jan.  2,  1898. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  a 
Scotch-American  journalist ;  founder 
and  proprietor  of  the  New  York 
"  Herald,"  born  in  Newmill,  Keith, 
Sept.  1,  1795.  Trained  for  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  priesthood,  he  emigrated 
to  the  United  States  in  1819,  where 
he  became  in  turn  teacher,  proof  read- 
er, journalist,  and  lecturer;  he 
founded  the  New  York  "  Herald," 
May  6,  1835,  price  one  cent.  He 
spared  no  effort  and  expense  in  se- 
curing news,  and  laid  the  foundation 
of  its  after  enormous  success.  It  was 
the  first  newspaper  to  publish  the 
stock  lists  and  a  daily  money  article. 
He  died  in  New  York,  June  1,  1872. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  an 
American  journalist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  May  10,  1841;  son  of 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  founder  of  the 
New  York  "  Herald,"  of  which  he 
became  managing  editor  in  18G6,  and 
from  that  time  largely  controlling, 
and  becoming  proprietor  on  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1872.  In  1870  he 
sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  on  the  explor- 
ing expedition  which  resulted  in  the 
finding  of  Dr.  Livingstone,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  the  London  "  Daily 
Telegraph,"  supplied  the  means  for 
his  journey  across  Africa  by-  way 
of  the  Kongo  in  1874-1878.  He 
founded  the  "Evening  Telegram " 
in  New  York,  and  established  daily 
editions  of  the  "  Herald "  in  Paris 
and  London.  He  early  gave  much 
attention  to  yachting.  He  resides 
mainly  in  Paris,  collecting  foreign 
news,  and  directing  by  telegraph 
the  management  and  policy  of  his 
newspapers.  The  New  York  "  Her- 
ald "  was  incorporated  in  1899. 

Bennett,  Joseph  H.,  an  Amer- 
ican philanthropist,  born  in  Julius- 
town,  N.  J.,  Aug.  16,  1816.  He  en- 
gaged in  the  clothing  business  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  when  16  years  old.  His 
property  was  said  to  be  worth  $3,000,- 
000,  and  it  is  estimated  that  he  gave 
$1,000,000  to  charity.  He  bequeathed 
$500,000  to  the  University  of  Penn- i 
Bylvania  for  its  proposed  college  for 
women.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Sept  29,  1898. 


Bennett,  Sanford  Fillmoie,  an 
American  hymnologist,  born  in  Eden, 
I  N.  Y.,  in  1836.  He  settled  in  Elk- 
horn,  Wis.,  in  1860,  and  became  editor 
of  the  "  Independent."  Resigning  this 
place,  he  entered  the  40th  Wisconsin 
Volunteers  and  served  with  them 
throughout  the  war.  In  1867  he 
aided  J.  P.  Webster,  the  composer,  in 
preparing  "The  Signet  Ring,"  a  Sun- 
day School  hymn  book,  to  which  he 
contributed  about  100  hymns.  "The 
Sweet  Bye  and  Bye  "  was  one  of  the 
first  of  these.  Many  of  Mr.  Bennett's 
hymns  and  songs  have  been  published 
in  sheets.  He  died  in  Richmond,  111., 
June  12,  1898. 

Ben-Nevis,  the  most  lofty  moun- 
tain in  Great  Britain,  in  Invernes- 
shire,  immediately  E.  of  Fort  William 
and  the  opening  of  the  Caledonian 
canal,  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  Glen- 
more.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  4,406 
feet,  and  in  clear  weather  yields  a 
most  extensive  prospect.  An  observa- 
tory was  established  on  its  summit  in 
May,  1881,  by  the  Scottish  Meteoro- 
logical .Society. 

Benningsen,  or  Bennigsen, 
Levin  August,  Baron,  a  Russian 
general,  born  in  Hanover  in  1745.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Catherine  II., 
and  distinguished  himself  by  great 
gallantry.  He  died  in  1826. 

Bennington,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Bennington  co.,  Vt. ;  on  the 
Bennington  and  Rutland  and  the  Leb- 
anon Springs  railroads;  36  miles  E. 
of  Troy,  N.  Y.  Bennington  is  histor- 
ically famous  on  account  of  the  battle 
fought  Aug.  16,  1777,  when  General 
Stark  with  his  "  Green  Mountain 
Boys  "  defeated  a  large  British  detach- 
ment sent  from  General  Burgoyne's 
army  to  capture  the  public  stores  near 
N.  Bennington.  Pop.  (1910)  6,211. 

Benson,  William  Shepherd,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Ma- 
con,  Ga.,  Sept.  25,  1855 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1877;  promoted  to  captain, 
July  24,  1909,  and  rear-admiral,  May 
11,  1915 ;  was  commandant  of  the 
Philadelphia  navy  yard  in  1913-15 ; 
and  was  appointed  chief  of  the  newly- 
created  Bureau  of  Operations  in  1915. 
His  last  duty  was  rendered  extremely 
onerous  by  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  great  war  in  1917. 


Benteen 

Benteen,     Frederick    •William, 

an  American  military  officer,  born  in 
Petersburg,  Va.,  Aug.  24,  1834;  was 
educated  in  his  native  State ;  and  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  went  to 
Missouri  and  organized  a  company  of 
Union  volunteers.  His  most  brilliant 
service  after  the  war  was  in  his  cam- 
paigns against  the  Indians.  He  died 
in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  June  22,  1898. 

Bent  Grass,  a  genus  of  grasses, 
distinguished  by  a  loose  panicle  of 
small,  flowered,  laterally  compressed 
spikelets.  The  species  are  numerous 
and  are  found  in  almost  all  countries 
and  climates. 

Bentliam,  Jeremy,  an  English 
jurist,  born  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1748 ; 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford ; 
entered  Lincoln's  Inn,  in  1763.  He 
was  called  to  the  bar,  but  did  not 
practice,  and,  having  private  means, 
devoted  himself  to  the  reform  of  civil 
and  criminal  legislation.  He  died  in 
London,  June  6,  1832,  leaving  his  body 
for  dissection.  His  remains  are  to  be 
seen  at  University  College,  London. 

Bentley,  Richard,  a  celebrated 
English  divine  and  classical  scholar, 
distinguished  as  a  polemical  writer ; 
born  near  Wakefield,  in  Yorkshire, 
Jan.  27,  1662.  He  died  at  the  mas- 
ter's lodge  at  Trinity,  July  14,  1742. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  near  Hillsboro, 
N.  C.,  March  14,  1782 ;  settled  in  Ten- 
nessee, where  he  studied  law,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature.  In  1812 
he  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers, 
and  also  served  on  General  Jackson's 
staff.  After  the  war,  he  started  a 
newspaper  in  St.  Louis,  by  which  he 
became  involved  in  several  duels.  On 
the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  State, 
he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator 
in  1820,  and,  in  this  post,  during  30 
years'  continuous  service,  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  public  affairs.  A  deter- 
mined opponent  of  Calhoun's  nullifica- 
tion scheme,  he  afterward  supported 
Jackson  in  his  war  on  the  United 
States  bank,  and  earned  the  sobriquet 
of  "  Old  Bullion "  by  his  opposition 
to  the  paper  currency.  He  died  in 
.Washington,  April  10,  1858. 

Benzene,  or  Benzol  (CB  H8),  a 
carbon  compound,  best  obtained  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  coal-tar. 
It  is  the  source  from  which  is  derived 


Berbera 

all  the  aniline  colors,  and  artificial 
flavors. 

Benzine  (C9  H14),  a  liquid  hydro- 
carbon obtained  from  a  fractional  dis- 
tillation of  petroleum.  It  may  also 
be  got  by  distilling  1  part  of  crystal- 
lized benzoic  acid  intimately  mixed 
with  3  parts  of  slacked  line.  It  is 
quite  colorless,  of  a  peculiar,  etheral, 
agreeable  odor,  is  used  by  manfactur- 
ers  of  india-rubber  and  gutta-percha, 
on  account  of  its  great  solvent  powers, 
in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,  and 
for  cleaning  gloves,  removing  grease- 
spots  from  woollen  and  other  cloths, 
etc.,  on  account  of  its  dissolving  fats 
and  resins.  It  is  highly  inflammable, 
and  must  be  used  with  great  caution. 
It  must  not  be  confounded  with  ben- 
zene. 

Benzoin,  a  solid,  fragile,  vegeta- 
ble substance,  of  a  reddish-brown 
color.  Benzoin  is  obtained  from  the 
tree  called  Styrax  benzoin,  and  per- 
haps from  some  others.  On  making 
incisions  into  the  bark,  it  flows  out 
in  the  form  of  a  balsamic  juice,  having 
a  pungent  taste  and  an  agreeable  odor. 

Beothnkan,  (red  man,  or  Indian), 
a  linguistic  stock  of  North  American 
Indians,  inhabitants  of  the  region  of 
the  Exploits  river  in  Northern  New- 
foundland, and  believed  to  have  been 
limited  to  a  single  tribe,  the  last  known 
survivor  of  which  died  hi  1829. 

Beowulf,  an  Anglo-Saxon  epic,  the 
only  manuscript  of  which  belongs  to 
the  8th  or  9th  century,  and  is  in  the 
Cottonian  Library  (British  Museum). 
The  poem,  which  is  the  longest  and 
most  important  in  Anglo-Saxon  liter- 
ature, is  in  many  points  obscure,  and 
the  manuscript  is  somewhat  imperfect. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  the 
national  poet  of  France;  born  in 
Paris,  Aug.  19,  1780.  He  died  in 
Paris,  July  16,  1857,  and  received  the 
honor  of  a  public  funeral,  at  which 
the  most  eminent  men  in  France,  both 
of  the  world  of  literature  and  politics, 
attended. 

Berand,  Jean,  a  painter  of  great 
power,  born  in  St.  Petersburg,  of 
French  parentage,  in  1845.  His  sub- 
jects are  usually  chosen  from  Parisian 
life.  His  latest  works  have  been  modern- 
ized scenes  from  the  New  Testament. 

Berbera,  a  seaport  of  British 
Somaliland,  Eastern  Africa,  with  a 


Berber* 

good  harbor,  on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  It  was  conquered  by  Egypt  in 
1875,  but  in  July,  1884,  the  British 
Government  took  possession  of  it,  and 
a  small  Indian  force  is  now  stationed 
here.  It  is  the  scene  of  a  large  an- 
nual fair,  which  brings  over  30,000 
people  together  from  all  quarters  in 
the  East.  Coffee,  grains,  ghee,  gold 
dust,  ivory,  gums,  cattle,  ostrich 
feathers,  etc.,  are  brought  hither  from 
the  interior,  and  exchanged  for  cot- 
ton, rice,  iron,  Indian  piece  goods,  etc. 
Berbers,  a  people  spread  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa, 
from  whom  the  name  Barbary  is  de- 
rived. The  chief  branches  into  which 
the  Berbers  are  divided  are,  first,  the 
Amazirgh,  or  Amazigh,  of  Northern 
Morocco,  numbering  from  2,000,000  to 
2,500,000.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
quite  independent  of  the  Sultan  of 
Morocco,  and  live  partly  under  chief- 
tains and  hereditary  princes  and  part- 
ly in  small  republican  communities. 
Second,  the  Shuluh,  Shillooh,  or  Shel- 
lakah,  who  number  about  1,450,000, 
and  inhabit  Southern  Morocco.  They 
are  more  highly  civilized  than  the  Am- 
azirgh. Third,  the  Kabyles  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis,  who  are  said  to  number 
900,000;  and  fourth,  the  Berbers  of 
the  Sahara,  who  inhabit  the  oases. 
Their  language  has  affinities  to  the 
Semitic  group,  but  Arabic  is  spoken 
along  the  coast.  They  are  believed  to 
represent  the  ancient  Mauritanians, 
Numidians,  Ga>tulians,  etc. 

Berbice,  a  river  of  British  Guia- 
na ;  flows  generally  N.  E.  into  the  At- 
lantic. It  is  navigable  for  small  ves- 
sels for  165  miles  from  its  mouth,  but 
beyond  that  the  rapids  are  numerous 
and  dangerous. 

Berea  College,  a  co-educational 
(non-sectarian)  institution,  in  Berea, 
Ky. ;  organized  in  1858.  Under  the 
guidance  of  the  able  men  who  directed 
its  course,  this  institution  did  an  al- 
most incredible  work  among  the  moun- 
taineers both  black  and  white  in  the 
Southern  States.  In  the  winter  of 
1903-3904,  the  Kentucky  legislature 
forbade  co-education  of  white  and 
blacks,  and  Berea  was  obliged  to  estab- 
lish branch  for  its  colored  students. 

Berean,  a  Scottish  religious  sect 
founded  by  the  Rev.  J.  Barclay  in 
1773.  and  also  called  Barclayans. 


Beresfcrd 

Berengarins,  of  Tours,  a  theo- 
logian of  the  llth  century.  He  was 
born  at  Tours  in  908,  long  held  an  ec- 
clesiastical office  there,  and  was  after- 
ward archdeacon  of  Angers.  He  was 
thoroughly  versed  in  the  philosophy 
of  his  age,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  ap- 
ply reason  to  the  interpretation  of  the 
Bible.  He  denied  the  dogma  of  tran- 
substantiation,  and  was  charged  with 
heresy.  He  died  on  the  Isle  of  St. 
Cosmos,  near  Tours,  in  1088. 

Berenice,  a  daughter  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I.,  who  was  the  son  of  Aristo- 
bulus,  who  was  the  son  of  Herod  the 
Great  (Acts  xii ;  Matthew  ii).  She 
was  the  sister  of  Herodes  Agrippa  II., 
before  whom  Paul  preached  A.  D.  63 
( Acts  xxv :  13 ),  and  the  wife  of  Hero- 
des of  Chalcis,  who  seems  to  have 
been  her  uncle,  and  left  her  a  young 
widow.  After  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem she  went  to  Rome  (A.  D.  75),  and 
Titus  is  said  to  have  been  so  much  at- 
tached to  her  that  he  promised  to  mar- 
ry her ;  but  on  the  death  of  his  father 
he  sent  Berenice  from  Rome,  much 
against  his  will  and  hers,  when  he 
found  that  the  proposed  match  was 
disagreeable  to  ±he  people. 

Beresford,  Lord  Charles  de  la 
Poer,  an  English  naval  officer,  born 
in  Ireland,  Feb.  10,  1846;  became  a 
Cadet  in  1857;  Lieutenant,  1868; 
Captain,  1882;  and  Rear-Admiral, 
1897.  In  1882  he  commanded  the 
"  Condor "  in  the  bombardment  of 
Alexandria,  and  was  especially  men- 
tioned and  honored  for  his  gallantry. 
In  December,  1899,  was  appointed 
the  second  in  command  of  the 
British  squadron  mobilized  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Lord  Beres- 
ford accompanied  the  Prince  of 
Wales  on  his  visit  to  India  in 
1875-187G,  as  naval  aide-de-camp, 
and  held  the  same  relation  to  the 
Queen  in  1896-1897.  He  has  served 
several  terms  in  Parliament.  Besides 
the  numerous  honors  for  gallantry  a3 
an  officer  he  has  received  three  med- 
als for  saving  life  at  sea  under  trying 
circumstances.  In  1898  he  visited 
China  at  the  request  of  the  Associated 
Chambers  of  Commerce  of  Great  Brit- 
tain  to  make  a  study  of  the  compli- 
cated commercial  conditions  existing 
there ;  and  on  his  return,  in  1899,  he 
passed  through  the  United  Statea 


JJeresiiia 

and  was  received  with  distinguished 
honors  by  official  and  commercial  bod- 
ies. He  has  done  much  to  promote 
the  "  open  door "  policy  as  a  condi- 
tion of  international  commerce  in 
China. 

Beresina,  or  Berezina,  a  river  of 
Russia  in  Europe ;  rendered  famous 
on  account  of  its  disastrous  passage 
by  the  French  army  during  the  retreat 
of  Napoleon  I.  from  Russia,  in  1812. 

Berezpvsk,  a  village  in  the  Rus- 
sian province  of  Perm,  near  Ekaterin- 
burg, gives  name  to  a  famous  gold 
field,  wrought  since  1744. 

Berg,  Frederick  William 
Rambert,  a  Russian  general,  chiefly 
notorious  for  the  severity  with  which 
he  treated  the  unfortunate  population 
of  Poland  during  the  insurrection  of 
1863,  and  which  excited  the  horror 
and  indignation  of  the  civilized  world. 

Bergamot,  a  fruit  tree,  a  variety 
or  species  of  the  genus  citrus,  various- 
ly classed  with  the  orange,  citrus  au- 
rantium,  the  lime,  atrus  limetta,  or 
made  a  distinct  species  as  citrus  ber- 
gamia.  It  is  probably  of  Eastern  ori- 
gin, though  now  grown  in  Southern 
Europe,  and  bears  a  pale  yellow,  pear- 
shaped  fruit  with  a  fragrant  and 
slightly  acid  pulp.  Its  essential  oil 
is  in  high  esteem  as  a  perfume.  Ber- 
gamot is  also  a  name  given  to  a  num- 
ber of  different  pears. 

Bergen,  a  seaport  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Norway,  the  second  town  of  the 
kingdom,  about  25  miles  from  the 
open  sea,  on  a  bay  of  the  Byford. 
The  trade  is  large,  timber,  tar,  train 
oil,  cod  liver  oil,  hides,  and  particular- 
ly dried  fish  (stock  fish)  being  export- 
ed in  return  for  corn,  wine,  brandy, 
coffee,  cotton,  woolens,  and  sugar.  In 
1445  a  factory  was  established  here 
by  the  Hanseatic  cities  of  Germany. 
Pop.  (1910)  76,867. 

Bergerac,  Savinien  Cyrano  de, 
a  French  author,  born  in  Paris  in 
1619,  distinguished  for  his  courage  in 
the  field,  and  for  the  number  of  his 
duels,  more  than  a  thousand,  most  of 
them  fought  on  account  of  his  mon- 
strously large  nose.  He  died  in  1655. 
His  writings  are  often  crude,  but  full 
of  invention,  vigor,  and  wit.  He  was 
made  the  hero  of  a  drama  bearing  his 
name,  written  by  Edmond  Rostand, 
the  French  playwright,  which  had  a 


Beriberi 

phenomenal  success  in  the  United 
States  in  189^1900,  and  was  the  oc- 
casion of  a  suit  for  plagiarism. 

Bergerat,  Auguste  Entile,  a 
French  journalist,  playwright  and 
novelist,  born  in  Paris,  April  29,  1845. 
son-in-law  of  Theophile  Gautier,  and 
since  1884,  particularly  known  as  the 
amusing  chronicler  of  the  "  Figaro  " 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Caliban." 
He  "also  wrote  two  novels. 

Bergh.,  Henry,  an  American  phi- 
lanthropist, born  in  New  York  in 
1823;  was  founder  and  President  of 
the  American  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Animals  (1866), 
founder  of  the  American  Society  for 
the  Prevention  of  Crueity  to  Children 
(1881),  Secretary  of  Legation  and 
acting  Vice-Consul  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1862-1864).  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  March  12,  1888. 

Bergh,  Pieter  Theodoor  Hel- 
vetius  van  den,  a  Dutch  dramatist 
and  poet,  born  in  1799;  died  in  1873. 

Bergnans,  Heinrich,  a  German 
geographer,  born  in  Cleves,  Prussia, 
May  3,  1797 ;  died  in  Stettin,  Feb.  17, 
1884. 

Bergman,  Ernest  von,  a  Ger- 
man surgeon,  born  in  Riga,  Dec.  16, 
1836.  He  was  educated  at  Vienna, 
Dorpat,  and  Berlin.  He  served  in 
the  Prussian  army  during  1866-1870; 
was  Professor  of  Surgery  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  WUrzburg  in  1878-1882; 
and  became  Director  of  the  Surgical 
Clinic  at  Berlin  University  in  1882. 
He  died  March  25,  1907. 

Bergman,  Torbern  plof ,  a  Swe- 
dish physicist  and  chemist,  born  in 
Catherineberg,  March  20,  1735.  His 
theory  of  chemical  affinities  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  subsequent  development 
of  chemistry.  He  died  July  8,  1784. 

Bergmann,  Carl,  a  German  mu- 
sician, born  in  Ebersbach,  Saxony, 
April  11,  1821.  Being  implicated  in 
the  Revolution  of  1848,  he  left  Ger- 
many for  the  United  States  in  1849. 
An  enthusiastic  Wagnerite,  he  was 
himself  the  composer  of  an  opera,  a 
symphony  and  many  concert  pieces. 
He  died  in  New  York  city,  in  August 
1876. 

Beriberi,  Beriberia,  Berriber- 
ri,  or  Barbiers,  an  acute  disease 
characterized  by  oppression  of  breath- 
ing, by  general  oedema,  by  paralytic 


Bering 


Berlii 


weakness,  and  by  numbness  of  the 
lower  extremities.  It  is  generally  fatal 
It  occurs  frequently  in  Ceylon  among 
the  colored  troops,  and  on  some  por- 
tions of  the  Indian  coast. 

Bering,  or  Bearing,  Vitus,  a 
Danish  explorer,  born  in  Jutland,  in 
1680.  After  making  several  voyages 
to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  he  en- 
tered the  service  of  Russia,  while  still 
young;  became  a  captain-commander 
in  1772 ;  and  was  sent  by  the  Empress 
Catharine  in  charge  of  an  expedition 
(planned  by  Peter  the  Great  before 
his  death),  the  object  of  which  was  to 
determine  if  Asia  and  America  were 
united.  Crossing  Siberia  he  sailed 
from  the  river  Kamchatka  in  July. 
1728;  and  reached  lat  67°  18'  N., 
having  passed  through  the  strait  since 
called  after  him,  without  knowing  it. 
Discovering  that  the  land  trended 
greatly  to  the  W.  he  concluded  that 
the  continents  were  not  united,  and 
returned ;  without,  however,  seeing 
America.  In  another  voyage,  in  1774, 
he  touched  upon  the  American  coast, 
in  lat  58°  21'  N. ;  and  gave  name  to 
Mount  St.  Elias.  In  returning  his 
ship  was  cast  upon  an  island,  since 
named  after  him,  an  outlier  of  the 
Aleutian  group,  and  here  he  perished, 
in  December,  1741. 

Bering  Sea,  that  part  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean  between  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  in  55°,  and  Bering  Strait,  in 
66°  N.,  by  which  latter  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The 
United  States  having  claimed  the  ex- 
clusive right  of  seal  fishing  in  the  Ber- 
ing Sea  in  virtue  of  the  purchase  of 
Alaska  from  Russia,  and  this  right 
having  been  disputed  by  the  British, 
it  was  decided  in  August,  1893,  by  an 
arbitration  tribunal,  to  which  the 
question  was  referred,  that  no  such 
right  existed,  but  at  the  same  time 
regulations  for  the  protection  of  the 
fur  seal  were  drawn  up  and  agreed  to 
between  the  two  powers,  the  chief 
being  the  prohibition  of  seal  fishery 
within  the  zone  of  60  miles  round  the 
Pribilof  Islands,  inclusive  of  the  terri- 
torial waters,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  close  season  for  the  fur  seal  from 
May  1  to  July  31  inclusive,  applying 
to  the  part  of  the  Pacific  and  Bering 
Sea,  N.  of  35°  and  E.  of  the  180th 
meridian  from  Greenwich. 


Bering  Strait,  the  channel  which 
separates  Asia  and  America  at  their 
nearest  approach  to  each  other.  It 
was  discovered  by  Bering  in  1728,  and 
first  explored  by  Cook  in  1788. 

Berkeley,  a  town  in  Alameda 
county,  Cal.;  on  the  Southern  Paci- 
fic railroad;  8  miles  N.  E.  of  San 
Francisco;  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
University  and  of  the  State  Institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind. 
Pop.  (1910)  40.434. 

Berkeley,  Dr.  George,  Bishop  of 
Cloyne,  born  in  Ireland  in  1685 ;  be- 
came fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
in  1707 ;  in  1724  Dean  of  Derry.  He 
published  proposals  for  the  conversion 
of  the  American  savages  to  Chris- 
tianity by  the  establishment  of  a  col- 
lege in  the  Bermuda  Islands.  He 
arrived  at  Rhode  Island  in  1728,  but, 
the  plan  lacking  support,  he  returned 
and  became  Bishop  of  Cloyne.  He 
died  suddenly  at  Oxford  in  1753. 
Berkeley  holds  an  important  place  in 
the  history  of  philosophy.  His  most 
celebrated  philosophical  work  is :  Trea- 
tise on  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge,  1710,  in  which  his  philo- 
sophical theory  is  fully  set  forth. 

Berkeley,  Sir  John,  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  New  Jersey,  born  in 
1607.  He  was  a  prominent  Royalist 
during  the  contest  of  Charles  I.  with 
Parliament.  Charles  II.  granted  him, 
with  Sir  George  Carteret,  a  proprie- 
tary interest  in  New  Jersey  and  Caro- 
lina. He  died  Aug.  28.  1678. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  an  Eng- 
lish colonial  Governor,  born  near  Lon- 
don, about  1610.  In  1632  he  was  a 
Commissioner  of  Canada,  and  in  1641 
became  governor  of  Virginia.  In 
1676  he  resigned  and  returned  to 
England.  He  died  July  13,  1677. 

Berkshires,  The,  or  Berkshire 
Hills,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the 
N.  W.  of  Alassachusetts;  in  Berk- 
shire county;  stretching  16  miles  N. 
and  S. 

Berlin,  town  and  capital  of 
Waterloo  county,  Ontario,  Canada; 
on  the  Grand  river  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  other  railroads;  63  miles 
W.  of  Toronto;  contains  a  Roman 
Catholic  college  and  several  manu- 
facturing plants.  Pop.  (1911)  15,186. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  Prus- 
sian dominions  and  of  the  German  em- 


Berlin 

pire,  the  residence  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany  and  foreign  ambassadors ; 
in  the  province  of  Brandenburg ;  the 
'largest  city  in  Germany,  and,  for  the 
beauty  and  size  of  its  buildings,  the 
regularity  of  its  streets,  the  impor- 
tance of  its  institutions  of  science  and 
art,  and  its  activity,  industry,  and 
trade,  one  of  the  first  in  Europe.  It 
is  situated  on  a  dreary  sandy  plain, 
4).bout  126  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
gea,  on  both  sides  of  the  Spree,  a  slug- 
gish stream,  here  about  200  feet  broad, 
which  winds  through  the  city  from  S. 
E.  to  N.  W.,  and  divides  into  several 
branches  and  canals.  The  main 
stream  and  its  branches  are  spanned 
by  a  large  number  of  bridges. 

The  literary  institutions  of  the  city 
are  numerous  and  excellent.  They  in- 
clude the  university,  the  academy  of 
sciences ;  the  technical  high  school,  the 
mining  academy,  the  high  school  of 
agriculture,  the  academy  of  arts,  the 
school  of  music,  the  seminary  for 
Oriental  languages,  the  military  acad- 
emy and  school  of  engineering,  many 
gymnasia  and  real-schools ;  an  institu- 
tion for  instructing  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  etc.  The  chief  libraries  are  the 
royal  library,  founded  in  1659,  and 
now  containing  900,000  volumes  and 
25,000  manuscripts ;  and  the  univer- 
sity library,  with  about  300,000  vol- 
umes. The  public  museums  and  pic- 
ture galleries  are  on  a  scale  adequate 
to  the  importance  of  the  city.  The 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Cathedral  dedi- 
cated 1905,  in  the  presence  of  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  II.,  is  one  of  the  finest  modern 
churches  in  the  world. 

The  most  important  branches  of 
manufacturing  industries  are  steam 
engines  and  other  machinery ;  brass- 
founding,  the  making  of  lamps  and 
other  articles  of  metal ;  printing 
and  the  kindred  arts,  spinning  and 
weaving,  the  making  of  sewing 
machines,  paper,  tobacco  and  cigars, 
pottery  and  porcelain,  pianos  and 
harmoniums,  artificial  flowers,  brew- 
ing, etc.  A  considerable  quantity 
of  the  manufactures  are  exported  In 
the  royal  iron-foundry,  busts,  s*atues, 
bas-reliefs,  etc.,  are  cast,  together  with 
a  great  variety  of  ornaments  of  un- 
rivaled delicacy  of  workmanship.  Ber- 
lin is  well  supplied  with  city  and 
other  railways.  Berlin  has  rapidly 
risen  to  be  the  first  city  in  Germany. 


Bermudas 

Pop.  (1910)  2,071,257.  On  Feb.  1, 
1916,  the  population  was  officially 
stated  as  1,828,418. 

Berlin,  University  of,  a  cele- 
brated institution  of  learning  in  Ber- 
lin, Germany.  It  is,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Bonn,  the  youngest  of  the  Ger- 
man universities,  but  is  probably  the 
most  famous  of  them  all. 

Berlioz,  Hector,  a  French  com- 
poser, born  in  La  Cote  St.  Andre,  Dec. 
11,  1803.  He  forsook  medicine  to 
study  music  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, where  he  gained  the  first  prize 
in  1830  with  his  cantata,  "  Sardan- 
apale."  He  died  in  Paris,  March  9, 
1869.  After  his  death  appeared  "  Me- 
moires,"  written  by  himself. 

Berm,  or  Berme,  in  fortification, 
a  narrow,  level  space  at  the  foot  of 
the  exterior  slope  of  a  parapet,  to  keep 
the  crumbling  materials  of  the  para- 
pet from  falling  icto  the  ditch. 

In  engineering,  a  ledge  or  bench  on 
the  side  or  at  the  foot  of  a  bank,  para- 
pet, or  cutting,  to  catch  earth  that 
may  roll  down  the  slope  or  to 
strengthen  the  bank.  In  canals,  it  is 
a  ledge  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  tow- 
path,  at  the  foot  of  a  talus  or  slope, 
to  keep  earth  which  may  roll  down  the 
bank  from  falling  into  the  water. 
Slopes  in  successive  benches  have  a 
berme  at  each  notch,  or,  when  a  change 
of  slope  occurs,  on  reaching  a  different 
soil. 

Bermuda  Cedar,  a  species  of  ce- 
dar which  covers  the  Bermuda  Is- 
lands. The  timber  is  made  into  ships, 
boats  and  pencils. 

Bermuda  Grass,  a  species  of 
grass,  called  in  Bermuda,  devil  grass. 
It  grows  in  the  American  Southern 
States  and  in  Southern  Europe.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  pasture. 

Bermuda  Hundred,  a  locality  in 
Chesterfield  county,  Va. ;  the  scene  of 
a  battle  in  the  Civil  War  between  the 
Union  troops  under  General  Butler, 
and  the  Confederates  under  General 
Beauregard.  The  battle  was  fought 
May  16,  1864,  and  resulted  in  a  de- 
feat for  Butler. 

Bermudas,  The,  or  Spmer's 
Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands, 
about  300  in  number,  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  stretching  N.  E.  by  E.  and 
S.  W.  by  W.  about  20  miles,  the  light- 


Beriuudez 

house  on  Gibb's  Hill  being  580  miles 
S.  E.  of  Cape  Hatteras;  area,  about 
30  square  miles.  The  principal  islands 
are  those  of  Bermuda,  St.  George,  Ire- 
land, and  Somerset.  The  protection  af- 
forded to  shipping  by  their  numerous 
bays,  and  their  position  in  the  track  of 
the  homeward  bound  West  India  ves- 
sels, have  led  to  the  conversion  of  the 
Bermudas  into  a  maritime  rendezvous, 
and  likewise,  into  a  British  naval  sta- 
tion for  West  Indian  fleets.  The  har- 
bor of  St.  George's  Island  has  been 
greatly  improved,  is  fortified,  protected 
by  a  breakwater,  and  has  water  and 
space  enough  to  float  the  largest  fleet. 
The  principal  productions  are  fruits, 
vegetables,  maize,  and  tobacco.  Pineap- 
ples are  very  abundant  and  largely  ex- 
ported. The  climate  is  mild  and  salu- 
brious ;  almost  realizing  the  idea  of  a 
perpetual  spring.  Fish  abounds,  and 
forms  a  profitable  source  of  industry 
to  the  inhabitants.  Breadstuffs,  etc., 
are  imported  from  the  United  States, 
and  manufactured  goods  from  Eng- 
land. Hamilton,  on  Bermuda  Island, 
is  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government. 
Pop.  (1914)  20,443.  These  islands 
were  discovered  by  Bermudez,  a  Span- 
iard, in  1522,  and  settled  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1607,  and  are  supposed  to  be 
the  "  still  vexed  Bermoothes,"  men- 
tioned in  Shakespeare's  "  Tempest." 
They  are  a  favorite  winter  resort. 

Berinudez,  Remigio  Morales,  a 
Peruvian  statesman,  born  in  Tarapaca 
Province,  Sept.  30,  183G;  began  busi- 
ness in  the  nitrate  trade  in  his  native 
province.  In  1854,  as  a  lieutenant, 
he  joined  the  revolutionary  army, 
which  finally  overthrew  General  Ech- 
inique's  government.  In  1864  he 
joined  the  revolution  against  Presi- 
dent Castilla.  In  the  war  with  Chile, 
he  led  the  force  that  marched  to 
Africa.  When  Caceres  was  elected 
President,  in  1886,  Bermudez  was 
chosen  Vice-President,  and  was  elect- 
ed President  in  1890.  He  died  in 
Lima,  March  31,  1894. 

Bern,  or  Berne,  a  Swiss  canton, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  France.  It  is 
the  most  populous,  and  next  to  the 
Grisons,  the  most  extensive  canton  of 
Switzerland,  its  area  being  2,657 
square  miles,  and  its  pop.  (1913)  660,- 
640,  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  Swiss 
people. 


Bernard 

Bern,  the  chief  city  of  the  above 
canton,  was,  by  the  decision  of  the 
Council  of  the  Confederation,  in 
1848,  declared  to  be  the  political  cap- 
ital of  the  Commonwealth.  Pop. 
(1913)  94,700.  Bern  was  founded  by 
Duke  Berthold  V.,  of  Zahringen,  in 
1191,  and  was  made  a  free  and  im- 
perial city  by  a  charter  from  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  II.,  dated  May,  1218. 

Bernadotte,  Jean  Baptiste 
Jules,  a  French  general,  afterward 
raised  to  the  Swedish  throne,  was  the 
son  of  an  advocate  of  Pau,  born  Jan. 
26,  1764.  He  enlisted  at  17,  became 
sergeant-major  in  1789,  and  subaltern 
in  1790.  In  1794  he  was  appointed 
a  General  of  Division,  and  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  in  the  cam- 
paign in  Germany,  and  on  the  Rhine. 
In  1798  he  married  Mademoiselle 
Clary,  sister-in-law  of  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. The  following  year  he  became 
for  a  short  time  Minister  of  War,  and 
on  the  establishment  of  the  Empire 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Marshal 
of  France,  and  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Ponte-Corvo.  On  the  death  of  the 
Prince  of  Holstein-Augustenburg,  the 
heir  apparency  to  the  Swedish  crown 
was  offered  to  the  Prince  of  Ponte- 
Corvo,  who  accepted  with  the  consent 
of  the  Emperor,  went  to  Sweden,  ab- 
jured Catholicism,  and  took  the  title 
of  Prince  Charles  John.  In  the  main- 
tenance of  the  interests  of  Sweden,  a 
serious  rupture  occurred  between  him 
and  Bonaparte,  followed  by  his  acces- 
sion, in  1812,  to  the  coalition  of  sov- 
ereigns against  Napoleon.  At  the  bat- 
tle of  Leipsic,  he  contributed  effectual- 
ly to  the  victory  of  the  allies.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  strenuous  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria 
and  other  sovereigns  to  restore  the 
family  of  Gustavus  IV.  to  the  crown ; 
but  Bernadotte,  retaining  his  position 
as  Crown  Prince,  became  King  of 
Sweden  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII., 
in  1818,  under  the  title  of  Charles 
XIV.  During  his  reign  agriculture 
and  commerce  made  great  advances, 
and  many  important  public  works 
were  completed.  He  died  March  8, 
1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Oscar. 

Bernard,  Charles  de  (properly 
BERNARD  DU  GRAIL  DE  LA  VILLETTE), 
at  French  novelist,  born  in  Besancon, 


Bernard 

Feb.  25,  1804;  died  in  Neuilly,  March 
6,  1850. 

Bernard,  Claude,  a  French  phy- 
siologist, born  in  1813 ;  died  in  Paris 
in  1878. 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis,  an  Eng- 
lish administrator,  born  in  Nettleham, 
in  1714 ;  was  Governor  of  New  Jer- 
sey in  1758-1760,  and  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay  in  1700-1769.  He  did  a 
great  deal  toward  precipitating  the 
Revolution  by  his  aggressive  attempts 
to  strengthen  the  royal  authority.  He 
was  finally  recalled  on  account  of  the 
unpopularity  resultant  on  his  bring- 
ing troops  into  Boston.  He  died  in 
Aylesbury,  England,  June  16,  1779. 

Bernard,  Mountague,  an  Eng- 
lish lawyer,  born  in  Gloucestershire, 
Jan.  28,  1820.  In  1872  he  assisted 
Sir  Roundell  Palmer  in  preparing  the 
British  case  for  the  Geneva  Arbitra- 
tion Tribunal.  He  died  at  Overross, 
Sept.  2,  1882. 

Bernard,  Great  St.,  a  celebrated 
pass  of  the  Pennine  Alps  in  Switzer- 
land in  the  canton  Valais,  on  the 
mountain  road  leading  from  Martigny 
to  Aosta  in  Piedmont. 

The  dogs  kept  at  St.  Bernard  to  as- 
sist the  brethren  in  their  humane  la- 
bors are  well  known.  In  the  midst 
of  tempests  and  snowstorms  the 
monks,  accompanied  by  some  of  these 
dogs,  set  out  for  the  purpose  of  track- 
ing those  who  have  lost  their  way. 

Bernard,  Little  St.,  a  mountain 
of  Italy,  belonging  to  what  are  called 
the  Graian  Alps,  about  10  miles  S.  of 
Mont  Blanc.  The  pass  across  it  is 
one  of  the  easiest  in  the  Alps,  and  is 
supposed  by  many  to  be  that  which 
Hannibal  used.  The  Hospice  at  the 
summit  of  the  pass  has  an  elevation 
of  7,192  feet. 

Bernard,  St.,  Abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  in 
Burgundy,  in  1091.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Paris.  At  the 
age  of  23  he  entered  the  recently 
founded  monastery  of  Citeaux,  accom- 
panied by  his  brothers  and  20  of  his 
companions.  He  observed  the  strict- 
est rules  of  the  Order,  and  so  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  ability  and  ac- 
quirements that  he  was  chosen  to  lead 
the  colony  to  Clairvaux,  and  was  made 
abbot  of  the  new  house ;  an  office 
which  he  filled  till  his  death.  In  1128 


Bernardino 

he  prepared  the  statutes  for  the  Order 
of  Knights  Templar.  He  was  founder 
of  160  monasteries ;  and  was  the  chief 
promoter  of  the  second  crusade.  St. 
Bernard  died  at  Clairvaux  in  1153, 
and  was  canonized  in  1174. 

Bernard,  Simon,  a  French  engi- 
neer, born  in  Dole,  April  28,  1779. 
He  served  under  Napoleon  as  his  aide- 
de-camp  ;  was  wounded  at  the  battle 
of  Leipsic ;  superintended  the  defense 
of  Torgau,  and  was  present  at  Water- 
loo. In  1816  he  came  to  the  United 
States ;  was  commissioned  a  Brigadier- 
General  of  Engineers ;  and  planned  an 
elaborate  system  of  seacoast  defenses, 
the  most  important  of  the  works  built 
by  him  being  Fort  Monroe.  In  1831 
he  returned  to  France ;  was  made  aide- 
de-camp  to  Louis  Philippe,  and  de- 
signed the  fortifications  of  Paris.  In 
1834  he  was  appointed  Minister  of 
War.  He  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  5,  1839. 

Bernard,  William  Bayle,  an 
Anglo-American  dramatist,  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  27,  1807.  Hia 
first  work  was  a  nautical  drama 
called  the  "  Pilot."  This  proved  suc- 
cessful and  encouraged  him  to  pursue 
a  literary  career.  He  wrote  in  all  114 
plays,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
"  Rip  Van  Winkle."  He  died  in 
Brighton,  England,  Aug.  5,  1875. 

Bernard  Dog,  St.  The  St.  Ber- 
nard, as  bred  to  modern  ideas,  is  an 
immense  red  or  orange  colored  dog, 
marked  with  white  on  muzzle,  neck, 
chest,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail.  Many  of 
the  finest  St  Bernards  measure  over 
30  inches  high  at  the  shoulder  and 
weigh  over  150  pounds. 

Bernard  of  Chartres,  surnamed 
SYLVESTRIS,  a  writer  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury. 

Bernard  of  Treviso,  an  Italian 
alchemist,  born  in  Padua  in  1406; 
died  in  1490. 

Bernardino,  the  name  given  to 
the  Cistercian  monks,  a  branch  of  the 
old  Benedictines,  from  St.  Bernard, 
who,  entering  the  order,  gave  it  such 
an  impulse  that  he  was  considered  its 
second  founder. 

Bernardino,  St.,  of  Siena,  born  in 
1380  at  Massa-Carrara,  of  a  distin- 
guished family,  made  himself  famous 
by  his  rigid  restoration  of  their  prim- 
itive rule  among  the  degenerate  order 
of  the  Franciscans,  of  which  he  be- 


Bemhard 


Berrien 


came  a  member  in  1404.  He  died  in 
1444,  and  was  canonized  in  1450. 

Bernliard,  Karl,  pseudonym  of 
NICOLAI  DE  SAINT  AUBAIN,  a  cele- 
brated Danish  novelist,  born  in  Co- 
penhagen, Nov.  18,  1798;  died  in 
Copenhagen,  Nov.  25,  1865. 

Bernhardi,  Tlieodor  von,  a 
German  historian  and  diplomat,  born 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  6,  1802 ;  died  at  Kun- 
ersdorf,  Silesia,  Feb.  12,  1887. 

Bernliardt,  Rosinc  Sarah,  a 
French  actress,  born  in  Paris,  Oct.  22, 
1844.  At  an  early  age  her  Jewish 
parents  placed  her  in  a  convent  at 
Versailles.  When  14  years  old  she 
left  the  convent,  and  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  and  there  studied  trag- 
edy and  comedy.  In  1862  she  made 
her  debut  at  the  Theatre  Francais,  in 
Racine's  "  Iphigene "  and  Scribe's 
"  Valerie,"  but,  not  achieving  a  suc- 
cess, she  retired  for  a  time  from  the 
stage.  Her  first  great  success  was  as 
Marie  de  Neuberg,  in  Victor  Hugo's 
"Ruy  Bias,"  in  January,  1867.  Be- 
coming very  popular  by  her  represen- 
tations, notably  in  "  Andromaque  " 
and  "  La  Sphinx,"  she  was  recalled  to 
the  Francais,  and  was  soon  recognized 
as  the  foremost  actress  in  French 
tragedy.  In  1879  she  visited  London 
with  the  company  of  the  Comedie 
Francaise  and  was  warmly  received ; 
in  1880,  1887,  1891,  1896,  1900,  and 
1910-1911  made  successful  tours  in  the 
United  States,  and  between  and  after 
these  dates  visited  Switzerland.  Hol- 
land, South  America,  Italy,  Algeria, 
Australia,  etc.  In  1916-17  she  was 
again  in  the  United  States  and  sub- 
jected to  a  severe  surgical  operation. 
She  has  also  done  considerable  work 
in  painting,  sculpture,  and  literature. 

Bernhardy,  Gottfried,  a  Ger- 
man classical  philologist,  born  in 
Landsberg-on-the-Warthe,  March  20, 
1800 ;  died  in  Halle,  May  14,  1875. 

Bernier,  Francois,  a  __  French 
physician  and  traveler,  born  in  Angers 
about  1625 ;  set  out  on  his  travels  in 
1654,  and  visited  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  India,  where  he  remained  for  12 
years  as  physician  to  the  Great  Mogul 
Emperor  Aurungzebe.  He  died  in 
Paris  in  1688. 

Bernina,  a  mountain  of  the  Rhae- 
tian  Alps,  13,290  feet  high,  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  with  remark- 


able and  extensive  glaciers.  Its  sum- 
mit was  first  attained  in  1850. 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 
(known  also  as  IL  CAVALIERE  BEB- 
NINI),  an  Italian  painter,  born  in 
Naples  in  1598,  and  obtained,  among 
his  contemporaries,  the  reputation  of 
being  the  modern  Michael  Angelo,  on 
account  of  his  success  as  painter,  stat- 
uary, and  architect.  He  died  in  1680. 

Bernoulli!,  or  Bernoulli,  a  fam- 
ily which  produced  eight  distinguished 
men  of  science.  The  family  fled  from 
Antwerp  during  the  Alva  administra- 
tion, going  first  to  Frankfort,  and  aft- 
erward to  Basel.  JOHN,  born  iu 
Basel,  in  1667,  wrote  with  his  brother, 
James,  a  treatise  on  the  differential 
calculus ;  developed  the  integral  cal- 
culus, and  discovered,  independently 
of  Leibnitz,  the  exponential  calculus. 
He  died  in  1748. 

Bernstorff,  Count  Johann,  a 
German  diplomat,  born  in  London, 
Eng.,  Nov.  14,  1862 ;  was  educated  in 
Dresden  and  Ratzeburg ;  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  in  1889 ;  filled  im- 
portant posts  in  various  countries  till 
1908,  when  he  became  ambassador  to 
the  United  States ;  continuing  in  that 
relation  till  the  declaration  of  a  state 
of  war  against  the  Imperial  German 
Government,  April  6,  1917. 

Berqnin,  Lonis  de,  the  first  prot- 
estant  martyr  in  France,  born  in  1490. 
He  was  a  gentleman  of  Artois,  a 
friend  of  Badius,  the  savant.  When, 
in  1523,  the  police  began  to  seize  Lu- 
ther's works,  with  a  view  to  suppress- 
ing Protestantism,  they  found  among 
Berquin's  books  some  manuscripts  of 
his  own  writing  that  were  pronounced 
heretical.  As  he  refused  to  retract, 
he  was  thrown  into  prison.  Francis 
I.,  whose  counselor  he  was,  obtained 
for  him  his  freedom,  but  he  was 
burned  alive  in  Paris,  April  17,  1529. 

Berrian,  William,  an  American 
Episcopal  clergyman  and  writer,  born 
in  New  York  in  1787;  was  rector  of 
Trinity  Church,  New  York  (1830- 
1862).  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
Nov.  7,  1862. 

Berrien,  John  McPherson,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  New  Jer- 
sey, Aug.  23,  1781 ;  graduated  at 
Princeton  College  in  1796,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Georgia  when  18 


Berro 


Bertillon  System 


years  old.  He  represented  Geor- 
gia in  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1825-1829  and  1840-1852 ;  was  Attor- 
ney-General of  the  United  States  in 
1829-1831,  and  a  delegate  to  the  Bal- 
timore Convention  in  1844.  In  1829 
he  delivered  a  speech  so  clear  and  im- 
pressive against  certain  measures  be- 
fore Congress  that  the  title  of  "  Amer- 
ican Cicero  "  was  given  him.  He  died 
in  Savannah,  Ga.,  Jan.  1,  1856. 

Berro,  Bernardo  Prndencio,  an 
Uruguayan  statesman,  born  in  Monte- 
video about  1800.  He  was  President 
of  the  republic  in  1860-1864.  The 
revolution  of  Flores  was  successful 
soon  after  the  expiration  of  his  term. 
In  1868  he  stirred  up  a  revolt  against 
Flores,  was  imprisoned,  and  soon  af- 
terward shot  through  a  window  in  his 
cell,  in  April,  1868. 

Berry,  a  succulent  fruit,  in  which 
the  seeds  are  immersed  in  a  pulpy 
mass  inclosed  by  a  thin  skin.  Popu- 
lary  it  is  applied  to  fruits  like  the 
strawberry,  bearing  external  seeds  on 
a  pulpy  receptacle,  but  not  strictly 
berries. 

Berryer,  Antoine  Pierre,  a 
French  advocate  and  statesman,  born 
in  Paris  in  1790.  In  1814  he  pro- 
claimed at  Rennes  the  deposition  of 
Napoleon,  and  remained  till  his  death 
an  avowed  Legitimist.  In  1840  he 
was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the  defense 
of  Louis  Napoleon  after  the  Boulogne 
fiasco.  He  gained  additional  reputa- 
tion in  1858  by  his  defense  of  Monta- 
lembert,  and  was  counsel  for  the  Pat- 
terson-Bonapartes  in  the  suit  for  the 
recognition  of  the  Baltimore  marriage. 
He  died  in  1868. 

Bersaglieri,  a  corps  of  riflemen  or 
sharpshooters,  introduced  into  the 
Sardinian  army  by  Gen.  Delia  Mar- 
mora, about  1849.  They  took  part  in 
the  Russian  War  and  also  assisted  at 
the  battle  of  the  Tchernaya,  Aug.  16, 
1855.  They  were  likewise  employed 
in  the  Italian  Wars  of  1859  and  1866. 

Bersezio,  Vittorio,  an  Italian 
novelist  and  playwright,  born  at  Pev- 
eragno,  Piedmont,  in  1830. 

Bert,  Paul,  a  French  statesman 
and  physiologist,  born  in  Auxerre,  Oct. 
17,  1833.  While  engaged  in  public 
life,  M.  Bert  still  pursued  with  ardor 
his  scientific  investigations,  attracting 
World-wide  attention  by  his  experi- 


ments in  vivisection.  Appointed  by 
the  French  Ministry  to  the  governor- 
ship of  Tonquin  and  Annam,  he  went 
out  there  in  1886,  but  died  Nov.  11, 
of  the  same  year.  The  anti-religious 
views  of  M.  Bert  excited  much  contro- 
versy. 

Bertlielot,  Pierre  Eugene  Mar- 
cellin,  a  French  chemist,  born  in 
Paris,  Oct.  25,  1827.  In  1878  he  be- 
came president  of  the  committee  on  ex- 
plosives, which  introduced  smokeless 
powder.  His  labors  also  led  to  the 
discovery  of  dyes  extracted  from  coal- 
tar.  He  died  March  18,  1907. 

Bcrtliier,  Alexander,  Prince  of 
Neufchatel  and  Wagram,  Marshal, 
Vice-Constable  of  France,  etc. ;  born 
in  Versailles,  Nov.  20,  1753;  killed 
himself,  June  1,  1815. 

Berthold  of  Ratisbon,  a  cele- 
brated German  preacher  and  Francis- 
can monk ;  ranked  as  the  most  power- 
ful preacher  of  his  time  in  the  Ger- 
man world.  It  is  said  that  as  many  aa 
60,000  people  flocked  to  hear  him  in 
the  open  fields.  His  sermons  have 
been  preserved.  He  died  in  1272. 

Bertillon,  Alphonse,  a  French 
anthropologist,  born  in  Paris  in  1853; 
is  widely  noted  as  the  founder  of  a 
system  of  identification  of  criminals. 
In  1880,  while  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Identification  in  the  Prefecture  of  Po- 
lice, he  established  his  system  of  meas- 
urements which  has  given  marvelous 
results  for  their  precision.  The  sys- 
tem has  since  been  adopted  by  the 
police  authorities  of  the  large  cities  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States.  He 
was  one  of  the  expert  witnesses  in 
handwriting  in  the  trial  of  Capt. 
Dreyfus  in  1899,  and  soon  after  its 
close  was  removed  from  his  office.  He 
was  author  of  numerous  works  bear- 
ing upon  his  system.  He  died  Feb.  13, 
1914. 

Bertillon  System,  a  system  of 
identification  of  criminals,  introduced 
into  France  by  Alphonse  Bertillon. 
The  system  depends  upon  accurate 
measurements  of  various  portions  of 
the  human  body,  especially  the  bones, 
which  in  adults  never  change.  The 
parts  measured  are  the  head,  ear,  foot, 
middle  finger,  the  extended  forearm, 
height,  breadth,  and  the  trunk.  These 
measurements  are  placed  upon  a  card, 
and  together  with  photographs  of  the 


Bertram! 


Bessarioi 


bodily  features,  take  the  place  of  the  ]  which  regulate  the  combinations  form- 


old  portraits  in  the  rogues'  gallery. 

Bertram!,  Eugene,  a  French  op- 
eratic manager,  born  in  1835 ;  died  in 
Paris,  Jan.  21,  1900. 

Bertrand  Henri  G.,  Count,  a 
French  military  officer,  born  in  Cha- 
teauroux  in  1773,  and  early  entered 
the  armies  of  the  Revolution  as  engi- 
neer. He  accompanied  the  expedition 
to  Egypt,  and  directed  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Alexandria.  He  distinguished 
himself  at  Austerlitz  and  became  Na- 
poleon's adjutant;  and,  after  the  bat- 
tle of  Aspern,  in  1809,  for  his  share  in 
saving  the  French  army  by  bridges,  he 
was  created  count  and  governor  of  II- 
lyria.  After  serving  with  credit  in 
the  subsequent  campaigns,  he  retired 
with  the  Emperor  to  Elba,  was  his 
confidant  in  carrying  out  his  return  to 


ing  the  structures  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms ;  and  of  thus  open- 
ing the  way  for  the  discoveries  of 
Mulder,  Liebig,  Dumas,  and  others. 
To  him,  chemistry  is  indebted  for  the 
discovery  of  several  new  elementary 
bodies,  more  especially  selenium,  thor- 
ium, and  cerium ;  and  to  his  skill  as  a 
manipulator  may  be  traced  many  of 
the  analytical  processes  at  present  in 
use.  He  died  Aug.  7,  1848.  All  the 
scientific  societies  of  the  world  enroll- 
ed his  name  among  their  members. 

Berzelium,     (See  CABOLINITJM). 

Besancon,  a  city  in  the  N.  E.  of 
France,  the  capital  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Doubs,  on  the  river  Doubs. 
It  contains  Roman  remains,  including 
an  amphitheater,  aqueduct  and  trium- 
phal arch  of  Mars,  as  well  as  a  cathe- 


France,  and  finally  shared  his  banish-  j  dral  of  diversified  architectural  style, 
ment  to  St  Helena.  On  Napoleon's  and  the  Renaissance  palace  of  Cardi 
death,  Bertrand  returned  to  France, 


where,  though  sentence  of  death  had    ancon. 
been   pronounced   upon   him  —  a   sen- 
tence which  Louis  XVIII.  had  wisely 
recalled  —  he  was  restored  to  all  his 
dignities,    and,     in     1830,    appointed 


Granwelle,  who  was  born  in  Bes- 


Commandant  of  the  Polytechnic 
School.  In  1840,  he  formed  part  of 
the  expedition  which  brought  back  the 
remains  of  Napoleon  to  France.  He 
died  in  Chateauroux,  Jan.  31,  1844. 

Berwick,  or  more  fully,  Berwick- 
on-Tweed,  a  seaport  town  of  Eng- 
land, formerly  a  Parliamentary  bor- 
ough and  (with  small  adjoining  dis- 
trict) a  county  by  itself,  but  now  in- 


Victor  Hugo  was  also  a  na- 
tive  of  Besancon.     Watch-making  is 
the  principal  industry.     Pop.  (1911) 
57,978. 
Besant,  Annie,    an    English    thc- 


osophist  and  author,  born  in  London, 
Oct.  1,  1847 ;  was  married  in  1867  to 
the  Rev.  Fank  Besant,  brother  of  Sir 
Walter  Besant,  but  was  legally  sepa- 
rated from  him  in  1873.  In  1889  she 
joined  the  Theosophical  Society,  and 
has  since  been  active  in  theosophical 
propaganda  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States. 
Besant,  Sir  Walter,  an  English 


«,*.  •*•«•/         «*       X.VrUUl.r        MJ        *  LO^li,       LSI!  I,        U\J  TT         1AJ.  .  .  *.  •  -r^  ,  .  » 

corporated  with  Northumberland,  and !  novelist ;    born  in   Portsmouth, 

_     T» i? _    3! _.        lonH      Anor     14     1  K.-5h  •    \vn«    pnilpn 


giving  name  to  a  Parliamentary  divi- 
sion of  the  county. 

Beryl,  a  colorless,  yellowish,  bluish  i 
or  less  brilliant  green  variety  of  em- ' 


land,  Aug.  14,  1836 ;  was  educated  in 
London  and  at  Christ's  College,  Cam- 


erald,  the  prevailing  hue  being  green  |  j vinea<?'  -toni 
of  various  shades?  but  always  pale,  the       Bessarabia 
want  of  color  being  due  to  absence  of    _f*         „  M    ^\r 


died  in London, 


being 

chromium,  which  gives  to  the  emerald 
its  deep,  rich  green. 

Beryllium,  a  rare  white  malleable 
metal,  the  same  as  glucinum. 

Berzelius,  Johann  Jakob,  Ba- 
ron, a  Swedish  chemist,  born  in  Ost- 
gothland,  Aug.  29,  1779.  To  him  pre- 
eminently belongs  the  honor  of  apply- 
ing the  great  principles  which  had 
been  established  by  Dalton,  Davy, 
Gay-Lussac,  and  himself,  in  organic 


a  province  of  Russia 
extending  N.  W.  from  the  Black  Sea, 
ibetween  the  Pruth  and  Danube  and 
the  Dniester;  area,  17,143  square 
miles;  pop.  (1914)  2,657,300;  capi- 
tal, Kishinef.  It  has  been  alternately 
in  the  possession  of  Turkey  and  Rus- 
sia several  times  between  1474  and 
1878.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Walladrians,  Gipsies,  and  Tartars. 

Bessarion,  John,  a  Greek  scholar, 
born  in  Trebizond  in  1395,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  restorers  of  learning  in 


chemistry,   to  the  study  of  the  laws  i  the  15th  century,  and  founder  of  the 


Bessel 

library  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice ;  was  a 
monk  of  the  Order  of  St.  Basil.  He 
died  in  Ravenna,  Nov.  19,  1472. 

Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  as- 
tronomer, born  in  Minden,  Prussia, 
July  22,  1784.  He  died  in  Konigs- 
berg,  March  17,  1846. 

Bessels,  Emil,  a  German  natural- 
ist, born  in  Heidelberg,  June  2,  1847 ; 
died  in  Stuttgart,  March  30,  1888. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  an  Eng- 
lish inventor,  born  in  Charlton,  Hert- 
fordshire, Jan.  19,  1813 ;  began  mod- 
eling and  designing  patterns  when  18 
years  old ;  chose  engineering  as  a  pro- 
fession, and,  after  long  and  costly  ex- 
periments, announced,  in  1856,  his 
discovery  of  a  means  of  rapidly  and 
cheaply  converting  pig  iron  into  steel, 
by  blowing  a  blast  of  air  through  the 
iron  when  in  a  state  of  fusion.  For 
this  discovery  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers  awarded  him  the  Gold  Tel- 
ford  Medal,  and  several  foreign  gov- 
ernments honored  him  with  valuable 
tokens.  In  the  United  States  appre- 
ciation of  his  great  discovery  took  the 
form  of  creating  industrial  cities  and 
towns  under  his  name.  He  was  elect- 
ed President  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  In- 
stitute of  Great  Britain  in  1871; 
knighted  by  the  Queen  in  1879,  and 
received  the  freedom  of  the  city  of 
London  in  1880.  He  died  in  London, 
March  15,  1898. 

Bessemer  Steel,  steel  made  from 
pig  iron,  from  which  practically  all 
the  carbon,  etc.,  has  been  removed  by 
exposing  the  molten  mass  to  a  current 
of  air. 

Bessey,  Charles  E.,  an  American 
botanist,  born  in  Wilton,  O.,  May 
21,  1845;  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity ;  Professor  of  Botany  in  the 
Iowa  Agricultural  College  in  1870- 
1884 ;  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska  since  188^.  He 
was  also  President  of  the  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Agricultural  Science 
in  1883-1885;  President  of  the  Ne- 
braska Academy  of  Sciences  in  1891 ; 
acting  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Nebraska  in  1888^1891 ;  Fellow  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.  Died  in  1915. 

Bessieres,  Jean  Baptiste,  Duke 
of  Istria,  a  marshal  of  the  French 
Empire,  born  of  poor  parents  at  Preis- 
sac,  Aug  6,  1768.  At  the  accession 


Bethania 

of  Napoleon  (1804)  to  the  throne,  be 
became  Marshal  of  France.  He  showed 
his  usual  conspicuous  courage  at  Aus- 
terlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Friedland, 
and,  raised  to  the  rank  of  Duke  of  Is- 
tria, commanded  in  Spain  in  1808— 
1809.  In  the  Russian  campaign  he  led 
the  cavalry  of  the  Guard,  and  did 
much  by  his  sleepless  courage  and 
presence  of  mind  to  save  the  wreck  of 
the  army  in  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Moscow.  On  the  morning  of  the 
battle  of  Lutzen  (May  1,  1813),  he 
fell  mortally  wounded  by  a  cannon 
ball. 

Bestiary,  the  name  given  to  a  class 
of  written  books  of  great  popularity 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  describing  all  the 
animals  of  creation,  real  or  fabled, 
composed  partly  in  prose,  partly  in 
verse,  and  generally  illustrated  by 
drawings. 

Betanzos,  Juan  Jose  de,  a  Span- 
ish historian  and  adventurer  of  the 
16th  century ;  was  author  of  an  ac- 
count of  the  conquest  of  Peru  by  Pi- 
zarro. 

Betel,  or  Betle,  the  English  name 
of  the  piper  betle,  a  shrubby  plant 
with  evergreen  leaves,  belonging  to  the 
typical  genus  of  the  pepperworts.  It 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  East 
Indies.  Its  leaf  is  used  as  a  wrapper 
to  inclose  a  few  slices  of  the  areca 
palm  nut  with  a  little  shell  lime.  The 
Southern  Asiatics  are  perpetually 
chewing  it  to  sweeten  the  breath,  to 
strengthen  the  stomach,  and,  if  hun- 
ger be  present,  to  deaden  its  cravings. 

Betham-Edwards,  Matilda,  an 
English  author,  born  in  Suffolk,  in 
1836 ,  was  educated  privately ;  has 
published  numerous  works  in  poetry, 
fiction,  and  on  French  rural  life.  She 
was  made  an  officer  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  France  in  1891. 

Bethania,  or  Bethany,  a  town 
in  Syria,  about  2  miles  S.  E.  of  Jeru- 
salem, on  the  way  to  Jericho.  It  is 
now  a  small  place,  inhabited  by  a  few 
Turkish  families,  by  whom  it  is  called 
Lazari,  in  memory  of  Lazarus,  who 
dwelt  here,  and  who  was  here  raised 
from  the  dead.  The  inhabitants  show 
the  pretended,  sites  of  the  houses  of 
Lazarus,  of  Martha,  of  Simon  the 
leper,  and  of  Mary  Magdalene.  The 
alleged  tomb  of  Lazarus,  a  large  ex- 
cavation in  the  rock,  is  also  shown. 


Bethany  College 


The  situation  of  Betbania  is  extreme- 
ly picturesque. 

Bethany  College,  a  co-education- 
al institution  in  Linsborg,  Kan. ;  or- 
ganized in  1881 :  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Lutheran  Church. 

Bethany  College,  a  co-education- 
al institution  in  Bethany,  W.  Va. ;  or- 
ganized in  1841 ;  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Church  of  the  Disciples. 

Bethel,  a  town  of  Palestine,  about 
10  miles  from  Jerusalem,  now  called 
Beitin,  or  Beiteen.  The  patriarch 
Jacob  here  had  a  vision  of  angels,  in 
commemoration  of  which  he  built  an 
altar.  Interesting  ruins  abound  in  the 
vicinity. 

Bethel  College,  an  educational  in- 
stitution in  Russellville,  Ky. ;  organ- 
ized in  1854 ;  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Baptist  Church. 

Bethesda,  a  pool  in  Jerusalem, 
near  St.  Stephen's  Gate,  and  the  Tem- 
ple of  Omar. 

Bethlehem,   the  birthplace  of  Je- 
sus  Christ   and   of   King   David,   and 
the  Ephratah  of  the  history  of  Jacob ;  ' 
is  now  a   small,   unwalled  village  of 
white  stone  houses,  in  the  midst  of  a 
most   interesting  country,   6  miles   S. 
of  Jerusalem.     The  population,  about 
3,000,    is    wholly    Christian  —  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Armenian.     The  Convent  i 
of  the  Nativity,  a  large,  square  build- ' 
ing,  resembling  a   fortress,   was   built 
by  the  Empress  Helena,  in  327  A.  D., 
but  destroyed  by  the  Moslems  in  1236,  j 
and,  it  is  supposed,   restored  by  the 
crusaders.      Within   it   is   the  Church ; 
of  the  Nativity,   which  is  subdivided 
among   the    Latins,    Greeks,   and   Ar-  j 
rnenians,  for  devotional  purposes.  The 
Bethlehemites  chiefly  gain  their  sub- 
sistence by  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  crucifixes,  beads,  boxes,  shells,  etc., 
of  mother-of-pearl  and  olive  wood. 

Bethlehem,  a  borough  in  North- 
ampton and  Lehigh  counties,  Pa.;  on  I 
the  Lehigh  river  and  canal  and  sev-i 
eral  railroads;  57  miles  N.  of  Phila-| 
delphia;  since  1904  includes  the  for- 
mer borough  of  West  Bethlehem; 
contains  a  Moravian  theological 
seminary  and  other  educational  in- 
stitutions, and  has  silk  mills,  rolling 
mills,  machine  shops,  and  brass  and 
spelter  works.  It  was  founded  in 
1741  by  Moravians  under  Count  Zin- 
zendorf.  Pop.  (1910)  12,837. 


Beveridge 


Bethsaida,  a  village  on  the  W. 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  the  birth- 
place of  Peter  and  Andrew  and  Philip. 

Bethnne,  a  town  of  N.  France,  24 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Arras ;  in  the 
midst  of  the  richest  coal  mines  in 
France ;  has  large  industrial  inter- 
ests ;  was  once  strongly  fortified ; 
ceded  to  France  by  the  Peace  of  Nijm- 
wegen  in  1678 ;  occupied  by  the  allied 
forces  in  1710;  restored  to  France  by 
the  Treaty  of  Utrecht ;  pop.  about  15,- 
000.  Bethune  was  in  the  sphere  of 
the  great  Arras  campaign.  See  AP- 
PENDIX: World  War. 

Betterton,  Thomas,  English  act- 
tor,  born  in  1635 ;  excelled  in  Shake- 
speare's characters  of  Hamlet,  Othello, 
Brutus,  and  Hotspur,  and  was  the 
means  of  introducing  shifting  scenes 
instead  of  tapestry  upon  the  English 
stage.  He  died  in  1710,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Betting,  or  Wagering,  a  con- 
tract by  which  two  or  more  parties 
agree  that  a  certain  sum  of  money  or 
other  thing  shall  be  paid  or  delivered 
to  one  of  them  on  the  happening  or 
not  happening  of  an  uncertain  event. 
At  common  law,  wagers  are  not  per 
se,  void,  but  statutes  prohibiting  bet- 
ting have  been  passed  by  many  of  the 
States. 

Betts,  Craven  Langstrath,  an 
American  poet  and  story  writer,  born 
in  New  Brunswick,  in  1853. 

Betty,  William  Henry  West, 
better  known  as  the  YOUNG  Roscius, 
an  English  actor,  born  at  Shrewsbury 
in  1791 ;  died  in  London,  Aug.  24, 
1874. 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand, 
Count  von,  an  Austrian  statesman, 
born  in  Dresden,  Jan.  13,  1809.  He 
entered  the  service  of  Austria  as  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Affairs,  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  Ministry,  Imperial  Chan- 
cellor, and,  in  18G8,  was  created 
Count.  In  1871-1878  he  was  Ambas- 
sador in  London,  in  1878-1882,  in 
Paris.  He  died  near  Vienna,  Oct.  24, 
1886. 

Beveridge,  Albert  Jeremiah,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Highland 
county,  O.,  Oct.  6,  18G2;  was  brought 
up  on  a  farm ;  graduated  at  De  Pauw 
University ;  and  engaged  in  law  prac- 
tice in  Indianapolis.  He  entered  po- 
litical life  in  1883,  and  soon  won  a 


Beverly 

reputation  as  an  effective  orate  t.  He 
served  as  U.  S.  Senator  for  Indiana 
during  1899-1911. 

Beverly,  a  city  and  popular  sum- 
mer-resort   in    Essex    county,    Mass.; 


Biberach 

beautiful  and  perhaps  the  only  true 
philosophical  poem  in  the  whole  range 
of  known  literature.  Its  teaching  is 
pantheistic.  It  consists  of  18  lec- 
tures. It  has  been  translated  into 


on  the  North  Shore  and  the  Boston   many  languages. 

&  Maine  railroad;  18  miles  N.  E.  ofi  Bhamo,  a  town  of  Burma  on  the 
Boston;  is  the  seat  of  the  New  Eng-  Upper  Irrawaddy,  about  40  miles  from 
land  Industrial  School  for  Deaf  j  the  Chinese  frontier.  It  is  the  start- 
Mutes;  and  under  President  Taft  ing-point  of  caravans  to  Yunnan. 


was    the    "  summer   capital "    of   the 
United  States.    Pop.    (1910)   18,650. 

Bewick,  Thomas,  an  English 
wood  engraver,  born  in  Northumber- 
land in  1753.  He  died  in  1828. 

Beyle,  Marie-Henri,  better  known 
under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Stendhal," 
a  French  novelist  and  critic,  born  in 
Grenoble,  Jan.  23,  1783 ;  died  in  Paris, 
March  23,  1842. 

Beyrout,  or  Beirut,  a  flourishing 
commercial  town,  situated  in  a  most 
picturesque  position  on  the  coast  of 
Syria,  and  at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  55 
miles  from  Damascus,  and  147  from 
Jerusalem.  It  is  the  chief  seaport, 
market-town,  and  emporium  of  all  the 
trade  with  the  shores  of  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, and  Cilicia,  with  a  regular  ser- 
vice of  Egyptian,  French,  and  British 
steamers.  The  American  vice-consul 
at  this  place  was  shot  at  during  a  riot 
in  September,  1903,  and  warships  were 
sent  there.  Pop.  about  150,000. 

Bezants,  or  Byzantines,  coins  of 
the  old  Byzantine  empire. 

Beza,  or  Beze,  Theodore  de,  a 
French  Protestant  theologian  and  re- 
former, born  in  Vezelai,  in  1519. 
In  1558,  he  was  sent  to  ask 
the  intercession  of  several  German 
princes  in  behalf  of  the  persecuted 
Huguenots  in  France.  The  next  year 
he  settled  at  Geneva,  and  was  thence- 
forth the  associate  of  Calvin  till  his 
death,  and  his  successor  as  Professor 
of  Theology  and  head  of  the  Protes- 
tant party.  His  energy  and  activity 
of  mind,  like  his  bodily  health,  con- 
tinued unabated  till  he  was  nearly  80 
years  of  age,  and  he  only  ceased 
preaching  in  1GOO.  He  died  in  1G05. 

Beziqne,  or  Besiqne,  a  game  of 
cards  of  French  origin. 

Bhagavatgita,  or  Bhagavadgi- 
ta,  in  Sanskrit  literature,  a  song  re- 
lating a  discourse  between  Krishna 
and  his  pupil  Arjun  in  the  midst  of  a 
battle.  Schlegel  considers  it  the  most 


Bheels,  or  Bhils,  a  Dravidic  race 
inhabiting  the  Vindhya,  Satpura,  and 
Satmala  Hills,  a  relic  of  the  Indian 
aborigines  driven  from  the  plains  by 
the  Aryan  Rajputs.  Their  total  num- 
bers are  about  750,000. 

Bhutan,  an  independent  State  in 
the  Eastern  Himalayas ;  area  about 
20,000  square  miles ;  pop.  est.  250,- 
000.  The  Bhutanese  are  a  back- 
ward race,  governed  by  a  Dharm 
Rajah,  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of 
deity,  and  by  a  Deb  Rajah,  with  a 
council  of  eight.  They  are  nominally 
Buddhists. 

Biafra,  Bight  of,  a  large  bay  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between  Capes 
Formosa  and  Lopez. 

Bianchini,  Francesco,  an  Ital- 
ian astronomer,  born  in  Verona,  in 
16G2.  He  died  in  1729. 

Biard,  Auguste  Francois,  a 
French  genre  painter,  born  in  1798 : 
died  in  1882. 

Biarritz,  a  watering-place  and 
noted  winter  resort  in  France ;  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  in  the  Department  of 
the  Basses-Pyrenees ;  4  miles  S.  W.  of 
Bayonne.  It  was  the  royal  summer 
residence  during  the  Second  Empire. 

Biart,  Lucien,  a  French  novelist, 
poet  and  writer  of  travels,  born  in 
yersailles,  June  21,  1829.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  novels,  containing 
masterly  descriptions  of  Mexican  and 
South  American  nature  and  customs. 

Bias,  one  of  the  seven  sages  of 
Greece ;  a  native  of  Priene,  in  Ionia ; 
celebrated  for  his  practical  knowledge 
and  strict  regard  to  justice.  He  flour- 
ished about  550  B.  c.,  and  died  at  a 
very  advanced  age. 

Biberach,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg, 
delightfully  situated  on  the  Reiss,  23 
miles  S.  S.  W.  of  Ulm.  It  retains  its 
old  ramparts  and  towers,  and  in  front 
of  the  theater  is  a  monument  to  Wie- 


Bible 


Bible 


land,  who  was  born  in  the  neighbor- 
'hood. 

Bible  (French  bible,  with  similar 
forms  in  other  languages,  from  Greek 
biblia,  books,  from  biblos,  the  inner 
bark  of  the  papyrus,  used  for  writing 
on,  hence  a  book) ,  the  collection  of 
Sacred  Writings  or  Holy  Scriptures 
of  the  Christians.  The  older  and  ^ 
larger  division  of  these  writings  is  j 
also  received  by  the  Jews  as  embody-  j 
ing  their  faith,  and  is  called  the  Old  j 
Testament,  or  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Covenant,  because  the  Jewish  religion 
was  represented  as  a  compact  or  cove- 
nant between  God  and  the  Jews,  and 
the  Greek  word  for  covenant  signifies 
also  last  will  or  testament  The  same 
figure  was  applied  to  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, which  w°s  considered  as  an  ex- 
tension of  the  old  covenant,  or  a  cove- 
nant between  God  and  the  whole  hu- 
man race.  The  sacred  writings 
peculiar  to  the  Christians  are,  there- , 
fore,  called  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  j 
Covenant,  or  the  New  Testament. 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  do 
not  altogether  agree  as  to  the  books 
that  ought  to  be  admitted  into  the 
canon  or  list  of  writings  belonging  to 
the  Old  Testament  A  certain  num- 
ber of  books  classed  by  the  former 
under  the  head  of  Apocrypha  are 
called  by  the  latter  "  deutero-canoni- 
cal,"  as  being  admitted  into  the  canon 
at  a  later  date  than  the  rest,  but  are 
held  to  be  of  equal  authority. 

The  scriptures  were,  no  doubt,  orig- 
inally written  on  skins  or  parchments 
rolled  up  into  rolls  or  volumes. 

The  earliest  and  most  famous  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  or  Greek  translation,  complet- 
ed it  is  believed  in  the  2d  century  B.  o. 
The  Syriac  version,  called  the  Peshito, 
was  made  in  the  2d  century  after 
Christ,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  fideli- 
ty. The  famous  Latin  version  of  St. 
Jerome,  known  as  the  Vulgate,  was 
finished  in  405. 

The  New  Testament,  besides  being 
originally  written  in  Greek,  also  dif- 
fers remarkably  from  the  Old  in  this 
respect,  that  while  the  writings  com- 
prehended in  the  earlier  collection 
range  over  a  period  of  1,000  years, 
those  included  in  the  latter  were  pro- 
duced almost  contemporaneously  — 


most  of  them  probably  between  A.  D. 
50  and  A.  D.  70.  The  collection  con- 
sists of  27  writings,  ascribed  either  to 
apostles  or  to  persons  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  them.  Five  of  the  works 
are  in  the  form  of  historical  narra- 
tives, four  of  which  relate  from  dif- 
ferent points  of  view  the  story  of 
Christ's  life,  while  the  fifth  describes 
the  formation  and  extension  of  the 
Church  by  the  ministry  of  the  leading 
apostles.  Twenty-one  are  epistolary. 
Thirteen  of  these  bear  the  name  of  St. 
Paul  as  their  author,  nine  being  ad- 
dressed to  various  Christian  communi- 
ties, three  (I  and  II  Timothy,  and 
Titus)  — called  the  pastoral  epistles 
—  to  office-bearers  in  the  Churcn, 
and  -  one  to  a  private  individual 
(Philemon).  The  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  formerly  ascribed  to  Paul  is 
believed  to  have  been  written  by  Apol- 
los.  Seven  other  letters — one  ascribed 
to  James,  two  to  Peter,  three  to 
John,  and  one  to  Jude  —  are  often 
known  as  the  catholic  (that  is,  gen- 
eral) epistles,  as  haying  been  intended 
for  the  use  of  Christians  in  general. 
The  only  remaining  work  is  the  Apoc- 
alypse or  Revelation  of  St.  John.  Of 
these  writings  the  epistles  are  the  ear- 
liest in  date  and  were  written  to  va- 
rious Christian  communities  to  give 
advice  in  special  circumstances,  to  ex- 
plain points  of  doctrine,  or  to  warn 
against  mistaken  beliefs.  They  are 
adapted  to  the  special  conditions  and 
mental  attitude  of  those  to  whom  they 
were  addressed ;  thus  in  the  letters  to 
the  Corinthian  Christians,  who  dwelt 
in  Greece,  various  speculative  ques- 
tions are  discussed.  The  first  three 
Gospels,  called  the  synoptic  Gospels, 
were  probably  written  in  or  near  A.  D. 
70,  that  of  Mark  being  perhaps  the 
earliest.  The  fourth  Gospel  is  of 
much  later  date  (about  A.  D. 
100),  and  has  a  markedly  different 
character.  It  gives  an  account  of 
Christ's  life  not  so  much  from  an  ob- 
jective and  historical  as  from  a  sub- 
jective and  personal  point  of  view. 

All  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
have  come  down  to  us  as  originally 
written  in  the  Greek  language.  The 
writers  of  the  New  Testament 
were  all,  or  nearly  all,  Jews ;  and 
while  employing  the  Greek  language, 


BiLlc  Societies 


Bible  Societies 


they  exhibit  many  traces  of  their  na- 
tive idiom,  so  that  their  writings  pre- 
sent more  or  less  of  a  Hebraic  color- 
ing. The  body,  as  has  been  well  said, 
is  Greek ;  the  spirit  is  Hebrew.  The 
first  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  into 
English  was  by  Wycliffe  and  his  co- 
adjutors, who  translated  from  the  Lat- 
in and  published  their  work  in  1382. 
William  Tyndale  made  a  translation 
from  the  original  tongues  of  the  New 
Testament  and  part  of  the  Old,  which 
he  printed  at  Worms  in  1525.  It  was 
proscribed  and  burned  in  England, 
but  copies  were  smuggled  over  and 
used  in  secret.  The  Pentateuch  was 
published  by  Tyndale  in  1530.  He  also 
translated  some  of  the  prophetical 
books.  His  translation  was  superior 
to  all  previous  versions  in  purity, 
perspicuity,  and  accuracy,  and  it 
formed  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
translations. 

Tyndale  suffered  martyrdom  in  1536, 
but  his  work  was  taken  up  by  Miles 
Coverdale.  He  and  his  coadjutors  com- 
pleted the  translation  and  the  whole 
Bible  was  issued  in  one  large  volume. 
In  1537  a  new  and  revised  edition  was 
published.  Another  version  appeared 
in  1560  known  as  the  Genevan  Bible, 
or  more  familiarly  as  the  Breeches 
Bible,  from  its  rendering  of  Genesis  3 : 
7.  This,  however,  was  not  popular 
with  the  Church  of  England,  and  in 
1568  a  revision  of  Coverdale's  version 
was  made.  This  was  known  as  the  Bish- 
op's Bible,  because  of  the  number  of 
bishops  who  assisted  in  its  production. 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.  a  demand 
was  made  for  a  new  translation, 
and  at  the  Hampton  Court  Confer- 
ence (1604)  the  suggestion  was  made 
by  Dr.  Rainolds  of  Oxford,  as  spokes- 
man of  the  Puritan  representatives, 
and  a«cepted  by  the  king.  The  work 
was  committed  to  54  scholars,  but 
only  47  took  part  in  it  They  were 
divided  into  six  companies,  who  had 
their  respective  tasks  assigned  them 
and  met  apart.  The  revision  was  be- 
gun in  1607,  and  occupied  three  years. 
The  whole  work  was  revised  by  12  of 
the  translators,  two  out  of  each  com- 
pany, and  a  final  revision  was  made 
by  Dr.  Myles  Smith,  the  writer  of 
the  preface,  and  Dr.  Bilson,  Bishop  of 
Winchester.  The  completed  work  was 
published  in  a  folio  volume  in  1611. 

E  18. 


The  translators  were  enjoined  to  fol- 
Iqw  the  ordinary  Bible  read  in  the 
churches  commonly  called  the  Bish- 
ops' Bible,  and  not  to  make  altera- 
tions unless  the  meaning  of  the  origi- 
nal could  be  more  accurately  con- 
veyed. The  general  accuracy  of  this 
translation,  which  is  usually  known 
as  the  Authorized  Version,  and  the 
purity  of  its  style,  so  won  the  appro- 
bation of  scholars  and  commended  it 
to  readers  generally  that  from  the 
time  of  its  adoption  it  has  superseded 
all  other  versions.  Latterly,  however, 
the  advances  made  in  Hebrew  scholar- 
ship and  biblical  criticism  gave  rise  to 
a  general  demand  among  those  inter- 
ested in  the  study  of  the  Bible  for  a 
revision  of  the  Authorized  Version, 
and  the  task  was  undertaken  by  a 
number  of  the  Anglican  clergy,  with 
the  aid  of  associates  from  various 
other  bodies.  The  work  was  set  afoot 
by  the  convocation  of  Canterbury, 
which  in  1870  appointed  a  committee 
to  consider  the  question  of  revision. 
The  committee  in  a  few  months  re- 
ported favorably  on  the  scheme,  rec- 
ommending that  "  the  revision  be  so 
conducted  as  to  comprise  both  margi- 
nal renderings  and  such  emendations 
as  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  insert 
in  the  text  of  the  authorized  version  "; 
stating  also  "  that  in  the  above  reso- 
lutions we  do  not  contemplate  any 
new  translation  of  the  Bible,  or  any 
alteration  of  the  language,  except 
where  in  the  judgment  of  the  most 
competent  scholars  such  change  is 
necessary."  Two  companies  were  soon 
formed  —  one  for  the  Old,  the  other 
for  the  New  Testament,  including  a 
number  of  scholars  belonging  to  the 
United  States  —  and  the  revised  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament  was  issued 
in  1881,  while  that  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment appeared  in  1885.  In  accuracy 
at  least  the  revised  version  is  greatly 
superior  to  the  old,  on  which  it  made 
10,000  emendations.  Of  other  trans- 
lations than  the  English  Authorized 
Version,  that  of  Luther,  which  formed 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  German 
language,  is  the  most  remarkable.  It 
was  finished  in  1534. 

Bible  Societies,  societies  formed 
for  the  distribution  of  the  Bible  or 
portions  of  it  in  various  languages, 
either  gratuitously  or  at  a  low  rate. 
A  clergyman  of  Wales,  whom  the 


Bible  Statistics 


Bible 


want  of  a  Welsh  Bible  led  to  London, 
occasioned  the  establishment  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 
which  was  founded  in  London,  March 
7,  1804. 

In  the  United  States  the  great 
American  Bible  Society,  formed  in 
181(3,  acts  in  concert  with  the  aux- 
iliary societies  in  all  parts  of  the 
Union.  The  annual  income  of  the 
society  is  now  over  $500,000,  and  its 
total  issue  has  amounted  to  about 
04,000,000  copies.  These  have  been 
mostly  in  English,  Spanish,  and 
French,  from  the  society's  plates.  The 
managers  have  occasionally  purchased 
Bibles  in  Europe,  and  issued  them  to 
applicants,  in  German,  Dutch,  Welsh, 
Gaelic,  Portuguese,  modern  Greek, 
and  some  other  European  languages. 
They  have  also  furnished  money  to 
print  translations  into  pagan  lan- 
guages, by  American  missionaries.  It 
is  the  object  of  the  society  to  supply 
every  one  who  can  read  in  the  United 
States,  before  devoting  much  attention 
to  distribution  abroad.  Yet  Spanish 
America  and  Ceylon,  Greece,  and  the 
Sandwich  Islands  have  been  furnished 
with  Bibles  by  the  society.  Other 
American  societies  are  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Bible  Society,  the  American  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Lnion. 

Bible  Statistics,  an  interesting 
compilation,  said  to  be  the  fruits  of 
three  years'  labor  by  the  indefatigable 
Dr.  Horne,  and  given  by  him  in  his 
introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  basis  is  an  old  English  Bi- 
ble of  the  King  James  version. 

Old  Testament — Number  of  books, 
39;  chapters,  929;  verses,  23,214; 
words,  593,493;  letters,  2,728,100. 

New  Testament. — Number  of  books, 
27;  chapters,  260;  verses,  7,959; 
words,  181,253;  letters,  838,380. 

The  Bible. —  Total  number  of  books, 
66;  chapters,  1,189;  verses,  31,173; 
words,  773,746;  letters,  3,566,480. 

Apocrypha. —  Number  of  books,  1-| ; 
chapters,  184 ;  verses,  6,031 ;  words, 
125,185. 

Old  Testament— The  middle  book 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  Proverbs.  The 
middle  chapter  is  Job  xxix.  The  mid- 
dle verse  is  II  Chronicles  xx,  between 
verses  17  and  18.  The  shortest  book 
is  Obadiah.  The  shortest  verse  is 
I  Chron.  i:  25.  The  word  "and" 


occurs  35,543  times.  Ezra  vii :  21 
contains  all  the  letters  of  our  alpha- 
bet. The  word  "  Selah "  occurs  73 
times  and  only  in  the  poetical  books. 
II  Kings  xix  and  Isaiah  xxxvii  are 
alike.  The  Book  of  Esther  does  not 
contain  the  words  God  or  Lord.  The 
last  two  verses  of  II  Chronicles  and 
the  opening  verses  of  the  Book  ot 
Ezra  are  alike.  Ezra  ii  and  Nehe- 
miah  vii  are  alike.  There  are  nearly 
30  books  mentioned,  but  not  found  in 
the  Bible,  consisting  of  civil  records 
and  other  ancient  writings  now  nearly 
all  lost.  About  26  of  these  are  al- 
luded to  in  the  Old  Testament 

New  Testament — The  middle  book 
is  II  Thessalonians.  The  middle  chap- 
ter is  between  Romans  xiii  and  xiv. 
The  middle  verse  is  Acts  xvii :  17. 
The  smallest  book  is  II  John.  The 
smallest  verse  is  John  xi :  35.  The 
word  "  and  "  occurs  10,684  times.  The 
name  Jesus  occurs  nearly  700  times  in 
the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  in  the  Epis- 
tles less  than  70  times.  The  name 
Christ  alone  occurs  about  60  times  in 

!  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  about  240 
times  in  the  Epistles  and  Revelation. 
The  term  Jesus  Christ  occurs  5  times 
in  the  Gospels. 

The  Bible. —  The  middle  book  is  Mi- 
cah.  The  middle  (and  smallest)  chap- 
ter is  Psalm  cxvii.  The  middle  verse 
is  Psalm  cxviii :  8.  The  middle  line  is 
II  Chronicles  iv :  16 ;  the  largest  book 
is  that  of  the  Psalms ;  the  largest 
chapter  is  Psalm  cxix.  The  word  Je- 

j  hovah  (or  Lord  occurs  6,855  times. 
The  word  "  and  "  occurs  46,227  times. 
The  number  of  authors  of  the  Bible  is 
50.  The  Bible  was  not  until  modern 
times  divided  into  chapters  and  verses. 
The  division  of  chapters  has  been  at- 
tributed to  Lanfrank,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  the  reign  of  William 
I. ;  but  the  real  author  of  this  division 
was  Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto-Caro, 
about  1236.  The  number  of  languages 
on  earth  is  estimated  at  3,000;  the 
Bible  or  parts  of  it  have  been  ren- 
dered into  only  about  180,  or,  lan- 
guages and  dialects  together,  345.  The 
first  English  translation  complete  of 
the  Bible  was  by  Wyclif  in  1380.  The 
first  American  edition  was  printed  in 
Boston  in  1752. 

Bible,  The  Seven,  the  seven  prin- 
cipal Bibles  of  the  world  are  the  Ko- 
ran of  the  Mohammedans,  the  Eddas 


Biblical  Archaeology 


Biddle 


of  the  Scandinavians,  the  Tripitikes  of 
the  Buddhists,  the  Five  Kings  of  the 
Chinese,  the  three  Vedas  of  the  Hin- 
dus, the  Zend  Avesta  and  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Christians.  The  Koran 
is,  except  the  Eddas,  the  most  recent 
of  these  seven  Bibles  and  not  older 
than  the  7th  century  of  our  era.  It 
is  a  compound  of  quotations  from  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  gospel  of  St.  Barnbas. 
The  Eddas  of  the  Scandinavians  was 
first  published  in  the  14th  century. 
The  Tripitikes  of  the  Buddhists  con- 
tain sublime  morals  and  pure  aspira- 
tions ;  their  author  lived  and  died  in 
the  6th  century  before  Christ. 

The  sacred  writings  of  the  Chinese 
are  called  the  Five  Kings,  king  mean- 
ing web  of  cloth  or  the  warp  that 
keeps  the  threads  in  their  place.  They 
contain  the  best  sayings  of  the  best 
sages  on  the  ethico-political  duties  of 
life.  These  sayings  cannot  be  traced 
to  a  period  earlier  than  the  llth  cen- 
tury before  Christ.  The  three  Vedas 
are  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Hin- 
dus, and  it  is  the  opinion  of  Max  Mul- 
ler,  Wilson,  Johnson  and  Whitney 
that  thej7  are  not  older  than  11  cen- 
turies before  Christ.  The  Zend  Aves- 
ta of  the  Persians  is  the  grandest  of 
all  these  sacred  books  next  to  our 
Bible.  Zoroaster,  whose  sayings  it 
contains,  was  born  in  the  12th  century 
before  Christ.  It  is  the  sacred  book 
of  the  fire  worshippers. 

Biblical  Archaeology,  Society 
of,  a  society  founded  in  London  Dec. 
9,  1870,  "  for  the  investigation  of  the 
archaeology,  history,  arts,  and  chron- 
ology of  ancient  and  modern  Assyria, 
Palestine,  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  other 
Biblical  lands;  the  promotion  of  the 
study  of  the  antiquities  of  those  coun- 
tries, and  the  record  of  discoveries 
hereafter  to  be  made  in  connection 
therewith." 

Biblical  Criticism,  the  science 
•which  deals  with  the  text  of  the  Bible. 
It  is  of  two  kinds :  the  Lower,  or 
Textual  Criticism,  which  is  concerned 
with  the  accuracy  and  meaning  of  the 
passages ;  and  the  Higher  or  Literary 
Criticism,  which  seeks  to  discover  the 
origin,  date,  authorship  and  relations 
of  the  various  books,  and  to  find  out 
by  internal  evidence  whether  they  are 
based  on  earlier  documents  and  wheth- 


er they  have  undergone  revision  since 
they  were  first  composed. 

Bibliography,  the  science  or 
knowledge  of  books,  their  authorship, 
the  dates  of  their  first  publication, 
and  of  the  several  editions  they  have 
gone  through,  with  all  other  points 
requisite  for  'iterary  history. 

Bichloride  of  Gold,  in  chemis- 
try and  pharmacy,  a  substance  which 
has  risen  into  notoriety  on  account  of 
the  use  made  of  it  in  the  cure  of  dip- 
somania and  chronic  alcoholism.  Its 
employment  by  Dr.  Keeley  produced  a 
profound  impression  on  the  medical 
world. 

Bicycle,  a  light-wheeled  vehicle 
propelled  by  the  rider,  consisting  of 
two  wheels  attached  to  a  frame  com- 
posed of  tubing.  Between  these  is  ar- 
ranged an  axle,  attached  to  lower  part 
of  frame,  to  which  are  affixed  two 
.pedals,  one  on  either  side ;  to  this  axle 
is  attached  a  sprocket-wheel  over  which 
runs  an  endless  chain  connecting  with 
a  smaller  sprocket  on  the  rear  wheel. 
There  are  also  chainless  bicycles,  in 
which  a  system  of  cogs  takes  the 
place  of  the  chain.  The  frames  are  dis- 
tinguished as  "diamond"  and  "drop ;" 
the  former  used  by  men,  the  later  by 
women  cyclists.  The  rider  sits  upon  a 
saddle  attached  to  a  seat-post  affixed 
to  the  frame ;  he  there  steers  the  ma- 
chine by  means  of  a  handle-bar,  which 
turns  the  front  wheel  in  any  direction 
required.  The  momentum  of  the  vehi- 
cle, and  the  proper  use  of  the  steering 
bar  keeps  it  in  an  upright  position. 

Biddeford,  a  city  in  York  county, 
Me.;  on  the  Saco  river  and  the  Bos- 
ton &  Maine  railroad;  15  miles  S.  W. 
of  Portland;  settled  in  1630;  has 
trolley  to  famous  Old  Orchard  Beach 
(4  miles);  has  good  water-power,  cot- 
ton and  woollen  mills,  and  large  trade 
in  lumber  and  farm  products.  Pop.  * 
(1910)  17,079. 

Biddle,  Anthony  Joseph  Drex- 
el,  an  American  author  and  explorer; 
born  in  Philadelphia,  Oct.  1,  1874. 

Biddle,  Arthur,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Sept.  23,  1852;  graduated  at  Yale  in 
1873;  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1878.  Later  he  became 
a  member  of  his  father's  firm  and  de- 
voted much  time  to  the  study  of  cer- 
tain branches,  the  results  of  which 


Biddle 


were  published  in  his  works.  He  died 
in  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  March  8,  1897. 

Biddle,  Clement,  the  "  Quaker 
Soldier,"  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
May  10,  1740.  Although  a  strict 
Quaker,  he  identified  himself  with  the 
Revolutionary  cause  even  to  the  ex- 
tent of  going  to  war.  He  was  present 
at  the  battles  of  Princeton,  Brandy- 
wine,  Germantown  and  Monmouth. 
He  also  shared  the  sufferings  of  Val- 
ley Forge.  He  resigned  active  service 
in  1780,  but  assisted  in  the  making 
of  the  Federal  Constitution  in  1787. 
After  that  he  was  United  States  mar- 
shal of  Pennsylvania.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  July  14,  1814. 

Biddle,  James,  Rn  American  na- 
val officer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
in  1793  ;  entered  the  navy  as  a  mid- 
shipman on  the  "  Philadelphia  "  in 
1800,  and  was  on  that  frigate  when 
she  was  wrecked  on  the  Barbary  coast 
in  1803.  In  the  War  of  1812  he 
served  on  the  "  Wasp  "  in  the  capture 
of  the  British  sloop  "  Frolic,"  and 
was  captain  of  the  "  Hornet  "  at  the 
capture  of  the  "  Penguin."  In  1845 
he  was  given  command  of  the  East 
India  Squadron  and  concluded  the 
first  treaty  between  the  United  States 
and  China.  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Oct.  1,  1848. 

Biddle,  John,  father  of  the  mod- 
ern Unitarians,  born  in  Wotton-under- 
Edge,  in  Gloucestershire,  in  1615  ; 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  became 
master  of  a  free  school  at  Gloucester. 
He  was  repeatedly  imprisoned  for  his 
anti-Trinitarian  views.  A  general  act 
of  oblivion  restored  him  to  liber- 
ty, when  he  immediately  disseminat- 
ed his  opinions  both  by  preaching  and 
by  the  publication  of  his  "  Twofold 
Scripture  Catechism."  He  was  again 
imprisoned,  and  the  law  of  1048  was 
to  be  put  in  operation  against  him 
when,  to  save  his  life,  Cromwell  ban- 
ished him  to  St.  Mary's  Castle,  Sicily, 
and  assigned  him  100  crowns  annual- 
ly. Here  he  remained  three  years,  un- 
til the  Protector  liberated  him  in  1658. 
He  then  continued  to  preach  his  opin- 
ions till  the  death  of  Cromwell,  and 
also  after  the  Restoration,  when  he 
was  committed  to  jail  in  1662,  and 
died  a  few  months  after. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Philadelphia, 


Pa.,  Sept.  10,  1750.  After  serving  in 
the  British  navy  and  in  the  Arctic  ex- 
ploring expedition  led  by  Captain 
Phipps,  he  returned  to  his  native 
country  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revo- 
lution, and  was  one  of  the  five  officers 
who  received  the  rank  of  captain  at 
the  organization  of  the  American, 
navy  in  1775.  In  command  of  the 
"  Andrea  Doria "  he  accompanied 
Fleet-Captain  Hopkins  to  the  Baha- 
mas, and  was  present  at  the  capture 
of  New  Providence.  In  1777  he  took 
command  of  the  32-gun  ship  "  Ran- 
dolph," the  first  American  frigate 
ever  launched.  He  met  the  British 
"  Yarmouth,"  64  guns,  on  March  7, 
1778,  and  in  the  ensuing  action  the 
"  Randolph "  blew  up,  causing  the 
death  of  her  captain  and  about  315 
others. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  an  American 
financier,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Jan.  8,  1786;  became  secretary  to 
John  Armstrong,  United  States  Min- 
ister to  France,  in  1804,  and  subse- 
quently went  to  England  as  secretary 
to  James  Monroe,  then  United  States 
Minister.  He  returned  home  In  1807, 
was  elected  to  the  Pennsylvania  Legis- 
lature in  1810,  and  was  appointed  a 
director  of  the  United  States  Bank  in 
1819.  He  became  president  of  the 
bank  in  1823  and  managed  it  ably 
down  to  the  expiration  of  its  charter. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  27,  1844. 

Bid-well,  John,  an  American  po- 
litician, born  in  Chautauqua  county, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  5,  1819.  In  1831  his  par- 
ents moved  to  Ashtabula  county,  O., 
where  he  acquired  an  academical  edu- 
cation and  taught  school.  He  went 
to  California  in  1841 ;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  reaching  the  rank  of 
Major ;  was  a  member  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Convention  of  1849;  and  of 
the  National  Democratic  Convention 
in  Charleston,  in  1860.  In  the  Civil 
War  he  was  brigadier-general  of  Cali- 
fornia militia.  In  1864  he  was  elect- 
ed to  Congress  as  a  Republican;  in 
1866  was  a  member  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Convention ;  in  1890  was  the  un- 
successful Prohibition  candidate  for 
Governor  of  California;  and.  in  1892, 
unsuccessful  candidate  of  his  party 
for  the  Presidency.  He  died  in  Chico, 
Gal.,  April  5,  1900. 

Biela,  Wilhelm,  Baron  von,  an 
Austrian  army  officer,  born  in  Roslau, 


Bif  la's  Comet 

Prussia,  March  19,  1782 ;  known  from 
his  discovery  of  the  comet  bearing  his 
name.  He  died  in  Venice,  Feb.  18, 
1856. 

Biela's  Comet,  a  comet  which  took 
its  name  from  Major  Biela  of  the  Aus- 
trian army,  who  traced  it  out  in  1826 
and  furnished  such  data  regarding  its 
movements  as  to  convince  the  other 
astronomers  of  his  day  that  he  had  a 
proprietary  right  to  it.  The  same 
comet  had  been  noticed  on  March  8, 
1772,  and  again  in  1805. 

Biehlesohle,  a  stalactite  cavern  in 
the  Harz  Mountains,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Bode. 

Biennial,  a  plant  that  requires 
two  seasons  to  come  to  maturity, 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste  le 
Moyne,  a  French  colonist,  born  in 
Montreal,  Feb.  23,  1680.  In  1698, 
with  his  brother,  Iberville,  he  left 
France  to  found  a  colony  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi.  In  1700  he  con- 
structed a  fort  54  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and  in  1701, 
he  succeeded  to  the  direction  of  the 
colony,  the  seat  of  which  became  Mo- 
bile. In  1718  he  received  a  commis- 
sion as  governor  of  Mississippi,  and 
about  this  time  founded  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.  In  1724  he  was  sum- 
moned to  France,  and,  on  Aug.  9, 
1726,  was  removed  from  office.  In 
1733  he  was  sent  back  to  the  colony 
as  governor,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-general. In  1743  he  was  again 
removed  and  returned  to  France, 
where  he  died  in  1765. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  an  American 
painter,  born  near  Dusseldorf,  Ger- 
many, Jan.  7,  1830 ;  removed  with  his 
parents  to  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1831 ;  be- 
gan to  paint  in  oils  in  1851 ;  and  in 
1853  returned  to  Dusseldorf  to  study 
his  art,  spending  a  winter  in  Rome, 
traveling  in  Italy  and  Switzerland, 
and  returning  to  the  United  States  in 
1857.  In  1859  he  accompanied  Gen- 
eral Lander's  expedition  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  spent  several  months 
in  studies  of  mountain  scenery.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  in  1860.  In  1861  he  finished 
his  painting,  "  Laramie  Peak,"  and  in 
1863  "  View  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
—  Lander's  Peak."  These  at  once 
gave  him  a  high  reputation.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  Feb.  18,  1902. 


Bigelow 

Bies-Bosch,  a  marshy  sheet  of  wa- 
ter interspersed  with  islands,  between 
the  Dutch  Provinces  of  North  Bra- 
bant and  South  Holland,  formed  in 
1421  by  an  inundation  which  destroy- 
ed 72  villages  and  100,000  people. 

Bigamy,  in  civil  law,  the  act  of 
marrying  a  second  time,  while  the  first 
husband  or  wife  is  still  known  to  be 
living,  and  not  divorced. 

Big  '  Bend  Country,  a  volcanic 
plain  near  the  center  of  the  State  o£ 
Washington.  It  covers  4,800  square 
miles,  a  third  of  it  being  gently  roll- 
ing, brown  loam  prairie,  suitable  for 
farming,  and  the  rest  low  hills  and 
plateaus  of  bunch  grass  and  sage 
brush,  where  livestock  is  ranged.  The 
Columbia  river  curves  round  this  re- 
gion, flowing  in  a  ravine  1,500  feet  be- 
low the  general  level.  It  is  traversed 
by  several  remarkable  chasms,  many 
miles  long,  and  from  a  furlong  to  half 
a  league  wide,  with  sheet  walls  ot 
black  basalt  500  feet  high. 

Big  Bethel,  a  village  in  Virginia, 
on  the  peninsula  between  the  York 
and  James  rivers ;  the  scene  of  a  bat- 
tle, June  10,  1861,  between  the  Fed- 
eral and  Confederate  forces.  It  re- 
sulted in  the  defeat  of  the  Federal 
army. 

Big  Bone  Lick,  a  salt  spring,  in 
Boone  county,  Ky.,  11  miles  S.  of 
Burlington,  where  fossil  remains  of 
mastadons  and  other  extinct  fauna 
have  been  found. 

Bigelow,  Erastus  Brigham,  an 
American  inventor,  born  in  Boylston, 
Mass.,  April  2,  1814;  became  a  lead- 
ing manufacturer  in  Clinton,  Mass. ; 
invented  looms  for  suspender  weaving, 
for  counterpanes,  for  coach  lace  and 
for  carpets.  He  died  in  Boston,  Dec. 
6,  1879. 

Bigelow*  Frank  Hagar,  an 
American  clergyman  and  meteorolo- 
gist, born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  Aug.  28, 
1851 ;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1873» 
and  at  the  Episcopal  Theological 
School  at  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  was  or- 
dained in  1880,  and  became  assistant 
rector  at  St.  John's  Church  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  In  1873-1876  and 
1881-1883  he  was  Astronomer  at  the 
Cordoba  Observatory,  Argentine  Re- 
public in  1884-1889,  Professor  of 
Mathematics  at  Racine  College,  Wis- 
consin ;  and  in  1893  became  Professor 


Bigelow 

of  Meteorology  in  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau. 

Bigelow,  Jacob,  an  American 
physician,  born  in  Sudbury,  Mass., 
Feb.  27,  1787;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  in  1806,  and  began  medical 
practice  in  Boston  in  1810.  He  early 
became  known  as  a  botanist,  and  a 
number  of  plants  were  named  for  him 
by  Sir  J.  E.  Smith.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  10,  1879. 

Bigelow,  John,  an  American  au- 
thor, born  in  Maiden,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  25, 
1817;  graduated  at  Union  College,  in 
1835,  and  became  first  a  lawyer  and 
afterward  a  journalist.  In  1845-1846 
he  was  inspector  of  Sing  Sing  pris- 
on ;  in  1849-1861  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  New  York  "  Evening  Post ;  "  in 
1861-1864,  United  States  Consul-Gen- 
eral at  Paris ;  and  in  1864-1867,  Min- 
ister to  France.  He  was  Secretary  of 
State  of  New  York  in  1875-1877.  In 
his  will  Samuel  J.  Tilden  appointed 
him  his  biographer  and  a  trustee  of  the 
bulk  of  his  estate,  set  apart  for  a  pub- 
lic library  in  New  York  city.  He  died 
Dec.  19,  1911. 

Bigelow,  John,  Jr.,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  New  York, 
May  12,  1854 ;  son  of  the  preceding ; 
was  educated  in  Paris,  Bonn,  Berlin, 
Freiburg,  and  Providence,  R.  I. ;  grad- 
uated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1877 ;  and  was  assigned 
to  the  10th  United  States  Cavalry.  In 
1887-1889  was  adjutant-general  of  the 
militia  in  the  District  of  Columbia ; 
and  in  1894-1898,  Professor  of  Mili- 
tary Science  at  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology.  During  the 
war  with  Spain  he  was  wounded  in 
the  attack  on  San  Juan,  Cuba,  July  1, 
1898.  Retired  as  major  in  1904. 

Bigelow,  Poultney,  an  American 
author,  born  in  New  York,  Sept.  10, 
1855 ;  son  of  John  Bigelow ;  graduated 
at  Yale  University  and  at  the  Colum- 
bia Law  School  in  1882,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar.  In  1875-1876  he 
took  a  journey  around  the  world  in  a 
Bailing  ship,  which  was  wrecked  on 
the  coast  of  Japan.  He  traveled  ij 
China,  Africa,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Demerara.  He  has  made  canoe  voy- 
ages on  the  principal  waters  of  Eu- 
rope, and  was  the  first  person  to  take 
a  canoe  through  the  Iron  Gates  of 
the  Danube. 


Big  Trees 

Bigelow,  Timothy,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Worcester, 
Mass.,  Aug.  12,  1739.  On  May  23, 
1775,  he  led  a  company  of  minute  men 
to  Cambridge,  and  became  a  Major  in 
Ward's  regiment.  He  was  under  Ar- 
nold in  the  expedition  to  Quebec  in 
1775,  and  was  there  captured,  remain- 
ing a  prisoner  till  1776.  He  became 
a  Colonel  in  1777,  and  assisted  in  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne.  He  also  saw 
service'  at  Valley  Forge,  Monmouth, 
West  Point,  and  Yorktown.  He  died 
in  Worcester,  Mass.,  March  31,  1790. 

Biggs,  Asa,  an  American  jurist, 
born  in  Williamston,  N.  C.,  Feb.  4, 
1811;  died  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  March  6, 
1878. 

Big  Horn,  the  wild  sheep  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  named  from  the 
size  of  its  horns,  which  are  3%  feet 
long,  the  animal  itself  being  of  the 
same  height  at  the  shoulder. 

Big  Horn  Mountains,  a  range 
of  mountains  beginning  near  the  cen- 
ter of  Wyoming  and  running  N.  into 
Montana,  containing  heights  of  from 
8,000  to  12,000  feet,  and  covering  7,- 
500  square  miles. 

Big  Horn  River,  a  river  of  Mon- 
tana and  Wyoming ;  rises  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  near  Fremont's 
Peak,  and  flows  N.  E.  into  the  Yel- 
lowstone. Along  its  course  is  some  of 
the  grandest  mountain  scenery  in  the 
world. 

Bignonia,  a  genus  of  plants  (that 
of  the  trumpet  flowers).  It  has  four 
perfect  stamina,  two  long  and  two 
short.  The  species,  which  are  numer- 
ous, are  nearly  all  of  an  ornamental 
character,  owing  to  their  fine,  large, 
trumpet  like,  monopetalous  corolla's, 
colored  red,  blue,  yellow,  or  white. 

Big  Trees,  the  sequoia  gigantea, 
"  big  tree "  of  California,  is  found 
only  on  the  .W.  slope  of  the  Sierra, 
while  the  "  redwood,"  belonging  to 
the  same  genus,  is  confined  to  the 
Coast  Range. 

The  Calaveras  Grove  of  sequoia  gi- 
gantea is  the  northernmost  of  the  Cal- 
ifornia groves  of  big  trees,  and  it  is 
the  nearest  to  San  Francisco.  It  is, 
however,  comparatively  seldom  visit- 
ed, as  the  Mariposa  Grove  is  conven- 
iently included  in  the  usual  route  to 
the  Yosemite.  The  Calaveras  Grove 
covers  an  area  1,100  yards  long  and 


Big  Woods 

70  yards  wide,  4,750  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  contains  about  100  trees  of 
large  size,  besides  many  smaller  ones. 
The  tallest  now  standing  is  the  Key- 
stone State,  which  is  325  feet  high 
and  45  feet  in  girth.  The  Mother  of 
the  Forest  (denuded  of  its  bark)  is 
315  feet  high  and  has  a  girth  of  61 
feet,  while  the  prostrate  Father  of 
the  Forest  measures  112  feet  in  cir- 
cumference. Two  other  trees  are  over 
300  feet  high,  and  many  exceed  250 
feet.  A  house  has  been  built  over  a 
stump  with  a  diameter  of  24  feet.  The 
bark  is  sometimes  1%  feet  in  thick- 
ness. About  5  miles  to  the  S.  is  the 
Stanislaus  or  South  Grove,  also  con- 
taining many  fine  trees. 

The  Marippsa  Grove  of  big  trees,  so 
called  from  its  situation  in  Mariposa 
county,  occupies  a  tract  of  land  (6,- 
500  feet  above  the  sea)  4  square  miles 
in  area,  reserved  as  a  State  Park,  and 
consists  of  two  distinct  groves,  one- 
half  mile  apart.  The  Lower  Grove 
contains  about  100  fine  specimens  of 
the  sequoia  gigantea,  including  the 
Grizzly  Giant,  the  largest  of  all,  with 
a  circumference  of  94  feet  and  a  diam- 
eter of  31  feet.  Its  main  limb,  200 
feet  from  the  ground,  is  6%  feet  in 
diameter.  In  ascending  to  the  Upper 
Grove,  which  contains  365  big  trees, 
the  road  passes  through  a  tunnel,  10 
feet  high  and  91/^  feet  wide  (at  the 
bottom),  cut  directly  through  the 
heart  of  a  living  sequoia,  27  feet  in 
diameter.  About  10  of  the  trees  in  the 
Mariposa  Grove  exceed  250  feet  in 
height  (highest  272  feet)  and  about 
20  trees  have  a  circumference  of  over 
60  feet,  three  of  these  being  over  90 
feet.  The  Calaveras  Gi'ove  has  taller 
trees  than  any  of  the  Mariposa  Grove, 
but  the  latter  has  those  of  greater  cir- 
cumference. The  wood  of  the  sequoia 
gigantea,  like  that  of  the  sequoia  sem- 
pervirens,  is  easily  worked,  durable, 
and  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  The 
sequoia  sempervirens,  or  redwoods, 
sometimes  reach  a  height  of  300  feet. 

The  Santa  Cruz  Grove  of  big  trees 
contains  about  a  score  of  the  genuine 
redwood  with  a  diameter  of  10  feet 
and  upward.  The  largest  is  23  feet 
across ;  one  of  the  finest,  named  the 
Pioneer,  has  a  girth  of  70  feet.  The 
redwood  is  one  of  the  most  prized  va- 
rieties of  lumber,  and  is  shipped  in 
great  quantities  to  the  Eastern  States, 


Bilge 

where    its    ornamental    qualities    are 
fully  appreciated. 

Big  Woods,  a  forest  region  in  the 
S.  E.  part  of  Minnesota,  extending  S. 
from  St.  Cloud  to  Le  Sueur,  where  it 
crosses  the  Minnesota,  and  sends 
branches  toward  Faribault  and  Man- 
kato. 

Bihe,  a  fruitful  district  of  South 
Africa,  E.  of  Benguela,  and  under 
Portuguese  influence.  Bihe  is  an  im- 
portant caravan  center,  as  the  only 
route  across  the  continent  passes 
through  it.  Pop.  95,000. 

Bijapnr,  a  decayed  city  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  160  miles  S.  E.  of 
Poona.  It  was  for  centuries  the  capi- 
tal of  a  powerful  kingdom.  Pop. 
(1911)  27,615. 

Bikaner,  a  native  State  of  Raj- 
putaua,  India,  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  a  political  agent  and  the 
governor-general's  agent  for  Rajput- 
ana.  Area,  23,315  square  miles ;  pop. 
(1911)  700,983;  city,  55,826. 

Bilaspur,  a  district  in  the  chief 
commissionership  of  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  India.  Area,  7,618  square 
miles ;  pop.  1,146,223. 

Bilbao,  a  town  of  Northern  Spain, 
the  capital  of  the  Basque  Province  of 
Vizcaya,  is  situated  in  a  mountain 
gorge  on  the  Nervion,  8  miles  S.  E.  of 
its  mouth  at  Portugalete,  and  63  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Miranda  by  rail.  Bilbao 
is  well  built.  The  place,  which  is 
purely  a  trading  town,  prides  itself  on 
being  kept  exceptionally  clean.  Pop. 
(1910)  93,536. 

Bilberry,  the  name  given  to  one 
or  two  species  of  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  order  cranberries.  It 
is  also  called  the  whortleberry.  It 
has  angular  stems,  drooping,  urceolate, 
almost  waxy  flowers,  greenish  with  a 
red  tinge,  and  black  berries  very  pleas- 
ant to  the  tasle.  It  grows  in  woods 
and  healthy  places.  The  great  bil- 
berry or  bog  whortleberry  is  an  allied 
species  with  rounded  stems,  smaller 
flowers,  and  less  agreeably  tasted 
fruit.  It  grows  in  mountain  bogs.  It 
is  called  also  the  bleab.erry  or  blae- 
berry. The  name  is  also  applied  to 
the  fruit  of  the  species  described. 
Bilge,  the  breadth  of  a  ship's  bot- 
tom, or  that  part  of  her  floor  which 
approaches  to  a  horizontal  direction, 
on  which  she  would  rest  if  aground. 


Bilguer 

Bilgner,  Paul  Rudolf  von,  a 
Prussian  military  officer,  born  in 
Ludwigslust,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
Sept.  21,  1815.  He  was  a  lieutenant 
in  the  army,  and  was  best  known  as 
an  authority  on  chess.  He  died  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  10,  1840. 

Biliary  Calculus,  a  concretion 
which  forms  in  the  gall  bladder  or  bile 
ducts ;  gall  stone.  It  is  generally 
composed  of  a  peculiar  crystalline 
fatty  matter  which  has  been  called 
cholesterine. 

Bill,  a  written  or  printed  paper 
containing  a  statement  of  any  partic- 
ulars. In  common  use  a  tradesman's 
account,  or  a  printed  proclamation 
or  advertisement,  is  thus  called  a  bill. 
In  legislation  a  bill  is  a  draft  of  a 
proposed  statute  submitted  to  a  legis- 
lative assembly  for  approval,  but  not 
yet  enacted  or  passed  and  made  law. 
When  the  bill  has  passed  and  received 
the  necessary  assent,  it  becomes  an 
act 

Billancl-Varcniies,  Jacques  N., 
the  son  of  a  French  advocate  at  Ro- 
chelle,  born  in  1756 ;  was  educated  at 
the  same  college  as  Fouche,  and 
proved  himself  one  of  the  most  vio- 
lent'and  sanguinary  characters  of  the 
French  Revolution.  He  bore  a  prin- 
cipal part  in  the  murders  and  massa- 
cres which  followed  the  destruction 
of  the  Bastille ;  voted  immediate  death 
to  Louis  XVI. ;  and  officiated  as  pres- 
ident of  the  Convention  on  Oct.  18, 
1793.  He  was  afterward  deported  to 
Cayenne,  and  subsisted  on  a  small 
pension  allowed  him  by  Petion.  He 
died  in  Haiti,  in  1819. 

Bill  Broker,  a  financial  agent  or 
money  dealer,  who  discounts  or  nego- 
tiates bills  of  exchange,  promissory 
notes,  etc. 

Bille,  Steen  Andersen,  a  Danish 
naval  officer,  born  in  Copenhagen, 
Dec.  5,  1797.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  expedition  that  went  to  South 
America  in  1840,  and  had  command 
of  a  scientific  expedition  round  the 
world,  in  the  corvette  "  Galatea,'' 
1845-1847,  of  which  he  wrote  an  in- 
teresting account.  He  died  in  Copen- 
hagen, May  7,  1883. 

Billeting,  a  mode  of  feeding  and 
lodging  soldiers  when  they  are  not  in 
camp  or  barracks  by  quartering  them 
on  the  inhabitants  of  a  town. 


Billingsgate 

Billiards,  a  word  probably  de- 
rived from  old  French  billiard,  "a 
stick  with  a  curved  end ;"  in  English, 
introduced  as  the  name  of  a  game, 
and  made  plural.  The  origin  of  bil- 
liards is  uncertain. 

Billings,  John  Shaw,  an  Amer- 
ican surgeon  and  librarian,  born 
in  Switzerland  county,  Ind.,  April 
12,  1839;  was  graduated  at  Miami 
University,  in  1857,  and  the 
Ohio  Medical  College,  in  I860;  was 
demonstrator  of  anatomy  in  the 
last  institution,  in  1860-1861;  enter- 
ed the  Union  army  as  an  Assistant 
Surgeon,  in  1801 ;  was  promoted  to 
Lieutenant-Colonel  and  Deputy  Sur- 
geon General,  June  6,  1894 ;  and  was 
retired,  Oct  1,  1895.  He  was  Pro- 
fessor of  Hygiene  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  1893-1896;  and  in 
the  last  year  was  appointed  Director 
of  the  New  York  Public  Library  (As- 
tor,  Lenox  and  Tilden  foundations). 
After  the  close  of  the  war  Dr.  Bil- 
lings took  charge  of  the  library  in  the 
Surgeon-General's  office ;  reorganized 
the  United  States  Marine  Hospital 
Service;  was  Vice-President  of  the 
National  Board  of  Health,  in  1879- 
1882;  and  had  charge  of  the  compila- 
tion of  vital  statistics  in  the  Eleventh 
Census.  He  died  March  11,  1913. 

Billings,  William,  an  American 
composer,  born  in  Boston,  Oct  7, 
1746.  One  of  the  earliest  of  Ameri- 
can composers,  he  is  accredited  with 
having  introduced  into  New  England 
a  spirited  style  of  church  music.  He 
died  in  Boston,  Sept.  26,  1800. 

Billingsgate,  a  word  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  Belinus  Magnus,  a 
somewhat  mythic  British  prince, 
father  of  King  Lud,  about  B.  c.  400. 
More  probably  it  came  from  some  un- 
known person  called  Billing.  It  is 
applied  to  the  celebrated  London  fish 
market  existent  at  least  as  early  as 
A.  D.  979,  made  a  free  market  in  1699, 
extended  in  1849,  rebuilt  in  1852,  and 
finally  exposed  to  the  rivalry  of  an- 
other market  begun  1874,  completed 
1876.  The  word  is  also  used  to  indi- 
cate foul,  abusive  language,  such  as 
is  popularly  supposed  to  be  mutually 
employed  by  fish-wives  who  are  unable 
to  come  to  an  amicable  understanding 
as  to  the  proper  price  of  the  fish  about 
which  they  are  negotiating. 


Billion 


Binary  Arithmetic 


Billion,  in  English  notation  1,000,- 
000  times  1,000,000,  and  in  England 
it  is  written  1,000,000,000,000,  i.  e., 
with  twice  as  many  ciphers  as  1,000,- 
000  has.  In  the  United  States  and 
in  France  the  notation  is  different, 
the  word  billion  signifying  only  1,000 
millions,  written  1,000,000,000. 

Billiton,  a  Dutch  East  Indian  is- 
land between  Banca  and  the  S.  W.  of 
Borneo,  of  an  irregular,  sub-quad- 
rangular form,  about  40  miles  across. 
It  produces  iron  and  tin,  and  exports 
gago,  cocoanuts,  pepper,  tortoise  shell, 
trepang,  edible  birds'  nests,  etc.  It 
was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1812  by 
the  Sultan  of  Palembang,  but  in  1824 
it  was  given  up  to  the  Dutch.  Pop. 
(1890)  38,779. 

Bilney,  Thomas,  an  English  mar- 
tyr, born  about  1495,  probably  at 
Norwich ;  studied  at  Trinity  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  in  1519. 
He  was  opposed  to  the  formal  "  gooa 
works "  of  the  Schoolmen,  and  de- 
nounced saint  and  relic  worship ;  and 
to  these  mild  Protestant  views  he  con- 1 
verted  Hugh  Latimer  and  other  young 
Cambridge  men.  In  1527  he  was  ar- 
r»  igned  before  Wolsey,  and  on  recant- 
ing, absolved,  but  was  confined  in  the 
Tower  for  over  a  year.  Stung  by  re- 
morse, after  two  years  of  suffering,  he 
began  to  preach  in  the  fields  of  Nor- 
folk, but  was  soon  apprehended  and 
condemned ;  and  although  allowed  to 
receive  the  sacraments  of  the  Church 
from  which  he  differed  so  little,  he 
was  burned  as  a  heretic  at  Norwich, 
Aug.  19,  1531. 

Biloxi,  a  city  in  Harrison  co., 
Miss.,  the  site  of  the  first  settlement 
on  tho  Mississippi  by  white  men,  un- 
der the  direction  of  d'Iberville,  in 
1699.  Pop.  (1910)  7,988. 

Biloxi  Indians,  the  name  given  to 
on  of  the  10  groups  of  tribes  into 
which  the  Siouan  stock  of  Nortn 
American  Indians  is  divided. 

Bimetallism,  a  term  invented  by 
Henry  Cernuschi  and  currently  used 
to  denote  a  double  monetary  standard 
of  value.  A  Bimetallic  Congress  was 
held  at  Brussels  in  April,  1896,  repre- 
sentatives from  Great  Britain, 
France,  the  United  States,  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  Denmark, 
Holland,  Rumania,  and  Russia  being 
present.  Ultimately  the  members 


constituted  themselves  a  permanent 
committee,  and  expressed  their  opin- 
ion that  a  preliminary  and  immediate 
agreement  might  result  from  the  re- 
establishment  of  bimetallism  by  the 
United  States,  the  reopening  of  the 
Indian  mints  for  the  coinage  of  sil- 
ver, the  turning  into  silver  of  part  of 
the  metallic  reserve  of  the  Bank  of 
England,  and  the  absorption  of  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  silver  by  the  vari- 
ous European  States.  The  currency 
question  in  the  United  States  influ- 
enced very  materially  the  canvass  for 
the  Presidency  in  1896.  It  appeared, 
as  the  year  wore  on,  that  free  silver 
doctrines  had  captured  a  majority  of 
the  Democratic  party,  and  at  the  Chi- 
cago Convention  (July  7th)  this  ma- 
jority adopted  a  platform  demanding 
"  the  immediate  restoration  of  the 
free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and 
silver  at  the  present  legal  ratio  of  16 
to  1,  without  waiting  for  the  aid  or 
consent  of  any  other  nation,"  and 
that  "  the  standard  silver  dollar  shall 
be  full  legal  tender  equally  with  gold 
for  all  debts,  public  and  private." 
WILLIAM  JENNINGS  BET  AN  was  nom- 
inated for  the  Presidency,  but  was  de- 
cisively beaten  by  WILLIAM  McKiN- 
LET,  the  Republican  candidate,  who 
favored  a  single  gold  standard,  though 
he  pledged  himself  to  promote  action 
by  international  agreement.  To  this 
end  he  sent  commissioners  to  France, 
Great  Britain  and  Germany,  in  1897, 
and  they,  together  with  the  French 
Ambassador,  laid  various  proposals 
before  the  British  Government,  the 
chief  of  which  were  that  the  Indian 
mints  should  be  reopened,  and  that 
Great  Britain  should  annually  pur- 
chase $50,000,000  of  silver.  The  In- 
dian Government,  however,  declined 
to  agree  to  the  first  suggestion,  and 
no  action  resulted. 

Binary  Arithmetic,  a  method  of 
notation  invented  by  Leibnitz,  but 
which  appears  to  have  been  in  use  in 
China  about  4,000  years  ago.  As  the 
term  binary  implies,  there  are  only 
two  characters  in  this  notation ;  these 
are  1  and  0.  By  it,  our  1  is  noted  by 
1,  our  2  by  10,  3  by  11,  4  by  100,  5 
by  101,  6  by  110,  7  by  111,  8  by  1,000, 
9  by  1,001,  10  by  1,010,  etc.  The 
principle  is  that  0  multiplies  by  2  in 
place  of  by  10,  as  on  the  common  sys- 
tem. 


Binary  Engine 

Binary  Engine,  usually  an  en- 
gine having  one  cylinder,  the  piston 
being  impelled  by  steam,  which,  hav- 
ing done  its  work  there,  is  exhausted 
into  another  part  of  the  apparatus, 
where  it  is  allowed  to  communicate 
its  unutilized  heat  to  some  liquid  vola- 
tile at  a  lower  temperature ;  the  va- 
por of  this  second  liquid,  by  its  ex- 
pansion in  a  second  cylinder,  yields 
additional  useful  force. 

Bingen,  a  German  town  in  the 
Province  of  Rhine-Hesse,  Hesse ;  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  the 
right  of  the  Nahe.  It  is  of  con- 
siderable historical  interest,  contain- 
ing the  ruins  of  the  Castle  of  Klopp, 
blown  up  by  the  French  in  1689 ;  the 
remains  of  a  12th  century  monastery ; 
and  the  tower,  which,  tradition  tells 
us,  was  the  scene  of  the  tormenting 
death  of  Hatto,  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
said  to  have  been  eaten  alive  by  mice 
in  the  9th  century.  A  statue  of  "  Ger- 
mania,"  heroic  size,  has  been  erected 
here  to  commemorate  the  German  vic- 
tories of  1870-71.  Pop.  (1900)  9,670. 

Bingham,  Hiram,  an  American 
Congregational  clergyman,  born  in 
Bennington,  Vt,  Oct.  30,  1789;  was 
one  of  the  first  missionaries  of  the 
Congregational  Church  to  be  sent  to 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  where  he  ac- 
quired much  influence  with  the  na- 
tives. He  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Nov.  11,  1869. 

Bingham,  John  A.,  an  American 
politician,  born  in  Mercer,  Pa.,  in 
1815;  became  a  lawyer  in  1840;  mana- 
ger of  the  trial  of  President  Johnson; 
minister  to  Japan  in  1873-1885.  He 
died,  March  20,  1900. 

Bingham,  Kinsley  S.,  an  Amer- 
ican legislator,  born  in  Camillus,  N. 
Y.,  Dec.  16,  1801;  went  to  Michigan  in 
1833;  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1849-1851;  Governor  in  1855-1859, 
and  United  States  Senator  in  1859- 
1861.  He  died,  Oct.  5,  1861. 

Binghamton,  city  and  capital  of 
Brooine  county,  N.  Y.;  at  junction  of 
the  Chenango  and  Susquehanna  rivers 
and  on  several  railroads;  50  miles  E. 
of  Elmira;  has  a  Government  Build- 
ing, State  Asylum  for  the  Insane, 
Armory,  and  the  Commercial  Trav- 
eler's Home;  is  one  of  the  largest 
cigar  manufacturing  cities  in  the 
country.  Pop.  (1910)  48,443. 


Binturong 

Binlcy,  "Ward,  the  Garrick  of 
the  Dutch  stage,  was  born  at  Rotter- 
dam in  1755,  of  English  parents.  In 
1799  he  made  his  debut  on  the  stage 
of  Amsterdam,  and  from  the  first 
took  his  place  at  the  head  of  his 
profession.  He  died  at  The  Hague 
in  1818. 


BINNACLE. 


He 


Binnacle,  corrupted  from  bittacle, 

|  a  wooden  case  or  box  in  which  the 
compass  on  board  a 
ship  is  kept  to  pro- 
tect it  from  injury. 
Binney,  H  i  b- 
bert,  a  Canadian 
clergyman,  born  in 
Nova  Scotia,  Aug. 

t  12,  1819 ;  graduated 

i  at  Oxford  University 

!  in  1842.    He  became 

i  Bishop      (Anglican) 

,  of  Nova  Scotia  and 

i  Prince    Edward    Is- 

,  land,  in  1851,  this  be- 
ing the  first  instance 
of  England  founding 
a  bishopric  in  her 
colonies.  He  attend- 
ed the  General  Con- 
vention of  the  Prot- 
e  s  t  a  n  t  Episcopal 
Church  held  in  Chicago  in  1886. 
died  in  1887. 

Binney,  Horace,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  4, 
1780 ;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1797;  and  for  many  years  was  at  the 
head  of  the  Pennsylvania  bar.  He 
had  a  number  of  distinguished  cases 
in  his  career ;  the  most  noted  one  be- 
ing the  defense  of  the  city  of  Philadel- 
phia against  the  executors  of  Stephen 
Girard.  He  was  also  a  director  in  the 
United  States  Bank.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  papers,  and  was  the  author 
of  "The  Leaders  of  the  Old  Bar  of 
Philadelphia,"  and  "The  Privilege  of 
the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  Under  the 
Constitution."  He  died  in  Philadel- 
phia, Aug.  12,  1875. 

Binocular,  literally,  having  two 
eyes  or  pertaining  to  both  eyes;  an 
instrument  having  two  tubes,  each 
furnished  above  with  an  eye  glass, 
so  as  to  enable  one  to  see  with  both 
eyes  at  once. 

Bintnrong    (bear-marten),    a   ge- 

•nus  of  carnivores  in  the  civet  section. 
Its    resemblance    to    raccoons,    beside 


Binne 

which  it  used  to  be  placed,  is  entirely 
superficial.  It  is  a  slow,  arboreal  and 
nocturnal  animal,  partly  vegetarian, 
indeed  omnivorous,  in  its  diet,  with 
lank  body,  coarse,  dark  hair,  long, 
tufted  ears,  and  prehensile  tail.  There 
is  but  one  species  found  in  India,  Ala- 
lay,  Sumatra  and  Java.  It  is  easily 
tamed. 

Binne,  or  Benuc,  the  largest  and 
most  important  tributary  of  Niger 
river,  West  Africa.  It  rises  in  the 
mountains  N.  of  Adamawa  and  at  Lo- 
koja  joins  the  Niger. 

Biobio,  the  largest  river  of  Chile, 
has  a  W.  N.  W.  course  of  about  200 
miles,  from  near  the  volcano  of  An- 
tuco  in  the  Andes  to  Consepcion  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  2  miles  wide 
at  its  mouth,  and  navigable  for  100 
miles.  The  river,  since  1875,  has 
given  name  to  a  province  with  an 
area  of  5,353  square  miles,  and  a  pop. 
(1914)  of  103,873. 

Biograph,  an  apparatus  that  dis- 
plays in  rapid  sequence  a  long  series 
of  photographs.  It  differs  from  the 
kinetoscppe  in  that  instead  of  showing 
small  pictures  through  an  enlarging 
lens  by  reflected  light,  it  projects  them 
on  a  screen  where  they  are  shown  life 
size,  or  larger  if  desired. 

Biology,  a  term  first  introduced  by 
Treviranus  of  Bremen,  adopted  by 
the  leading  English  speaking  natural- 
ists, and  now  having  universal  cur- 
rency. It  is  used  in  two  senses :  ( 1 ) 
(In  a  more  restricted  sense)  :  Physi- 
ology; (2)  (In  a  wider  sense)  :  The 
science  of  life  in  its  widest  accepta- 
tion. 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste,  French 
mathematician  and  physicist  born  at 
Paris  1774,  and  died  there  1862.  He 
became  professor  of  phvsics  in  the 
College  de  France  in  1800,  in  1803 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
in  1804  was  appointed  to  the  Observ- 
atory of  Paris,  in  180G  was  made 
member  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes, 
in  1809  became  also  professor  of  physi- 
cal astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Paris.  IH  connection  with  the  meas- 
urement of  a  degree  of  the  meridian 
he  visited  Britain  in  1817.  He  is  es- 
pecially celebrated  as  the  discoverer  of 
the  circular  polarization  of  light. 

Biotite,  a  hexagonal  and  an  opti- 
cally uniaxial  mineral,  formerly  called 


Bird 

magnesia  mica,  hexagonal  mica,  and 
uniaxial  mica ;  named  after  Jean  Bap- 
tiste Biot 

Biped,  a  descriptive  term,  some- 
times applied  to  man,  but  more  fre- 
quently to  birds. 

Birch,  the  English  name  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs  belonging  to  the  bo- 
tanical genus  betula.  The  common 
birch  grows  best  in  healthy  soils  and 
in  Alpine  districts.  The  drooping  or 
weeping  birch  is  a  variety  of  this  tree. 
It  grows  wild  on  the  European  conti- 
nent and  in  Asia.  The  wood  of  the 
birch  is  tough  and  white.  It  is  used 
for  making  brooms;  it  is  often  burned 
into  charcoal ;  twigs  are  by  many  em- 
ployed for  purposes  of  castigatipn. 
The  oil  obtained  from  the  white  rind 
is  used  in  tanning  Russia  leather.  The 
Russians  turn  it  to  account  also  as  a 
vermifuge  and  as  a  balsam  in  the 
cure  of  wounds.  In  some  countries 
the  bark  of  the  birch  is  made  into 
hats  and  cups.  The  canoe  birch,  of 
which  the  North  American  Indians 
constructed  their  portable  caooes  is 
so  ca'led  for  that  reason. 

Birch,  Samuel,  an  English  Ori- 
entalist, born  in  London,  Nov.  3,  1813. 
He  entered  the  British  Museum  as  As- 
sistant Keeper  of  Antiquities,  in  1836, 
and  ultimately  became  Keeper  of  the 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  Antiquities. 
He  was  especially  famed  for  his  ca- 
pacity and  skill  in  Egyptology,  and 
was  associated  with  Baron  Bunsen  in 
his  work  on  Egypt,  contributing  the 
philological  portions  relating  to  hiero- 
glyphics. He  died  Dec.  27,  1885. 

Bird,  Charles,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer,  born  in  Delaware,  June 
17,  1838.  On  March  2,  1867,  he  was 
brevetted  First  Lieutenant  and  Cap- 
tain in  the  United  States  army  for 
gallantry  in  the  battle  of  Fredericks- 
burg,  Major  for  Spottsylvania,  and 
Lieutenant-Colonel  for  Petersburg, 
Va.  He  was  appointed  a  Second 
Lieutenant,  14th  United  States  In- 
fantry, in  1866;  promoted  to  Major 
and  Quartermaster  in  1895 ;  commis- 
sioned Colonel  of  United  States  Vol- 
unteers in  1898 ;  Brigadier-General 
and  retired  in  1902. 

Bird,  Frederic  Mayer,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
June  28,  1838;  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1857,  and 


Bird 

at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  in 
1860.  He  was  rector  at  Spotswood, 
N.  J.,  in  1870-1874;  Chaplain  and 
Professor  of  Psychology,  Christian 
Evidences  and  Rhetoric,  at  Lehigh 
University  in  1881-1886;  and  acting 
chaplain  there  in  1893-1898.  He  was 
noted  as  a  hymnologist,  and  as  the 
collector  of  one  of  the  most  complete 
and  valuable  musical  libraries  in  the 
United  States.  Died  April  2,  1908. 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery,  an 
American  dramatist  and  novelist, 
born  in  Newcastle,  Del.,  about  1803 ; 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  22,  1854. 

Bird-Catching  Spider,  a  name 
applied  to  a  gigantic  spider,  a  native 
of  Surinam  and  elsewhere  which  preys 
upon  insects  and  small  birds  which  it 
hunts  for  and  pounces  on. 

Bird  Lice,  the  common  name 
given  to  the  small  parasites  so  fre- 
quently seen  infesting  birds. 

Bird  Lime,  a  substance  whitish 
and  limy  in  appearance ;  used,  as  its 
name  imports,  for  capturing  birds.  It 
is,  in  general,  manufactured  from  the 
bark  of  the  holly. 

Bird  of  HI  Omen,  a  phrase  often 
applied  to  a  person  who  is  regarded  as 
unlucky ;  one  who  is  in  the  habit  of 
bringing  ill  news.  The  ancients 
thought  that  some  birds  indicated 
good  luck,  and  others  evil. 

Bird  of  Paradise,  the  English 
designation  of  a  family  of  conirostral 
birds.  They  are  closely  allied  to  the 
crows,  with  which,  indeed,  they  are 
united  by  some  writers.  They  have 
magnificent  plumage,  especially  the 
males,  who  can,  moreover,  elevate 
quite  a  canopy  of  plumes  behind  their 
necks. 

Bird's  Eye,  the  eye  or  eyes  of  a 
bird.  In  botany,  the  name  of  several 
plants  with  small,  bright,  usually  blue, 
flowers. 

Bird's-Eye  Maple,  curled  maple, 
the  wood  of  the  sugar  maple  when 
full  of  little  knotty  spots,  somewhat 
resembling  birds'  eyes,  much  used  in 
cabinet  work. 

Bird's-Eye  View,  the  representa- 
tion of  any  scene  as  it  would  appear 
if  seen  from  a  considerable  elevation 
right  above. 

Bird's  Nest  the  nest  of  a  bird. 
Those  of  the  several  species  vary  in 


Birkenfeld 

their  minor  details  so  as  to  be  in  most 
cases  distinguishable  from  each  other. 
Edible  birds'  nests  are  nests  built 
by  the  collocalia  esculenta,  and  cer- 
tain other  species  of  swallows  inhabit- 
ing Sumatra,  Java,  China,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  East.  The  nests, 
a  Chinese  luxury,  are  formed  of  a 
mucilaginous  substance,  secreted  by 
the  birds  from  their  salivary  glands. 
See  SALANGANE. 

Birds  of  Passage,  birds  which 
migrate  with  the  season  from  a  colder 
to  a  warmer,  or  from  a  wanner  to  a 
colder  climate. 

Bireme,  a  Roman  ship  of  war 
with  two  banks  of  oars.  It  was  in- 
ferior in  magnitude  and  strength  to 
the  trireme. 

Biren,  Ernest  John,  Duke  of 
Conrland,  a  Lithuanian  of  mean  fam- 
ily, was  born  in  1690,  and  went  in 
1714  to  St.  Petersburg.  Anna,  Duch- 
ess Dowager  of  Courland,  made  him 
her  favorite,  and  when  she  became 
Empress  of  Russia,  intrusted  to  him 
the  administration  of  the  kingdom. 
On  the  death  of  the  Empress  he  as- 
sumed the  regency,  by  virtue  of  her 
will ;  but,  in  1740,  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him  by  Marshal  Mu- 
nich, and  he  was  condemned  to  death, 
which  sentence  was  changed  to  banish- 
ment. Peter  III.  recalled  him,  and 
Catherine  II.  restored  him  to  his  for- 
mer dignity.  In  17G3,  Biren  re-en- 
tered Mitau ;  and,  profiting  by  the  les- 
sons of  misfortune  he  had  experienced, 
governed  for  the  remainder  of  his  life 
with  mildness  and  justice.  He  died 
in  1772. 

Birge,  Edward  Asahel,  an  Amer- 
ican naturalist,  born  in  Troy,  N.  Y., 
Sept  7,  1851;  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  1873 ;  studied  physiology 
and  histology  at  Leipsic  in  1880-1881. 
He  became  Instructor  of  Natural  His- 
tory in  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
in  1875 ;  Professor  of  Zoology  in 
1879 ;  and  Dean  of  the  College  of  Let- 
ters and  Science  in  1891.  In  1897  he 
became  Director  of  the  Geological  and 
Natural  History  Survey  of  Wiscon- 
sin. 

Birkenfeld,  a  German  principali- 
ty belonging  to  Oldenburg,  but  sur- 
rounded by  the  Prussian  Rhine  Prov- 
ince, and  intersected  by  the  railway 
from  Bingen  to  Saarbruck.  It  has  an 


RARE      BIRDS      OF      BRILLIANT      PLUMAGE 


Birmingham 

area  of  nearly  200  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  (1910)  50,496;  it 
Las  been  connected  with  Oldenburg, 
300  miles  distant,  since  1817.  The 
capital,  Birkenfeld,  has  a  population 
of  about  3,000. 

Birmingham,  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Jefferson  co.,  Ala. ;  at  the 
junction  of  several  trunk  railroads; 
96  miles  N.  W.  of  Montgomery,  the 
State  capital.  Birmingham  was  in- 
corporated as  a  city  in  1871  with  a 
population  of  less  than  1,000.  Its 
noticeable  development  began  in  1880 
and  its  remarkable  progress  may  be 
eaid  to  date  from  1890.  In  1896  its 
tv.-Q  largest  iron  and  steel  corporations 
began  selling  pig  iron  for  export  at 
prices  as  satisfactory  as  those  ob- 
to  ined  on  domestic  orders ;  and  since 
then  it  has  had  a  larger  development 
in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  than 
any  city  S.  of  Pittsburg.  Pop.  (1890) 
2G,178;  (1900)  38,415;  with  suburbs, 
about  100,000;  (1910)  132,685. 

Birmingham,  a  city  of  England, 
on  the  Rea  river  near  its  confluence 
with  the  Tame,  in  the  N.  W.  of  War- 
wickshire, with  suburbs  extending 
into  Staffordshire  and  Worcester- 
shire; 112  miles  N.  W.  of  London, 
and  97  S.  E.  of  Liverpool.  It  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  hardware  manu- 
facture in  Great  Britain.  Bir- 
mingham is  known  to  have  existed  in 
the  reign  of  Alfred,  in  872,  and  is 
mentioned  in  the  Domesday  Book 
H086)  by  the  name  of  Bermengeham. 
Another  old  name  of  the  town  is 
Bromwycham,  a  form  still  preserved 
very  nearly  in  the  popular  local  pro- 
nunciation, Brummagem.  Pop.  (1801) 
73,670;  (1891)  478.113;  (1901)  523,- 
179;  (1911)  525,833. 

Birney,  David  Bell,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Huntsville, 
Ala.,  May  29,  1825 ;  son  of  James  Gil- 
lespie  Birney ;  studied  law  in  Cin- 
cinnati, and.  in  1848,  began  practice 
in  Philadelphia.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  entered  the  Union 
army.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
the  battles  of  Yorktown,  Williams- 
burg,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors- 
ville  and  Gettysburg.  He  died  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  18,  1864. 

Birney,  James  Gillespie,  an 
American  statesman  and  publicist, 
born  at  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,  1792.  i 


Birth -Rate 

Though  a  Southern  planter,  he  eman- 
cipated his  slaves  and  became  a  prom- 
inent anti-slavery  leader  in  the  South, 
proprietor  and  editor  of  the  anti-slav- 
ery journal,  "  The  Philanthropist," 
etc.  He  was  candidate  of  the  Liberty 
Party  for  President  in  1840  and  1844. 
He  died  at  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J.,  Nov. 
25,  1857. 

Birney,  William,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Madison  county,  Ala., 
May  28,  1819 ;  was  educated  in  Paris ; 
took  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848; 
and  was  appointed,  on  public  compe- 
tition, Professor  of  English  Litera- 
ture in  the  College  at  Bourges, 
France.  In  1861  he  entered  the 
United  States  army  as  a  private,  and 
was  promoted  to  brevet  Major-Gen- 
eral.  In  1863-1865  he  commanded 
a  division.  He  died  Aug.  14,  1907. 

Biron,  Armand  de  Gontanlt, 
Baron  de,  Marshal  of  France;  born 
about  1524.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  civil  wars  of  Huguenot 
and  Catholic,  and  served  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Dreux,  St.  Denis  and  Moncon- 
tour.  He  negotiated  the  peace  of  St. 
Germain,  and  narrowly  escaped  at  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  He 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Epernay,  in 
1592. 

Biron,  Charles  de  Gontanlt, 
Dnc  de,  son  of  the  preceding;  born 
in  1562,  was  Admiral  and  Marshal  of 
France,  and  is  noted  for  the. friend- 
ship which  Henry  IV.  entertained  for 
him,  and  for  his  treason  toward  that 
monarch.  He  early  covered  himself 
with  glory  at  the  battles  of  Arques 
and  Ivry,  and  at  the  sieges  of  Paris 
and  Rouen.  The  king  loaded  him 
with  honors,  saved  his  life  at  the  fight 
of  Fontaine  Francaise,  and  made  him 
ambassador  to  England.  Biron  en- 
tered into  a  conspiracy  with  Spain 
and  Savoy  against  his  sovereign ;  and 
the  plot  being  revealed  by  Lafin.  its 
instigator,  he  was  beheaded  in  1602. 

Birth-Rate,  the  proportion  of 
births  to  each  1,000  inhabitants.  It  is 
affected  by  economic  and  social  condi- 
tions, war,  famine,  etc.,  the  well-to-do 
having  a  lower  rate  than  the  average. 
In  the  United  States  the  rate  among 
foreign  residents  is  38.29;  natives, 
26.35;  general  average,  26.68.  As  a 
rule,  about  105  boys  are  born  to  100 
girls. 


Biru 


Bismarck 


Birn,  the  name  of  a  warlike  chief 
of  South  America,  who  flourished  in 
the  16th  century.  In  1526,  this  name 
was  given  to  the  empire  of  the  Incas, 
now  known  as  Peru. 

Biscay  or  Vizcaya,  the  most 
northerly  of  the  Basque  Provinces  of 
Spain,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  E.  and  S.  by  its  sister  prov- 
inces, Guipuzcoa  and  Alava,  and  W. 
by  Santander.  It  has  an  area  (very 
mountainous  in  the  S.)  of  836  square 
miles,  and  pop.  (1913)  of  363,587.  ! 
Chief  town,  Bilbao;  pop.  93,536. 

Biscay,  Bay  of,  that  portion  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  sweeps  in 
along  the  N.  shores  of  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  in  an  almost  straight  line 
from  Cape  Ortegal  to  St.  Jean  tie 
Luz,  at  the  W.  foot  of  the  Pyfenees, 
and  thence  curves  N.  along  the  W. 
shores  of  France  to  the  island  of 
Ushant.  Its  extreme  width  is  ab&ut 
400  miles,  and  its  length  much  about 
the  same. 

Biscuit,  in  genera!  language,  iiin 
flour  cake  which  has  been  baked  in  the 
oven  until  it  is  highly  dried. 

In  pottery,  articles  molded  and 
baked  in  an  oven,  preparatory  to  the 
glazing  and  burning.  In  the  biscuit 
form,  pottery  is  bibulous,  but  the  glaze 
sinks  into  the  pores  and  fuses  in  the 
kiln,  forming  a  vitreous  coating  to  the 
ware. 

Bishop  (a  word  derived  frcm  the 
Greek  episcopos,  that  is,  overseer, 
through  the  Saxon  biscop),  in  the 
early  Christian  Church,  the  name  of 
every  person  to  whom  tbe  care  of  a 
Christian  congregation  was  intrusted. 
Every  congregation  even  in  country 
districts  had  at  least  one  such  over- 
seer. The  word  was  accordingly 
used  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Church  in  exactly  the  same  sense  as 
presbyter  or  elder. 

In  the  United  States  a  bishop  is 
the  highest  dignitary  in  the  Greek, 
Catholic  and  Protestant  Episcopal 
Churches.  These  bishops  generally 
claim  to  be  successors  of  the  apostles. 
In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  and  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Churches  the  bishop 
is  elected  by  the  Conference  or  Con- 
vention representing  the  respective 
churches  of  the  diocese.  In  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  growth  has  been 
sufficient  in  the  opinion  of  the  ruling 


functionaries  of  that  communion,  to 
warrant  the  establishment  of  the 
greater  hierarchy,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  office  and  dignity  of  a 
bishop  have  become  secondary  —  the 
highest  places  being  occupied  by  a 
cardinal  and  numerous  archbishops. 
A  new  bishop  is  appointed  by  the 
Pope  from  a  list  of  three  recommended 
by  the  clergy  of  a  vacant  diocese. 

Bishop,  Mrs.  (ISABELLA  L.  BIRD), 
traveler  and  author,  born  in  York- 
shire, England,  1832,  died  1904. 

Bishop,  John  Remsen,  an  Amer- 
ican educator ;  born  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  Sept.  17,  1860 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1882 ; 
taught  Greek  and  English  at  St. 
Paul's  School,  Concord,  N.  H.,  in 
1882-1883;  was  principal  of  the 
Princeton  Preparatory  School  in 
1884-1887;  instructor  of  Greek  and 
Latin  at  Hughes  High  School,  Cincin- 
nati, in  1888-1895;  and  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Walnut  Hills  High 
School,  Cincinnati,  in  1895. 

Bishop,  Louis  Fangeres,  an 
American  phvsician,  born  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  March  14,  1864; 
graduated  at  Rutgers  College  in  1885, 
and  at  the  New  York  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons  in  1889.  He 
was  resident  physician  of  St.  Luk3*s 
Hospital,  New  York,  in  1889-1892, 
and  secretary  of  the  New  York  Acad- 
emy of  Medicine  and  Chairman  of  its 
Section  of  Medicine  in  1900. 

Bishoi),  Seth  Scott,  an  American 
surgeon,  born  in  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis., 
Feb.  7,  1852 ;  graduated  at  the  North- 
western University,  in  1876.  He  be- 
gan practice  in  Chicago,  and  has  been 
a  professor  in  various  medical  colleges. 

Bishops  Suffragan,  a  class  of 
bishops  in  England  appointed  by  the 
crown  to  take  the  places  of  the  early 
bishops  in  partibus,  who  were  assist- 
ants to  the  active  bishops  of  English 
sees,  and  who  held  their  warrant  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  bishops  to  whom 
they  were  assigned.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished from  suffragan  bishops  in 
the  Church  of  England,  as  every  regu- 
lar bishop  was  a  suffragan  of  his  su- 
i  perior  or  metropolitan. 

Bismarck,  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  North  Dakota,  and  county- 
seat  of  Burleigh  co. ;  on  the  Missouri 
,  river,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  rail- 


Bismarck 


Bismarck-Schonliausen 


road ;  194  miles  W.  of  Fargo.     It  con- 
tains  the   State   Capitol    (which   cost: 
over    $500,000),    the    State    Peniten- i 
tiary,    court-house,    city    hall,    opera 
house,  a   State   Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, St.  Paul  Seminary,  and  an  im- 
mense river  warehouse.     The  river  is 
here  spanned   by  a  bridge  that  cost 
$1,000,000.     Pop.  (1910)  5,443. 

Bismarck,  Herbert,  Prince  von, 
a  German  statesman,  born  in  Berlin, 
Dec.  28,  1849;  son  of  Otto  Eduard 
Leopold,  Prince  von  Bismarck-Schon- 
hausen.  He  ranked  high  as  a  diplo- 
mat. He  died  Sept.  18,  1904. 

Bisiuarck-Schonliausen,  Otto 
Eduard  Leopold,  Prince  von,  a 
German  statesman,  born  at  Schon- 
hausen  in  Brandenburg,  of  an  old 
family,  of  which  various  members 
gained  a  reputation  both  as  soldiers ' 
and  statesmen,  April  1,  1815.  He  re- ; 
ceived  his  university  education  at  Got- 
tingen,  Berl'n,  and  Griefswald.  Be- 
fore 1847  he  was  little  heard  of,  but 
about  that  time  he  began  to  attract 
attention  in  the  new  Prussian  Parlia- 
ment as  an  Ultra  Royalist.  He  op- 
posed the  scheme  of  a  German  Empire 
as  proposed  by  the  Frankfort  Parlia- 
ment of  1849. 

In  the  spring  of  1862   King  Wil- 
liam,   on    the    urgent    advice    of    the 
Prince    of    Hohenzollern,    transferred 
Bismarck  as  ambassador  to  Paris,  in ! 
order  to  give  him  an  insight  into  the  i 
politics  of  the  Tuileries.     During  his  ' 
short  stay  at  Paris  Bismarck  visited  j 
London,  and  had  interviews  with  the 
leading    politicians    of    the    time,    in-  i 
eluding  Lord  Palmerston  and  Mr.  Dis-  j 
raeli.     In  the  autumn  Bismarck  was 
recalled,  to  take  the  portfolio  of  the  j 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the  ! 
presidency  of  the  Cabinet.     Not  being 
able    to   pass   the    reorganization   bill 
and  the  budget,  he  closed  the  Cham- 
bers   (October,  1862),  announcing  to 
the  Deputies  that  the  king's  govern- 
ment would  be  obliged  to  do  without 
their    sanction.     When    the    "  conflict 
era,"  as  it  was  called,  approached  a 
crisis,  the  death  of  the  King  of  Den- 
mark reopened  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
question,  and  excited  a  fever  of  na- 
tional   German    feeling,    which     Bis- 
marck was  adroit  enough  to  work  so 
as  to  aggrandize  Prussia  by  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  Elbe  duchies. 

The  action  of  France  in  regard  to 


the  candidature  of  Prince  Leopold  of 
Hohenzollern  for  the  throne  of  Spain 
gave  Bismarck  the  opportunity  of  car- 
rying into  action  the  intensified  feel- 
ing of  unity  among  Germans.  Dur- 
ing the  War  of  1870-1871,  Bismarck 
was  the  spokesman  of  Germany ;  he 
it  was  that  in  February,  1871,  dictated 
tho  terms  of  peace  to  France.  Hav- 
ing been  made  a  Count  in  1866,  he 
was  now  created  a  prince  and  Chan- 
cellor of  the  German  Empire.  Fol- 
lowing the  Peace  of  Frankfort  (May 
10,  1871),  the  sole  aim  of  Bismarck's 
policy,  domestic  and  foreign,  was  to 
consolidate  the  young  empire  of  his 
own  creating. 

In  1884  Bismarck  inaugurated  the 
career  of  Germany  as  a  colonizing 
power,  a  new  departure  which  brought 
him  into  sharp  but  temporary  conflict 
with  the  England  of  Gladstone.  For 
the  rest,  his  foreign  policy  mainly 
aimed  at  isolating  France  and  render- 
ing her  incapable  of  forming  anti-Ger- 
man alliances.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
gradually  combined  the  central  powers 
of  Europe  into  a  peace  league,  aiming 
at  counteracting  the  aggressiveness  of 
Russia  and  France,  separately  or  com- 
bined, on  the  Danube  or  the  Rhine. 
The  nucleus  of  this  peace  league  was 
formed  in  1879  by  the  Austro-German 
Treaty  of  Alliance  (published  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1888),  which  Italy  formally 
joined  in  1886,  and  which  entitles  Bis- 
marck to  be  called  the  "  peacemaker  " 
and  the  "  peacekeeper  "  of  Europe. 

Bismarck's  life  was  often  threat- 
ened, and  twice  actually  attempted  — 
once  at  Berlin  in  1866,  just  before  the 
Bohemian  campaign,  by  Ferdinand 
Cohen  (or  Blind),  a  crazy  youth  who 
aimed  at  making  himself  the  instru- 
ment of  popular  dissatisfaction  with 
Bismarck,  as  the  champion  of  abso- 
lutism and  the  fancied  apostle  of  a 
fratricidal  war;  and  again  in  1874  at 
Kissingen,  by  a  Catholic  tinsmith 
named  Kullman. 

Emperor  William  died  on  March  9, 
1888.  The  short  reign  of  Emperor 
Frederick  followed  and  then  the  pres- 
ent Emperor  ascended  the  throne.  On 
March  18,  1890,  Bismarck  fell.  The 
cause  of  his  fall  has  not  yet  been  told. 
When  Bismarck's  81st  birthday  was 
celebrated  there  was  talk  of  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  Prince  and  his  sover- 
eign. The  Emperor  sent  his  photo- 


Bismarck  Archipelago 


Bissell 


graph  to  Bismarck,  the  latter  returned 
thanks,  and  little  by  little  the  way 
was  paved  for  a  meeting  between  the 
two  men?  and  eventually  for  the  State 
visit  which  the  Emperor  paid  to  Bis- 
marck at  Friedrichsruhe.  where  the 
statesman  died  July  30,  1898. 

In  September,  1903,  letters  haves 
been  published  showing  the  close  and 
cordial  relations  between  Bismarck 
and  Kaiser  William  the  First,  and 
that  the  emperor  attributed  Germany's 
triumph  in  1870-1871  to  what  he 
called  Bismarck's  "  world-historical 
achievements." 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  the  name 
officially  given  by  Germany  to  New 
Britain,  New  Ireland,  New  Hanover, 
and  several  smaller  adjoining  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific. 

Bismuth,  a  triad  metallic  element, 
found  associated  with  the  ores  of  nick- 
el, cobalt,  copper  and  silver,  in  Sax- 
ony, Austria,  Peru,  Australia  and  Bo- 
livia. 

Bison,  the  name  applied  to  two 
epecies  of  ox.  One  of  these,  the  Euro- 
pean bison  or  aurochs  (Bos  bison  or 
Bison  Europoeus),  is  now  nearly  ex- 
tinct, being  found  only  in  the  forests 
of  Lithuania  and  the  Caucasus.  The 
other,  or  American  bison  (Bison 
Americanus) ,  is  found  only  in  North 
America,  and  is  remarkable  for  the 
great  hump  or  projection  over  its  fore 
shoulders,  and  for  the  length  and  fine- 
ness of  its  woolly  hair. 

The  American  bison,  or  buffalo,  was 
once  extensively  diffused  over  what  is 
now  the  territory  of  the  United 
States,  except  that  part  lying  on  the 
E.  of  Hudson  river  and  Lake  Cham- 
plain,  and  narrow  strips  of  coast  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  Southward 
its  range  extended  to  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  and  into  part  of  Mexico, 
while  in  the  N.  W.  it  reached  even  as 
far  as  the  Great  Slave  Lake.  The 
great  prairies  connected  with  the 
Mississippi  system  formed  its  favorite 
feeding-grounds,  and  here  it  used  to 
be  seen  in  herds  whose  numbers  were 
well-nigh  incredible. 

All  this  is  now  a  thing  of  the 
past,  and  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
thi,  bison  is  one  of  the  most  melan- 
choly stories  in  the  history  of  zoology. 
So  long  as  it  was  pursued  only  or 
mainly  by  the  Indians  there  was  little 
to  fear  for  it,  though  many  tribes 


were  almost  wholly  dependent  on  these 
animals  for  food,  clothing,  tents,  uten- 
sils, etc.  Vast  multitudes  owing  to 
this  were  slaughtered  annually ;  but  it 
is  to  be  deeply  regretted  that  the 
white  hunters  (especially  after  the 
spread  of  railroads)  were  in  the  habit 
of  destroying  these  interesting  and 
valuable  beasts  in  the  most  wanton 
and  unnecessary  manner.  It  was 
common  for  such  persons  to  shoot 
bisons,  even  when  they  had  abundance 
of  food,  for  the  sake  of  the  tongue  or 
hump  alone,  or  even  because  the  ani- 
mals came  so  near  as  to  present  a  fair 
aim.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  won- 
dered that,  from  all  causes  of  diminu- 
tion, the  bison  should  become  less  and 
less  numerous  every  year  till  it  is  now 
practically  extinct,  at  least  in  the  wild 
state. 

Of  late  years  the  National  Museum 
of  the  United  States  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  send  out  an  expedition  to  col- 
lect a  few  specimens  in  view  of  this 
contingency;  and  a  report  furnished 
to  the  museum  in  1886  shows  what 
difficulty  the  expedition  had  in  ful- 
filling its  mission  in  consequence  of 
the  extermination  of  the  bison  having 
been  already  so  nearly  effected.  "  It 
is  firmly  believed  by  good  authorities," 
the  report  states.  "  that  there  are  not 
now  more  than  from  50  to  100  buffa- 
loes in  the  whole  of  Montana  (where 
this  animal  used  to  be  remarkably 
abundant)  outside  of  the  National 
Park,  where  there  are  probably  from 
200  to  300  head." 

Bissagos  Islands,  a  group  of 
small  volcanic  islands,  about  30  in  all, 
off  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

Bissao,  an  island  and  Portuguese 
station  closer  to  the  African  coast 
than  the  Bissagos  and  opposite  the 
Jeba's  delta. 

Bissell,  Edwin  Cone,  an  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman  and 
writer,  born  at  Schoharie,  N.  Y., 
March  2,  1832.  Having  served  in  the 
Civil  War  (1862-1863),  he  became 
pastor  in  Massachusetts  and  Califor- 
nia, missionary  in  Austria  (1873- 
1878),  Professor  in  the  Hartford 
Congregational  Theological  Seminary 
(1881-1892),  and  the  McCormick 
Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary, 
Chicago  (1892-1894).  He  died  in 
Chicago,  April  9,  1894. 


Bissell 


Bitter  Sweet 


BisseH,    Wilson    Shannon,    an 

American  lawyer,  born  in  New  Lon- 
don, N.  Y.,  Dec.  31,  1847;  died  Oct. 
6,  1903 ;  graduated  at  Yale  University 
in  1869;  and  studied  law  in  Buffalo 
with  Cleveland  &  F9lsom.  In  1872  he 
formed  a  partnership  with  Lyman  K. 
Bass,  the  firm  of  which  Grover  Cleve- 
land became  a  member  in  1873.  When 
Mr.  Cleveland  was  elected  governor  of 
New  York  the  firm  was  disbanded. 
Subsequently  it  was  reorganized,  and, 
in  1900,  consisted  of  Bissell,  Carey  & 
Cooke.  He  was  a  delegate  to  sev- 
eral State  Conventions;  in  1884  was 
a  Democratic  Presidential  Elector; 
and  in  1893-1896  was  Postmaster- 
General.  He  died  Oct.  6,  1903. 

Bissen,  Wilhelm,  a  Danish  sculp- 
tor, born  in  Schleswig  in  1798,  and 
from  1823  to  1833  studied  in  Rome 
under  Thorwaldsen,  who,  in  his  will, 
commissioned  him  to  complete  his  un- 
finished works.  He  died  March  10, 
1868. 

Bissextile  Year,  the  early  name 
for  Leap  Year.  In  the  Julian  calen- 
dar, the  24th  of  Feb.  was  counted 
twice  (bis),  and  as  it  was  the  sixth 
(sextus)  before  the  Kalends  of  March 
it  was  called  bis-sextilis. 

Bistineau,  a  navigable  lake  in  N. 
W.  Louisiana ;  25  miles  long  by  2 
miles  wide ;  discharges  into  the  Red 
river. 

Bitlis,  a  town  of  Turkish  Armenia, 
in  a  vilayet  of  the  same  name,  62 
miles  W.  of  Van,  over  5,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level.  It  has  numerous 
mosques  and  convents  of  dancing  der- 
vishes, and  manufactures  of  a  noted 
bright-red  dyed  cotton  cloth.  In  the 
great  war  it  was  occupied  by  the  Rus- 
sians on  March  2,  1916,  and  evacu- 
ated by  them  on  Aug.  8  following. 
Pop.  est.  at  40,000.  See  APPENDIX  : 
World  War. 

Bitter,  Arthur,  pseudonym  of 
SAMUEL  HABEBSTICH,  a  Swiss  poet 
and  story  writer,  born  in  Ried  near 
Schlosswyl,  Oct.  21,  1821.  He  died 
in  Bern,  Feb.  20,  1872. 

Bitter  Lakes,  salt  lakes  on  the 
line  of  the  Suez  canal. 

Bittern.  The  bitterns  are  distin- 
guished from  the  herons  proper,  be- 
sides other  characteristics,  by  having 
the  feathers  of  the  neck  loose  and  di- 

E.19. 


vided,  which  makes  it  appear  thicker 
than  in  reality  it  is. 


BITTERN'. 

Bitter  Nut,  a  tree  of  North  Amer- 
ica, of  the  walnut  order,  the  swamp 
hickory,  which  produces  small  and 
somewhat  egg-shaped  fruits,  with  a 
thin,  fleshy  rind ;  the  kernel  is  bitter 
and  uneatable. 

Bitter  Root,  a  plant  of  Canada 
and  part  of  the  United  States,  order 
mesembryacese,  so  called  from  its 
root  being  bitter  though  edible,  and 
indeed  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food 
by  whites  as  well  as  Indians. 

Bitter  Boot  Mountains,  a  range 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  Montana, 
deriving  its  name  from  a  plant  with 
rose  colored  blossoms. 

Bitter  Root  River,  a  tributary 
of  the  Columbia  in  Montana,  flowing 
N.  into  Clark's  river  in  Missoula 
county ;  length  about  110  miles. 

Bitter  Root  Valley,  on  the  E. 
of  the  Bitter  Root  Range,  in  Montana, 
is  90  miles  long  and  7  miles  wide,  en- 
walled  by  lofty  mountains,  and 
abounding  in  farms  and  cornfields. 

Bitter  Sweet,  the  woody  night- 
shade. 


Bitumen 

Bitumen,  a  mineral  substance,  re- 
markable tor  its  inflammability  and 
its  strong,  peculiar  odor;  generally, 
however,  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable 
origin. 

Bituminous  Coal,  coal  which 
burns  with  a  yellow,  smoky  flame,  and 
on  distillation  gives  out  hydrocarbon 
or  tar. 

Bituminous  Limestone,  lime- 
Stone  impregnated  with  bitumen. 

Bitzius,  Albert  (better  known 
under  the  nom  de  plume  of  JEREMIAS 
GOTTHELF),  a  Swiss  author,  born  in 
Murton,  Canton  of  Freiburg,  Oct.  £, 
1797.  As  a  pastor  in  retired  districts, 
he  sa"7  the  hard  conditions  of  the 
poor,  and  in  1837  wrote  "  The  Peas- 
ant's Mirror,"  a  vividly  realistic  pre- 
sentation of  peasant  life.  He  died  at 
Lutzelfluh,  Bern,  Oct.  22,  1854. 

Bivalves,  those  mollusks  whose 
coverings  consist  of  two  concave  shel- 
ly plates  or  valves  united  by  a  hinge. 


SHELL  OF  A  BIVALVE. 

A.  The  line  across  marks  the  thickness. 
B,  a,  anterior  extremity;  b.  posterior;  c,  d, 
muscular  impressions;  e,  f,  palleal  impres- 
sions; g,  lower  edge  of  the  left  valve. 

Bivouac,  an  encampment  of  sol- 
diers in  the  open  air  without  tents, 
each  remaining  dressed  and  with  his 
weapons  at  hand. 

Bizerta,  a  fortified  seaport,  Alge- 
ria, the  most  northern  town  of  Af- 
rica ;  at  the  extremity  of  a  bay  formed 
by  Capes  Ras-el-Zebib  and  El-Arid. 
The  town  is  built  on  the  shore  of  a 
lake  which  communicates  with  the  sea 
by  a  canal ;  and  in  the  time  of  Bar- 


Black 

barossa  it  was  a  city  of  great  strength 
and  magnificence.  The  lake  is  the 
chief  source  of  trade,  as  it  abounds  ill 
many  valuable  kinds  of  fish.  Beside 
the  fishery  there  are  valuable  coral, 
grape,  olive,  and  pottery  industries. 
The  port  is  surrounded  by  walls  and 
defended  by  two  castles.  Bizerta  stead- 
ily declined  in  commercial  and  politi- 
cal importance  till  1892,  when  the 
French  Government  began  converting 
it  into  a  magnificent  naval  port.  Three 
years  were  occupied  in  this  work, 
which  included  the  opening  and  im- 
provement of  the  lake,  which  is  now 
large  enough  to  accommodate  at  one 
time  all  the  navies  of  the  world. 

Bizet,  Georges,  (ALEXANDEB  CE- 
SAH  LEOPOLD),  the  composer  of  the 
opera  "  Carmen."  He  was  born  in 
France  1837 ;  died  1875. 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne,  a  Nor* 
wegian  novelist,  poet,  and  dramatist, 
born  at  Kvikne,  Norway,  Dec.  8,  1832. 
He  published  his  first  story,  "  Syn- 
nove  Solbakken,"  in  1857,  and  that, 
with  "Arne"  (1858)  and  "A  Lively 
Fellow"  (I860),  established  his  repu- 
tation as  a  novelist.  He  published  a 
volume  of  "  Poems  and  Songs "  in 
1870.  He  died  April  26,  1910. 

Black,  the  negation  of  all  color, 
the  opposite  of  white. 

Black,  Adam,  a  Scotch  publisher, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  20,  1784.  In 
1808  he  began  business  as  a  book* 
seller,  and  later  with  his  nephew, 
Charles  B.  Black,  established  a  pub- 
lishing house  in  Edinburgh.  Their 
most  famous  publications  were  "  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,"  and  the  *'Wa- 
verly  Novels."  Adam  Black  was 
twice  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh  and 
in  1856-1865  represented  that  city  in 
Parliament.  He  declined  the  honor  of 
knighthood,  and  a  statue  was  erected 
in  Edinburgh  in  recognition  of  his 
public  services,  in  1877.  He  died  Jan. 
24,  1874. 

Black,  Frank  Swett,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  in  Limington,  Me., 
March  8,  1853;  graduated  at  Dart- 
mouth College  in  1875 ;  was  editor  of 
the  "  Journal "  in  Johnstown,  N.  Y. 
He  studied  law  at  Troy  in  the  office 
of  Robertson  &  Foster,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1879.  He  won 
much  popularity  by  his  activity  in 
prosecuting  the  men  who  murdered 


Black 


Blackburn 


Robert  Ross  in  the  election  riots  in 
Troy  in  1892.  In  1895-1897,  he  was 
a  member  of  Congress,  and  in  1897- 
1899  Governor  of  New  York.  He  died 
March  22,  1913. 

Black,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Glades,  Pa., 
Jan.  10,  1810 ;  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1831.  In  1857 
he  was  appointed  Attorney-General  of 
the  United  States  by  President  Bu- 
chanan, and  in  1SGO-1861  was  United 
States  Secretary  of  State.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  President  Lincoln  he  re- 
tired from  public  life..  He  died  in 
York,  Pa.,  Aug.  19,  1883. 

Black,  John  Charles,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  soldier,  and  statesman, 
born  in  Lexington,  Miss.,  Jan.  27, 
1839;  graduated  at  Wabash  College, 
Crawfprdsville ;  entered  the  Union 
army  in  1861  as  Colonel  of  the  37th 
Illinois  Volunteers ;  was  severely 
wounded  in  the  service ;  and  was 
brevetted  Brigadier-General.  After 
the  war  he  was  elected  Congressman- 
at-large  from  Illinois ;  was  appointed 
Commissioner  of  Pensions,  United 
States  District  Attorney  for  the 
Northern  District  of  Illinois,  and  TJ. 
S.  Civil  Service  Commissioner  (Presi- 
dent 1904-13).  He  died  Aug.  17,  1915, 

Black,  William,  a  Scottish  nov- 
elist, born  in  Glasgow  in  November, 
1841.  He  received  his  education  at 
private  schools.  In  1874  he  aban- 
doned the  career  of  journalism,  which 
he  had  successfully  pursued,  visited 
the  United  States  in  1876,  and,  re- 
turning to  London,  devoted  himself 
anew  to  literature.  In  addition  to  an 
interesting  story,  his  novels  contain 
fine  descriptions  of  scenery.  They  are 
very  popular.  He  died  in  Brighton, 
England,  Dec.  10,  1898. 

Black  Art,  exorcism,  the  alleged 
ability  to  expel  evil  spirits  from 
haunted  houses  or  from  persons  be- 
witched ;  necromancy,  or  anything  sim- 
ilar. 

Black  Assize,  in  English  history, 
an  assize  held  at  Oxford  in  1557, 
when  the  High  Sheriff  and  300  other 
persons  died  of  infectious  disease 
caught  from  the  prisoners. 

Black  Belt,  an  agricultural  re- 
g!on>  of  Alabama ;  70  miles  wide,  ex- 
tending entirely  across  the  State,  be- 
tween 33°  and  31°  40';  so  called  from 


the  fact  that  the  negroes  greatly  pre- 
dominate in  numbers. 

Blackberry,  a  plant  common  in 
the  northern  portions  of  the  United 
States  and  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
and  also  in  Northern  Central  Asia. 

Black  Bird,  a  well  known  bird. 
There  are  two  American  species,  red 
winged  blackbird,  and  the  crow  black- 
bird. 

Blackburn,  a  town  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  of  England,  21  miles  N. 
N.  W.  from  Manchester.  It  is  pleas- 
antly situated  in  a  sheltered  valley 
and  has  rapidly  improved  since  1850, 
Blackburn  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  there  being 
upward  of  140  mills  as  well  as  works 
for  making  cotton  machinery  and 
steam  engines.  The  cottons  made  in 
the  town  and  vicinity  have  an  annual 
value  of  about  £5,000,000.  Pop. 
(1911)  133,064. 

Blackburn,  Joseph  Clay  Styles, 
an  American  lawyer,  born  in  Wood- 
ford  county,  Ky.,  Oct.  1,  1838;  was 
graduated  at  Center  College,  Danville, 
Ky.,  in  1857.  He  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1859,  and  practiced  in  Chi- 
cago. During  the  Civil  War  he  served 
in  the  Confederate  army,  and  after 
the  war  resumed  practice  in  Ken- 
tucky. In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the 
Kentucky  Legislature,  and  in  1874  to 
Congress ;  and  was  a  United  States 
Senator  in  1885-1897.  During  the 
presidential  campaign  of  1896  he  was 
a  leader  in  the  free  coinage  silver 
movement 

Blackburn,  Luke  Pryor,  an 
American  physician,  born  in  Fayette 
county,  Ky.,  June  16,  1816 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Transylvania  University, 
Lexington,  Ky.,  hi  1834,  and  began 
practicing  in  that  city.  When  cholera 
broke  out  in  the  town  of  Versailles  he 
went  there  and  gave  his  services  free 
during  the  epidemic.  In  1846  he  went 
to  Natchez,  Miss.,  and  in  1848,  when 
yellow  fever  appeared  in  New  Or- 
leans, as  health  officer  of  Natchez,  ho 
originated  the  first  quarantine  against 
New  Orleans  that  had  ever  been 
known  in  the  Mississippi  valley.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  was  a  surgeon 
on  the  staff  of  General  Price.  In 
1875,  when  yellow  fever  broke  out  in 
Memphis,  he  hastened  to  the  city  and 
organized  a  corps  of  physicians  and. 


BlAckburn 

nurses,  and  in  1878  gave  his  services 
to  the  yellow  fever  sufferers  at  Hick- 
man,  Ky.  He  was  elected  Governor 
of  Kentucky  in  1879.  He  founded  the 
Blackburn  Sanitarium  for  Nervous 
and  Mental  Diseases  in  1884.  He 
died  in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Sept.  14,  1887. 

Blackburn,  'William  Maxwell, 
an  American  Presbyterian  clergyman 
and  educator,  born  at  Carlisle,  Ind., 
Dec.  30,  182a  He  became  President 
of  the  University  of  North  Dakota  in 
1884  and  of  Pierre  University,  South 
Dakota,  in  1885,  and  President-Emer- 
itus of  the  last  (now  Huron  College) 
iu  1898.  He  died  in  1900. 

Black  Cap,  a  European  passerine 
bird  of  the  warbler  family.  It  ranks 
next  to  the  nightingale  for  sweetness 
of  song.  The  American  black  cap  is  a 
species  of  tit-mouse,  so  called  from 
the  coloring  of  the  head. 

Black  Death,  The,  one  of  the 
most  memorable  of  the  epidemics  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  was  a  great  pesti- 
lence in  the  14th  century ;  which  de- 
vastated Asia,  Europe  and  Africa. 

The  whole  period  of  time  during 
which  the  black  death  raged  with  de- 
structive violence  in  Europe  was  from 
1347  to  1350 ;  from  this  latter  date  to 
1383  there  were  various  pestilences, 
bad  enough,  indeed,  but  not  as  vio- 
lent as  the  black  death. 

Blackfeet  Indians,  a  tribe  of 
American  Indians,  partly  inhabiting 
the  United  States,  partly  Canada, 
from  the  Yellowstone  to  Hudson  Bay. 

Blackfisli,  a  fish  caught  on  the 
coast  of  the  United  States,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  Long  Island. 

Black  Flags,  an  organization  of 
Chinese  rebels  who  established  them- 
selves in  the  Red  River  valley  in  Ton- 
quin,  after  the  suppression  of  the  Tai- 
ping  Rebellion  in  Southern  China 
(1850-1854).  From  their  warlike 
character  and  desperate  deeds  they 
were  called  Black  Flags  as  distin- 
guished from  the  peaceable  Yellow 
Flags.  They  were  responsible  for  the 
massacre  in  1884  of  missionaries  and 
native  Christians. 

Black  Forest,  a  great  forest,  sit- 
nated  in  Baden  and  Wurtemberg,  near 
the  source  of  the  Danube. 

Black  Friars,  friars  of  the  Do- 
minican Order:  so  called  from  their 
costume. 


Black  Hills 

Black  Friday,  the  Friday,  Sept. 
24,  1869,  when  the  attempt  of  Jay 
(Sould  and  James  Fisk,  Jr.,  to  create 
a  corner  in  the  gold  market  by  buying 
all  the  gold  in  the  banks  of  New  York 
city,  amounting  to  $15,000,000,  cul- 
minated. For  several  days  the  value 
of  gold  had  risen  steadily,  and  the 
speculators  aimed  to  carry  it  from 
144  to  200.  Friday  the  whole  city 
was  in  a  ferment,  the  banks  were 
rapidly  selling,  gold  was  at  162^,  and 
still  rising.  Men  became  insane,  and 
everywhere  the  wildest  excitement 
raged,  for  it  seemed  probable  that  the 
business  houses  must  be  closed,  from 
ignorance  of  the  prices  to  be  charged 
for  their  goods.  But  in  the  midst  of 
the  panic  it  was  reported  that  Secre- 
tary Boutwell  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  had  thrown  $4,000,000  on 
the  market,  and  at  once  gold  fell,  the 
excitement  ceased,  leaving  Gould  and 
Fisk  the  winners  of  $11,000,000.  The 
day  noticed  above  is  what  is  gen- 
erally referred  to  as  Black  Friday  in 
the  United  States,  but  the  term  was 
first  used  in  England,  being  applied 
j  in  the  first  instance  to  the  Friday  on 
,  which  the  news  reached  London,  Dec. 
i  6,  1745,  that  the  young  Pretender, 
Charles  Edward,  had  arrived  at  Der- 
i  by,  creating  a  terrible  panic ;  and 
finally  to  May  11,  1866,  when  the 
failure  of  Overend,  Gurney  &  Co., 
London,  the  day  before,  was  followed 
by  a  widespread  financial  ruin. 

Black  Hand,  common  name  in 
j  the  United  States  for  an  offshoot 
I  of  two  long-established  societies  of 
an  intricate  and  powerful  order  of 
Italian  criminals,  known  in  their  re- 
spective strongholds  of  Naples  and 
Sicily  as  the  "  Camorra  "  and  "  Ma- 
fia." The  habit  of  the  members  of 
signing  blackmail  and  threatening 
letters  with  the  words  "  black-hand," 
or  a  rude  representation  of  one,  gave 
these  desperadoes  in  the  United 
States  their  distinctive  name. 

Black  Hawk,  a  famous  chief  of 
the  Sac  and  Fox  Indians,  born  in 
1767.  He  joined  the  British  in  1812, 
and  fought  against  the  United  States 
in  1831-1832.  He  died  in  1838. 

Blackheath,  a  village  and  heath, 
in  Kent,  England,  about  6  miles  S. 
E.  of  London  Bridge. 

Black  Hills,  a  mountainous  re- 
gion in  the  S.  W.  of  South  Dakota, 


Black  Hole 


Black  Sea 


extending  into  the  E.  part  of  Wyom- 
ing ;  long.  103°  to  105s.  It  was  pur- 
chased from  the  Indians  in  1876,  for 
whom  it  had  been  one  of  the  finest 
hunting  grounds  in  the  West.  In  I 
1877-1878  thousands  of  miners  went ' 
there,  and  in  1880  there  had  already  j 
sprung  into  existence  three  towns,  i 
Deadwood,  Central  City,  and  Lead- 
ville.  Around  these  lay  also  groups 
of  smaller  towns  and  villages.  From 
1880  the  gold  mines  yielded  about  $4,- 
000,000  annually,  and  the  silver  mines 
about  $3,000,000  annually. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  a  small 
chamber,   20   feet   square,   in   the   old ' 
fort  of  Calcutta,  in  which,  after  their  | 
capture  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  the  whole 
garrison    of    146    men    were   confined 
during   the   night   of   June   21,    1756. 
Only  23  survived.     The   spot  is  now 
marked  by  a  monument. 

Blackie,  John  Stuart,  a  Scot- 
tish author,  born  in  Glasgow  in  July, 
1809;  died  in  Edinburgh,  March  2, 
1895. 

Black  Lead,  Graphite,  or  Plum- 
bago, a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
carbon,  but  containing  also  more  or 
less  of  alumina,  silica,  lime,  iron,  etc., 
to  the  extent  of  1  to  47  per  cent,  ap- 
parently mixed  rather  than  chemically 
combined.  Black  lead  is  the  popular 
name,  and  that  by  which  it  is  general- 
ly known  in  the  arts,  though  no  lead 
enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
mineral ;  graphite  is  that  generally 
preferred  by  mineralogists. 

Black  List,  a  list  of  bankrupts  or 
other  parties  whose  names  are  official- 
ly known  as  failing  to  meet  pecuniary 
engagements.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  list  of  employes  who  have 
been  discharged  by  a  firm  or  corpora- 
tion and  against  whom  some  objection 
is  made  and  reported  to  other  firms  ^or 
corporations  to  prevent  them  obtain- 
ing employment. 

Blackmail,  a  certain  rate  of  mon- 
ey, corn,  cattle  or  the  like,  anciently 
Said,  in  the  N.  of  England  and  in 
cotland,  to  certain  men  who  were  al- 
lied to  robbers,  to  be  protected  by 
them  from  pillage.  It  was  carried  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  become  the  sub- 
ject of  legislation.  Blackmail  was 
levied  in  the  districts  bordering  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  till  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century.  In  the  United 


States,  the  word  is  applied  to  money 
extorted  from  persons  under  threat  of 
exposure  for  an  alleged  offense;  hush- 
money. 

Black  Monday.  (1)  A  name  for 
Easter  Monday,  in  remembrance  of 
the  dreadful  experiences  of  the  army 
of  Edward  III.,  before  Paris,  on 
Easter  Monday,  April  14,  1360.  Many 
soldiers  and  horses  perished  from  the 
extreme  cold.  (2)  The  27th  of  Feb., 
1865,  a  memorable  day  in  Melbourne, 
Australia,  when  a  destructive  sirocco 
prevailed  in  the  surrounding  country. 

Black  Mountains,  the  group 
which  contains  the  highest  summits  of 
the  Appalachian  system,  Clingman's 
Peak  being  6,701  feet,  Guyot's  Peak, 
6,661. 

Black  Republic,  a  name  applied 
to  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  which  ia 
under  the  dominion  of  the  African 
race. 

Black  Republicans,  in  the  United 
States,  a  name  applied  to  members  of 
the  Republican  Party  by  the  Pro- 
Slavery  Party. 

Black  River,  the  name  of  several 
-ivers  in  the  United  States:  (1)  An 
affluent  of  the  Arkansas  river,  in  Ar- 
kansas, 400  miles  long.  It  is  naviga- 
ble to  Poplar  Bluff,  311  miles;  (2)  a 
river  in  New  York,  rising  in  the  Adi- 
rondacks,  and  emptying  into  Lake  On- 
tario near  Watertown,  length  200 
miles;  (3)  a  river  in  Wisconsin,  flow- 
ing S.  W.,  and  emptying  into  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  near  Lacrosse;  length 
200  miles ;  (4)  a  river  rising  in  the  S. 
E.  o£  Missouri,  flowing  nearly  S.,  and 
entering  the  White  river,  of  which  it 
is  the  chief  tributary,  at  Jacksonport, 
Ark.;  length,  350  miles,  of  which  100 
miles  are  navigable. 

Black  Rock  Desert,  a  tract  of 
nearly  1,000  square  miles,  N.  of  Pyra- 
mid Lake,  in  Nevada.  In  summer  it  is 
a  barren  level  of  alkali  and  in  winter 
covered  in  places  with  shallow  water. 
Called  also  "  Mud  Lakes." 

Black  Rood  of  Scotland,  a  cross 
of  gold  in  the  form  of  a  casket,  al- 
leged to  contain  a  piece  of  the  true 
Cross. 

Black  Sea  (ancient  Pontus  Eux- 
inus),  a  sea  situated  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  mainly  bounded  by  the 
Russian  and  Turkish  dominions,  being 


Black  Sheep 

connected  with  the  Mediterranean  by 
the  Bosporus,  Sea  of  Marmora,  and 
Dardanelles,  and  by  the  Strait  of 
Kertsch  with  the  Sea  of  Azov,  which 
is,  in  fact,  only  a  bay  of  the  Black 
Sea;  area  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Sea  of  Azov  about  175,000  square 
miles,  with  a  depth  in  the  center  of 
more  than  150  fathoms  and  few  shoals 
along  its  shores.  The  water  is  not 
so  clear  as  that  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  less  salt  on  account  of  the 
many  large  rivers  which  fall  into  it. 

Black  Sheep,  a  tribe  of  Turko 
mans,  so  called  from  their  standard. 

A  black  sheep :  a  disgrace  to  the 
family ;  a  mauvais  sujet ;  a  workman 
who  will  not  join  in  a  strike. 

Black  Snake,  a  common  snake  in 
North  America,  reaching  a  length  of 
5  or  6  feet,  and  so  agile  and  swift  as 
to  have  been  named  the  racer,  with  no 
poison  fangs,  and,  therefore,  compara- 
tively harmless. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  an 
English  jurist,  born  in  London,  July 
10,  1723;  educated  at  the  Charter 
House  and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 
In  1743  he  was  elected  fellow  of  All- 
Soul's  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1746 
was  called  to  the  bar;  but,  having 
attended  the  Westminster  law  courts 
for  seven  years  without  success,  he  re- 
tired to  Oxford.  Here  he  gave  lec- 
tures on  law,  which  suggested  to  Mr. 
Viner  the  idea  of  founding  a  profes- 
sorship at  Oxford  for  the  study  of 
the  common  law ;  and  Blackstone  was, 
in  1758,  chosen  the  first  Vinerian 
Professor.  In  1765  he  published 
the  first  volume  of  his  famous  "  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  England." 
He  died  Feb.  14,  1780. 

Black  Tin,  tin  ore  when  dressed, 
stamped,  and  washed  ready  for  smelt- 
ing, forming  a  black  powder. 

Black  Walnut,  a  valuable  timber 
tree  of  the  United  States  and  its 
fruit.  The  great  size  often  reached 
by  this  tree,  the  richness  of  the  dark 
brown  wood,  the  unique  beauty  of  the 
grain  sometimes  found  in  burls,  knots, 
feathers  and  in  the  curl  of  the  roots, 
all  conspire  to  make  this  the  most 
choice  and  high  priced  of  all  our  na- 
tive woods. 

Blackwell,  Mrs.  Antoinette 
Lonisa  (Brown),  an  American  wom- 
an suffragist  and  Unitarian  minister, 


Blaine 

born  at  Henrietta,  N.  Y.,  May  20, 
1825.  A  graduate  of  Oberlin  (1847), 
she  "  preached  on  her  own  orders,"  at 
first  in  Congregational  churches,  be- 
coming at  length  a  champion  of  wom- 
en's rights.  She  married  Samuel  C., 
a  brother  of  Dr.  Elizabeth  Blackwell 
(1856). 

Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  an  Amer- 
ican physician  and  medical  and  ethical 
writer,  born  at  Bristol,  England,  1821. 
She  was  the  first  woman  who  ob- 
tained the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  the 
United  States  (1849),  beginning  prac- 
tice in  New  York  (1851).  Died  1910. 

Blackwell,  Lucy  Stone,  an 
American  woman  suffragist,  born  in 
West  Brookfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  13, 
1818;  was  graduated  at  Oberlin  Col- 
lege in  1847;  became  a  lecturer  on 
woman  suffrage,  and  a  contributor  to 
the  press.  In  1855  she  married  Henry 
B.  Blackwell,  a  merchant  of  Cincin- 
nati. She  died  in  Dorchester,  Mass., 
Oct.  20,  1893. 

Blackwell's  Island,  an  island  be- 
longing to  the  city  of  New  York,  in 
the  East  river,  containing  about  120 
acres.  On  it  are  the  penitentiary, 
almshouse,  lunatic  asylum  for  females, 
workhouse,  blind  asylum,  hospital  for 
incurables,  and  a  convalescent  hospi- 
tal. 

Blackwood,  William,  a  Scotch 
publisher,  born  at  Edinburgh,  Nov. 
20,  1776.  He  started  as  a  bookseller 
in  1804,  and  soon  became  also  a  pub- 
lisher. After  his  death  the  business, 
which  had  developed  into  a  large  pub- 
lishing concern,  was  carried  on  by  his 
sons,  and  the  magazine  still  keeps  its 
place  among  the  leading  periodicals. 
He  died  Sept  16,  1834. 

Blaeu,  Blaenw,  or  Blanw,  a 
Dutch  family  celebrated  as  publish- 
ers of  maps  and  books. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  West 
Brownsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830.  He 
graduated  at  Washington  College,  Pa., 
in  1847.  In  1854  he  removed  to  Au- 
gusta, Me.,  and  engaged  in  journalism. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Republican  Party,  and  in  1856  was 
a  delegate  to  the  first  Republican  Na- 
tional Convention,  which  nominated 
Fremont  for  the  Presidency.  In  1858 
he  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  of 
Maine,  and  in  1862  to  the  House 


Blair 


Blake 


of  Representatives  of  the  National 
Congress.  He  became  Speaker  of  the 
House  in  1869,  and  held  that  office  for 
six  years;  was  a  member  of  the  Sen- 
ate from  1876  to  1881;  was  twice 
Secretary  of  State  (1881-1882  and 
1889-1892).  He  was  defeated  for 
the  Presidency  in  1884,  by  Grover 
Cleveland.  Besides  his  numerous 
speeches  and  writings  on  the  public 
questions  of  his  day,  his  best  known 
work  is  his  "  Twenty  Years  in  Con- 
gress "  (2  vols.,  1884-1886),  a  his- 
torical production  of  great  and  per- 
manent value.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  Jan.  27,  1893. 

Blair,  Austin,  an  American  law- 
yer, born  in  Caroline,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  8, 
1818;  was  elected  Governor  of  Michi- 
gan in  1860,  becoming  one  of  the  War 
Governors.  In  1866-1870  he  was  a 
member  of  Congress.  He  died  in 
Jackson,  Mich.,  Aug.  6,  1894. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  an 
American  journalist  and  politician, 
born  in  Abingdon,  Va.,  April  12, 1791 ; 
died  at  Silver  Spring,  Md.,  Oct.  18, 
1876. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  Jr.,  an 
American  military  officer  and  legis- 
lator, born  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Feb. 
20,  1821 ;  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  a  Representative  in  Congress  i 
from  Missouri  in  1857-1859  and  1861- 
1863 ;  became  a  Major-General  in  the 
Union  army  in  the  Civil  War,  taking 
an  active  part  in  the  Vicksburg  cam- 
paign and  Sherman's  march  to  the 
sea ;  was  an  unsuccessful  Democratic 
candidate  for  Vice-President  in  1868, 
and  United  States  Senator  in  1870- 
1873.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  July  5, 
1875. 

Blair,  Henry  William,  an  Amer- 
ican legislator,  born  in  Campton,  N. 
H.,  Dec.  6,  1834 ;  received  an  acade- 
mic education ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1859 ;  served  through  the  Civil 
War,  becoming  Lieutenant-Colonel  of 
the  15th  New  Hampshire  Volunteers, 
and  being  twice  wounded.  After  serv- 
ing in  both  branches  of  the  State 
Legislature  he  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress in  1875-1879  and  1893-1895, 
and  a  United  States  Senator  in  1879- 
1891. 

Blair,  Hugh,  a  Scotch  clergyman 
and  educational  writer,  born  in  Edin- 
burgh,  in  1718;  was  noted  for  the 


eloquence  of  his  sermons,  and  also 
for  "Lectures  on  Rhetoric"  (1783), 
which  attained  great  popularity, 
"  Blair's  Rhetoric  "  being  familiar  to 
all  students.  He  died  in  1800. 

Blair,  John  Insley,  an  American 
philanthropist,  born  in  Belvidere,  N. 
J.,  Aug.  22,  1802 ;  was  in  early  life  a 
merchant  and  banker;  subsequently 
becoming  the  individual  owner  of 
more  miles  of  railroad  property  than 
any  other  man  in  the  world.  He  ac- 
quired a  very  large  fortune;  loaned 
the  Federal  Government  more  than 
$1,000,000  in  the  early  part  of  the 
Civil  War;  built  and  endowed  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  $600,000,  the  Pres- 
byterian Academy  in  Blairstown,  N. 
J. ;  rebuilt  Grinnell  College,  Iowa ; 
erected  Blair  Hall  and  made  other 
gifts  to  Princeton  University ;  was 
equally  liberal  to  Lafayette  College; 
and  had  erected  more  than  100  church- 
es in  different  parts  of  the  West,  be- 
sides laying  out  many  towns  and  vil- 
lages on  the  lines  of  his  numerous 
railroads.  He  died  in  Blairstown,  N. 
J.,  Dec.  2,  1899. 

Blair,  Montgomery,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Franklin  county,  Ky., 
May  10,  1813 ;  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1835;  resigned  from  the  army  in 
1836;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1839; 
began  practice  in  St.  Louis.  He  acted 
as  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in  the 
widely  known  Dred  Scott  case.  In 
1861-1864  he  was  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral. In  1876-1877  he  acted  with  the 
Democratic  Party  in  opposing  Mr. 
Hayes'  title  to  the  office  of  President. 
He  died  in  Silver  Springs,  Md.,  July 
27,  1883. 

Blake,  Edward,  an  English  states- 
man, born  in  Cairngorm,  Ont.,  Cana- 
da, Oct.  13,  1833;  was  educated  at 
Upper  Canada  College  and  Toronto 
University ;  called  to  the  bar  in  1856 ; 
and  engaged  in  practice  in  Toronto. 
He  entered  public  life  in  1867;  was 
Premier  of  Ontario  in  1871-1872, 
Minister  of  Justice  in  1875-1877,  and 
the  recognized  leader  of  the  Canadian 
Liberal  Party.  In  1892  he  was 
invited  by  the  leaders  of  the  Anti- 
Parnellites  in  Ireland  to  enter  the 
British  House  of  Commons  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  an  Irish  constituency. 
Consenting,  he  removed  to  South  Long- 
ford, was  elected  for  that  district,  and 


Blake 

in  1895  was  re-elected.  In  1896  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Judi- 
ciary Committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Blake,  Eli  'Whitney,  an  Ameri- 
can inventor,  born  in  Westboro,  Mass., 
Jan.  27,  1795;  graduated  at  Yale 
University  in  1816.  He  began  busi- 
ness with  his  uncle,  Eli  Whitney,  in 
the  manufacture  of  fire-arms ;  and  in 
1834  founded,  near  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  the  pioneer  factory  for  the 
manufacture  of  domestic  hardware. 
He  died  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Aug. 
17,  1886. 

Blake,  Mrs.  Lillie  (Deverenx) 
TJmstead,  an  American  advocate  of 
woman's  rights,  and  novelist,  born  at 
Raleigh,  N.  C.,  1835.  Her  first  hus- 
band, Frank  G.  Quay  Umstead,  died 
in  1859;  she  married  Grenfill  Blake 
in  1866,  who  died  in  1896. 

Blake,  William  Phipps,  an 
American  mineralogist,  born  in  New 
York  city,  June  1,  1826;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Yale  Scientific  School  in 
1852.  He  became  Geologist  and  Min- 
eralogist to  the  United  States  Rail- 
road Expedition  in  1853;  was  Mining 
Engineer  in  connection  with  explora- 
tions in  Japan,  China,  and  Alaska  in 
1861-1863;  appointed  Professor  of 
Geology  and  Mineralogy  in  the  College 
of  California,  1864 ;  Director  of  the 
School  of  Mines  in  the  University  of 
Arizona,  1900 ;  died  1910. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  near  Seaford, 
Ireland,  October,  1781 ;  entered  the 
United  States  navy  as  a  midshipman 
in  1800;  commanded  the  "Enterprise" 
in  the  early  part  of  the  War  of  1812 ; 
and  was  captain  of  the  "  Wasp " 
when  she  captured  the  English  "  Rein- 
deer "  in  June,  1814.  Soon  after  this 
he  sailed  with  the  "  Wasp "  on  an- 
other cruise,  but  the  vessel  was  lost 
at  sea  with  all  on  board. 

Blanchard,  Jonathan,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Rockingham, 
Vt,  Jan.  19,  1811 ;  graduated  at  Lane 
Theological  Seminary  in  1832;  and 
was  ordained  a  Presbyterian  minister 
in  1838.  He  was  American  Vice-Presi- 
dent  of  the  World's  Anti-Slavery  Con- 
vention in  London  in  1843;  and  in 
1846  became  President  of  Knox  Col- 
lege at  Galesburg,  111.  He  was  Presi- 
dent of  Wheaton  College,  111.,  in 
1880-1882;  and,  on  resigning,  was 


Blanco 

chosen  president-emeritus.  He  died  in 
Wheaton,  111.,  May  14,  1892. 

Blanco,  Antonio  Guzman,  a 
Venezuelan  military  officer,  born  in 
Caracas,  Feb.  29,  1828.  He  became 
prominent  in  the  Federalist  revolts, 
1859-1863,  and  when  his  party  tri- 
umphed, was  made  first  Vice-President 
in  1863  under  Falcon,  who  was  de- 
posed in  the  Revolution  of  1868. 
Blanco  led  a  successful  counter  revo- 
lution in  1870,  became  President,  and 
retained  the  office  till  1882.  In  1893 
he  was  appointed  Minister  to  France, 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  July 
29,  1899. 

Blanco,  Jose  Felix,  a  Venezue- 
lan historian,  born  in  Mariana  de 
Caracas,  Sept.  24,  1782.  At  different 
times  he  acted  in  the  capacity  of 
priest,  soldier,  and  statesman.  He 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Revolu- 
ton  at  Caracas,  April  19,  1810,  and 
was  the  first  editor  of  the  great  his- 
torical work,  "  Documentos  para  la 
historia  de  la  vida  publica  del  Liber- 
tador,"  etc.  He  died  in  Caracas,  Jan. 
8,  1872. 

Blanco,  Pedro,  a  Bolivian  states- 
man, born  in  Cochabamba,  Oct.  .19, 
1795.  He  joined  the  Spanish  araay  in 
1812,  but  soon  deserted  to  the  patriots, 
and  served  with  them  till  the  end  of 
the  Revolution.  In  1828  he  became  a 
general,  and  in  the  same  year,  when 
Sucre  fell,  was  made  President  of 
Bolivia,  but  was  superseded  in  the 
Revolution  of  Dec.  31,  1828.  He  was 
shot  in  Sucre,  hi  January,  1829. 

Blanco,  Ramon  y  Arenas,  Mar- 
quis de  Pena  Plata,  Captain-Gen- 
eral of  the  Spanish  army  hi  Cuba 
during  the  Spanish-American  War; 
was  born  at  San  Sebastian,  Spain,  in 
1833,  and  began  his  military  career  at 
the  age  of  22,  entering  the  army  in 
1855  as  a  Lieutenant;  was  promoted 
to  a  captain  in  1858,  and  won  the 
rank  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  in  the  war 
with  San  Domingo.  When  the  Span- 
iards were  driven  from  the  island 
Blanco  went  to  the  Philippines  as 
governor  of  Mindanao.  When  he  re- 
turned to  Spain  he  was  assigned  to 
the  Army  of  the  North,  and  in  the 
war  with  the  Carlists  made  a  brilliant 
record.  He  successfully  stormed  Pena 
Plata,  for  which  achievement  he  was 
created  a  Marquis  of  that  name.  He 


Blanco  Encalada 


Blarney 


Bucceeded  General  Weyler  in  command 
of  the  army  in  Cuba,  where  his  career 
terminated  with  the  U.  S.  occupation. 
He  died  April  4,  1906. 

Blanco  Encalada,  Manuel,  a 
Spanish-American  military  officer, 
born  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Sept.  5,  1790; 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Chilian 
War  of  Independence.  He  was  chosen 
President  of  Chile  in  July,  1826,  but 
soon  resigned,  and  was  made  General 
of  the  army.  He  unsuccessfully  in- 
vaded Peru  in  1837,  and  was  not  al- 
lowed to  retire  till  he  had  signed  a 
treaty  of  peace.  Chile  annulled  this 
treaty,  and  he  was  court-martialed, 
but  freed.  In  1847  he  was  Intendant 
of  Valparaiso,  and  in  1853-1858  Min- 
ister to  France.  He  died  in  Santiago, 
Chile,  Sept  5,  1875. 

Bland,  Richard  Parks,  an  Amer- 
ican legislator,  born  in  Kentucky, 
Aug.  19,  1835 ;  received  an  academical 
education,  and,  between  1855  and 
1865,  practiced  law  in  Missouri,  Cali- 
fornia, and  Nevada,  and  was  engaged 
for  some  time  in  mining.  In  1865  he 
settled  in  Rolla,  Mo.,  and  practiced  | 
there  till  1865,  when  he  removed  to  | 
Lebanon  in  the  same  State.  He  was  j 
a  member  of  Congress  in  1873-1895  j 
and  from  1897  till  his  death.  In  1896 
he  was  a  conspicuous  candidate  for 
the  Presidential  nomination  in  the 
Democratic  National  Convention,  but 
on  the  fourth  ballot  his  name  was 
withdrawn,  and  the  vote  of  his  State 
was  cast  for  William  J.  Bryan.  Mr. 
Bland  was  best  known  as  the  leader 
in  the  Lower  House  of  Congress  of 
the  Free-Silver  movement,  and  the 
author  of  the  Bland  Silver  Bill.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Committees  on  Coinage, 
Weights  and  Measures,  and  Expendi- 
tures on  Public  Buildings.  He  died! 
in  Lebanon,  Mo.,  June  15,  1899. 

Bland,  Theodoric,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Prince  George 
county,  Va.,  in  1742;  studied  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and 
for  a  time  practiced  in  England.  He 
returned  home  in  1764,  and  was  active 
in  his  profession  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  when  he 
sided  with  the  colonists,  and  became 
Captain  of  the  First  Troop  of  Vir- 
ginia cavalry.  In  1777  he  joined  the 
main  arm;  as  a  Lieutenant-Colonel, 


and  later  became  a  ColoneL  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  the  battle  of 
Brandywine,  and  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  prisoners  taken  at  Sara- 
toga, who  were  marched  to  Charlotte- 
ville,  Va.  In  1780-1783  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
and  was  a  Representative  from  Vir- 
ginia to  the  1st  Federal  Congress  in 
1789.  He  died  in  New  York  city, 
June  1,  1790. 

Bland  Silver  Bill,  one  of  the 
most  notable  measures  of  American 
Congressional  history.  The  original 
bill,  as  introduced  by  Representative 
Bland  and  passed  by  the  House  late 
in  1877,  provided  simply  for  the  free 
and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  by  all 
the  mints  of  the  United  States.  This 
programme  represented  the  full  policy 
of  the  Silver  men.  The  silver  dollar 
had  been  demonetized  by  the  act  of 
1873,  and  its  coinage  had  been  wholly 
abandoned.  The  Bimetallists  desired 
to  restore  it  to  perfect  equality  with 
gold  as  a  standard  of  value,  and  the 
original  Bland  bill,  permitting  owners 
of  silver  bullion  to  have  their  com- 
modity coined  into  dollars  by  the 
mints,  was  intended  as  the  means  to 
accomplish  that  object  But  the  Sen- 
ate amended  the  measure  materially. 
The  free  coinage  clause  was  stricken 
out,  and,  as  a  concession  to  the  Silver 
men,  it  was  directed  that  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  should  purchase 
monthly  not  less  than  $2,000,000  and 
not  more  than  $4,000,000  worth  of 
silver  bullion,  at  the  market  price  of 
the  metal,  and  coin  it  into  standard 
silver  dollars,  which  should  be  unlim- 
ited legal  tender  for  all  debts.  The 
amended  bill  was  reported  by  Senator 
Allison,  Chairman  of  the  Finance 
Committee,  and  hence  received  the 
name  of  the  Bland-Allison  Act  It 
was  vetoed  by  President  Hayes,  but 
passed  over  his  veto,  Feb.  28,  1878,  by 
196  to  73  in  the  House,  and  46  to  19 
in  the  Senate.  The  silver  purchase 
clause  in  this  act  was  repealed  by  the 
Sherman  Act  of  1890. 

Blank  Verse,  verse  which  is  void 
of  rhyme. 

Blarney,  a  village  in  Ireland,  4 
miles  N.  W.  of  the  city  of  Cork,  with 
Blarney  Castle  in  its  vicinity.  A  stone 
called  the  Blarney  Stone,  near  the 
top  of  the  castle,  is  said  to  confer  on 
those  who  kiss  it  the  peculiar  kind  of 


Blashfield 

persuasive  eloquence  alleged  to  be 
characteristic  of  the  natives  of  Ire- 
land. 

Blashfield,  Edwin  Howland, 
an  American  artist,  born  in  New  York 
city,  Dec.  16,  1848;  studied  in  Paris 
under  Leon  Bonnat ;  and  began  ex- 
hibiting in  the  Paris  Salon  in  1874. 
lie  returned  to  the  United  States  in 
1881,  and  has  since  distinguished  him- 
self by  the  execution  of  large  decora- 
tive works. 

Blasphemy,  slander  or  even  well 
merited  blame,  applied  to  a  person  or 
in  condemnation  of  a  thing . 

The  word  is  particularly  applied  to 
any  profane  language  toward  God ; 
blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost 
means  the  sin  of  attributing  to  Satanic 
agency  the  miracles  which  were  ob- 
viously from  God. 

Blast  Furnace,  a  structure  built 
of  refractory  material  in  which  metal- 
lic ores  are  smelted  in  contact  with 
fuel  and  flux,  the  combustion  of  the 
fuel  being  accelerated  by  air  under 
pressure. 

Blasting,  the  operation  of  break- 
ing up  masses  of  stone  or  rock  in  situ 
by  means  of  gunpowder  or  other  ex- 
plosive. In  ordinary  operations,  holes 
are  bored  into  the  rock  of  from  one  to 
six  inches  in  diameter,  by  means  of  a 
steel  pointed  drill,  by  striking  it  with 
hammers  or  allowing  it  to  fall  from 
a  height.  After  the  hole  is  bored  to 
the  requisite  depth  it  is  cleaned  out, 
the  explosive  is  introduced,  the  hole 
is  tamped  or  filled  up  with  broken 
stone,  clay  or  sand,  and  the  charge 
exploded  by  means  of  a  fuse  or  by 
electricity. 

Blaratsky,  Helene  Petrovna,  a 
noted  theosophist;  born  in  Yekaterin- 
oslay,  Russia,  in  1831 ;  founded  the 
Theosophical  Society  in  New  York  in 
1875.  She  died  in  London,  May  8, 
1891. 

Blazonry,  the  art  of  describing  a 
coat  of  arms  in  such  a  way  that  an 
accurate  drawing  may  be  made  from 
the  verbal  statements  given. 

Bleaching:,  the  art  of  whitening 
linen,  wool,  cotton,  silk,  wax,  also  the 
materials  of  which  paper  is  made,  and 
other  things. 

Bledsoe,  Albert  Taylor,  an 
American  clergyman  and  writer;  born 


Blennerhasset 

in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  Nov.  9,  1809.  He 
was  Assistant  Secretary  of  War,  of 
the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  both 
an  Episcopal  and  a  Methodist  minis- 
ter. He  died  in  Alexandria,  Va.,  Dec. 
1,  1877. 

Bleeding,  or  Hemorrhage,  one 
of  the  most  serious  accidents  which 
can  happen  to  an  animal,  and  consti- 
tutes the  most  anxious  complication 
in  surgical  operations. 

Blenheim,  a  village  situated  in 
the  circle  of  the  Upper  Danube,  in 
Bavaria,  on  the  Danube.  Here  was 
fought,  Aug.  13,  1704,  the  famous  bat- 
tle of  Blenheim  (or,  as  it  is  more  com- 
monly called  on  the  European  Conti- 
nent, the  battle  of  Hochstadt,  from 
another  village  of  this  name  in  the 
vicinity),  in  which  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene,  commanding  the  al- 
lied forces  of  England  and  the  Ger- 
man empire,  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  French  and  Bavarians. 

Blennerhasset,  Harman,  an 
Englishman  of  Irish  descent,  noted  for 
his  connection  with  Aaron  Burr's  con- 
spiracy, born  in  Hampshire,  Oct.  8, 
1764  or  1765 ;  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin ;  studied  law ;  and 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1797. 
In  the  following  year  he  built  a  beau- 
tiful residence  on  a  little  island  in 
the  Ohio  river  below  Parkersburg, 
where  Aaron  Burr,  after  his  fortunes 
were  broken  and  he  did  not  feel  safe 
in  New  York,  was  received  as  a  guest. 
Burr  proposed  his  scheme  for  taking 
Mexico,  where,  in  case  of  success, 
Burr  was  to  be  Emperor  and  Blen- 
nerhasset a  duke  and  ambassador  to 
England.  Large  sums  were  expended 
to  fit  out  the  expedition  and  when 
Burr  was  arrested,  and  Blennerhas- 
set as  a  suspected  person  with  him, 
creditors  seized  the  island  and  home, 
and  Blennerhasset  found  himself 
bankrupt.  After  this  all  projects 
failed  with  him.  In  his  last  years  he 
was  supported  by  the  charity  of  a  rel- 
ative. He  died  on  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  Feb.  1,  1831.  His  wife 
was  a  daughter  of  Governor  Agnew, 
of  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  the  author  of 
many  poems,  including  "  The  Desert- 
ed Isle,"  "  The  Widow  and  the  Rock," 
etc.  After  her  husband's  death  she 
petitioned  Congress  for  a  reparation 
of  her  losses,  but  died  before  any  ac- 
tion was  taken.  Their  son,  Joseph 


Blesbok 

Lewis  Blennerhasset,  was  a  lawyer  in 

Missouri. 

Blesbok,  an  antelope  of  South 
Africa  with  a  white  marked  face,  a 
general  purplish  chocolate  color,  and 
K  saddle  of  a  bluish  color;  found  in 
great  numbers  in  the  late  Boer  repub- 
lics in  South  Africa  and  much  hunted. 

Blessington,  Margaret,  Count- 
ess of,  was  born  near  Clonmel,  Ire- 
land, 1789,  died  at  Paris  1849.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen,  she  was  married  to  a 
Captain  Farmer,  who  died  in  1817 ; 
and  a  few  months  after  his  death 
his  widow  married  Charles  John  Gard- 
iner, earl  of  Blessington.  After  the 
earl's  death  in  1829,  Lady  Blessington 
took  up  her  abode  in  Gore  House, 
Kensington.  Her  residence  oecame 
the  fashionable  resort  for  all  the  celeb- 
rities of  the  time ;  and  that  notwith- 
standing a  doubtful  connection  which 
she  formed  with  Count  D'Orsay,  with 
whom  she  lived  till  her  death.  No 
name  is  more  frequently  mentioned  by 
writers  of  the  time. 

Bligh,  William,  the  commander 
of  the  English  ship  "  Bounty  "  when 
the  crew  mutinied  in  the  South  Seas 
and  carried  her  off,  was  born  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1753.  The  "Bounty"  had 
been  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing plants  of  the  bread  fruit  tree, 
and  introducing  these  into  the  West 
Indies.  Bligh  left  Tahiti  in  1789, 
and  was  proceeding  on  his  voyage  for 
Jamaica  when  he  was  seized,  and, 
with  18  men  supposed  to  be  well  af- 
fected to  him,  forced  into  *he  launch, 
sparingly  provisioned,  and  cast  adrift ; 
but  Bligh,  with  12  of  his  companions, 
arrived  in  England  in  1790,  while  the 
mutineers  settled  on  Pitcairn  Island, 
where  their  descendants  still  exist. 
Bligh  became  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales  in  1806,  but  his  harsh  and 
despotic  conduct  caused  him  to  be  de- 
posed and  sent  back  to  England.  He 
afterward  rose  to  the  rank  of  Admiral, 
and  died  in  London  in  1817. 

Blight,  a  diseased  state  of  culti- 
rated  plants,  especially  cereals  and 
grasses.  The  term  has  been  very 
vaguely  and  variously  used,  having,  in 
fact,  been  applied  by  agriculturists  to 
almost  every  disease  of  plants  in  turn, 
however  caused,  especially  when  the 
plant  dies  before  reaching  maturity.  It 
is  now  applied  scientifically  only  to 


_____ BUM 

such  diseases  as  are  caused  by  para- 
site fungi  or  bacteria,  as  apple-blight, 
cherry-blight,  potato-blight,  etc. 

Blind  Fish,  the  name  of  several 
species  of  fish  inhabiting  the  Amer- 
can  cave  streams.  They  are  all  small, 
the  largest  not  exceeding  five  inches. 

Bliss,  Cornelius  Newton,  an 
American  merchant,  born  in  Fall 
River,  Mass.,  Jan.  26,  1833;  was  ed- 
ucated in  New  Orleans;  entered  his 
stepfather's  counting  room  there ;  en- 
gaged in  the  commission  business  in 
Boston,  and  became  head  of  the  dry 
goods  commission  house  of  Bliss, 
Fabyan  &  Co.,  New  York  city,  in 
1881.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Pan- 
American  Conference ;  Chairman  of 
the  New  York  Republican  State  Com- 
mittee in  1877-1878;  and  Treasurer 
of  the  National  Republican  Commit- 
tee in  1892  and  1896;  declined  to  be 
a  candidate  for  Governor  of  New 
York  in  1885  and  1891 ;  and  was  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  Department  in 
Prpsident  McKinley's  cabinet  in  1897- 
1898.  He  died  Oct.  9,  1911. 

Bliss,  Daniel,  an  American  mis- 
sionary, born  in  Georgia,  Vt.,  Aug.  17, 
1823 ;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1842,  and  at  the  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary  in  1855 ;  was  or- 
dained a  Congregational  minister,  Oct. 
17,  1855 ;  in  missionary  work  in  Syria 
in  1855-62 ;  became  President  of  the 
Protestant  College  in  Beyrout,  1866. 
He  died  July  18,  1916. 

Bliss,  Edwin  Elislia,  an  Ameri- 
can missionary,  born  in  Putney,  Vt., 
April  12,  1817;  graduated  at  Amherst 
College  in  1837,  and  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1842;  was  or- 
dained as  a  missionary  in  1843,  and 
joined  the  American  Mission  in  Tur- 
key. He  died  in  Constantinople,  Dec. 
29,  1892. 

Bliss,  Frederick  Jones,  an  Amer- 
ican explorer,  born  in  Mt.  Lebanon, 
Syria,  Jan.  23,  1859;  son  of  Daniel 
Bliss ;  was  graduated  at  Amherst  Col- 
lege in  1880,  and  at  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  New  York  in 
1887;  was  principal  of  the  prepara- 
tory department  of  the  Syrian  Prot- 
estant College  of  Beyrout  for  three 
years ;  was  appointed  Explorer  to  the 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund  in  1890, 
and  is  best  known  for  his  excavations 
and  finds  in  Jerusalem  in  1891-1897. 


Bliss 

Bliss,      Porter      Cornelius,      an 

American  diplomatist,  born  in  Erie 
county,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  28,  1838 ;  became 
private  secretary  to  James  Watson 
Webb,  United  States  Minister  to  Bra- 
zil ;  explored  the  Gran  Chaco  for  the 
Argentine  Government ;  compiled  the 
various  Indian  dialects  and  investi- 
gated the  antiquities  of  that  region ; 
and,  in  1866,  became  private  secretary 
to  Charles  A.  Washburn,  United 
States  Minister  to  Paraguay.  In 
1870-1874  he  was  Secretary  of  the 
Legation  in  Mexico.  Died  Feb.  2, 1885. 
Bliss,  Tasker  Howard,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer,  born  in  Lewis- 
burg,  Pa.,  Dec.  31,  1853 ;  was  gradu- 
ated at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1875  and  at  the  Artillery 
School  in  1884 ;  Professor  of  Military 
Science  at  the  Naval  War  College  in 
1885-8;  served  through  the  Porto 
Rican  campaign  in  1898;  chief  of  Cu- 
ban Customs  Service  in  1898-1902; 
special  envoy  to  negotiate  a  reciproc- 
ity treaty  with  Cuba  in  1902  ;  in  serv- 
ice in  the  Philippines  in  1905-9 ;  com- 
manded the  provisional  brigade  on  the 
Mexican  border  in  1911 ;  brigadier- 
general,  July  21,  1902  ;  major-general, 
Nov.  20,  1915 ;  became  assistant  to 
the  Chief  of  Staff,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1915. 

Bliss,  William  Dwight  Porter, 
an  American  clergyman,  born  in  Con- 
stantinopk,  Turkey,  in  1856;  was 
graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1878, 
and  the  Hartford  Theological  College 
in  1882;  was  ordained  a  Congrega- 
tional clergyman :  became  an  Episco- 
pal priest  in  1887;  organized  the  first 
Christian  Socialist  Society  in  the 
United  States  in  1889. 

Blizzard,  a  modern  American  word 
whose  origin  is  in  doubt.  As  applied 
to  a  severe  snow  storm  the  word  came 
into  general  use  in  the  American 
newspapers  during  the  bitterly  cold 
winter  of  1880-1881,  although  some 
papers  claim  its  use  as  early  as  the 
'70's.  It  is  employed  in  the  Western 
States  to  describe  a  peculiarly  fierce 
and  cold  wind,  accompanied  by  a  very 
fine,  blinding  snow  which  suffocates  as 
well  as  freezes  men  and  animals  ex- 
posed to  it.  These  storms  come  up 
very  suddenly  and  overtake  the  trav- 
eler without  premonition.  The  sky 
becomes  darkened,  and  the  snow  is 
driven  by  a  terrible  wind  which  comes 


Blockade 

with  a  deafening  roar.  The  blizzard 
which  will  long  be  remembered  in  the 
Eastern  States  began  March  11,  1888, 
and  raged  until  the  14th,  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  being  the  cities  most 
affected.  The  wind  at  one  time  blew 
at  the  rate  of  46  miles  an  hour.  The 
streets  and  roads  were  blocked,  rail- 
road trains  snowed  up  for  days,  tele- 
graphic communication  cut  off,  and 
many  lives  were  lost. 

Block,  a  pulley  or 
a  system  of  pulleys  ro- 
tating on  a  pintle 
mounted  in  its  frame 
or  shell  with  its  band 
and  strap.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  blocks, 
as  a  pulley  block,  a 
fiddle  block,  a  fish 
block,  a  fly  block,  a 
heart  block,  a  hook 
block,  etc.  A  block 
and  tackle  is  the  block 
and  the  rope  rove 
through  it,  for  hoist- 
ing or  obtaining  a 
purchase. 

Blockade,  the  act 
of  surrounding  a  city 
with  a  hostile  army, 
or,  if  it  be  on  the  seaj 
coast,  of  placing  a  I 
hostile  'army  around 
its  landward  side,  and 
ships  of  war  in  front 
of  its  sea  defenses,  so 
as,  if  possible,  to  pre- 
vent supplies  of  food 
and  ammunition  from  entering  it  by 
land  or  water.  The  object  of  such  an 
investment  is  to  compel  a  place  too 
strong  or  too  well  defended  to  be  at 
once  captured  by  assault,  to  surrender 
on  account  of  famine.  The  investment 
of  a  place  by  sea  is  to  prevent  any 
ships  from  entering  or  leaving  its  har- 
bor. The  practice  seems  to  have  been 
introduced  by  the  Dutch  about  1584. 

To  break  the  blockade  is  to  forcibly 
enter  a  blockaded  port,  if  not  even  to 
compel  the  naval  force  investing  it  to 
withdraw.  To  raise  a  blockade  is  to 
desist  from  blockading  a  place  or  to 
compel  the  investing  force  to  do  so. 
To  run  a  blockade  is  to  surreptitiously 
enter  or  leave  a  blockaded  port  at  the 
risk  of  being  captured.  As  a  blockade 
seriously  interferes  with  the  ordinary 
commercial  right  of  trading  with  every 


BLOCK    AND 
TACKLE. 


Block  Books 

place,  international  law  carefully  lim- 
its its  operation,  by  certain  provisions 
regarding  the  rights  of  nations  not  in- 
terested in  the  war. 

Block  Books,  before,  and  for  a 
short  time  after,  the  invention  ot 
printing,  books  printed  from  wooden 
blocks  each  the  size  of  a  page  and 
having  the  matter  to  be  reproduced, 
whether  text  or  picture,  cut  in  relief 
on  the  surface. 

Block  House,  a  fortified  edifice  of 
one  or  more  stories,  constructed  chiefly 
of  blocks  of  hewn  timber.  Block 
houses  are  supplied  with  loopholes  for 
musketry  and  sometimes  with  em- 
brasures for  cannon,  and  when  of 
more  than  one  story  the  upper  ones 
are  made  to  overhang  those  below. 

Block  Island,  an  island  in  the  At- 
lantic off  the  coast  of  Rhode  Island, 
to  which  it  belongs;  named  from 
Adrian  Block,  a  Dutch  navigator  who 
discovered  it  in  1616. 

Block  Printing,  the  method  of 
printing  from  wooden  blocks  (pro- 
ducing block  books) ,  as  is  still  done  in 
calico  printing  and  making  wall  paper. 

Block  System,  in  railroad  par- 
lance, the  division  of  a  railroad  into  a 
certain  number  of  telegraphic  dis- 
tricts, the  distance  between  which  is 
determined  by  the  amount  of  traffic, 
each  block  station  having  signaling  in- 
struments by  which  the  signal  man 
can  communicate  with  the  operator 
on  each  side  of  him.  When  a  train 
enters  any  block  a  semaphore  signal  is 
lowered,  and  no  train  is  allowed  to 
follow  until  the  one  in  front  has 
reached  the  end  of  the  block. 

Blodget,  Lorin,  an  American  phy- 
sicist, born  near  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 
May  25,  1823 ;  was  educated  at  Ho- 
bart  College ;  appointed  Assistant 
Professor  at  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion, Washington,  D.  C.,  in  charge  of 
researches  on  climatology,  in  1851. 
He  is  credited  with  having  laid  the 
foundation  of  American  climatology. 
He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  March 
24,  1901. 

Blodgett,  Samuel,  an  American 
inventor ;  born  in  Woburn,  Mass., 
April  1,  1724.  He  took  part  in  the 
French  and  Indian  War ;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  expedition  against  Louis- 
burg,  in  1745 ;  and  subsequently  be- 
came a  judge  of  the  Court  of  Com- 


Bloemf  ontei« 

mon  Pleas,  in  Hillsboro  county,  N.  H. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  an  apparatus 
by  which  he  recovered  a  valuable  cargo 
from  a  sunken  ship  near  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  in  1783.  In  1793  he  began  the 
construction  of  the  canal  around 
Amoskeag  Falls  in  the  Merrimac 
which  now  bears  his  name,  but  did 
not  live  to  complete  the  work.  He 
died  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  Sept.  1,  1807. 

Blodgett,  Henry  Williams,  an 
American  jurist,  born  in  Amherst, 
Mass.,  July  21,  1821 ;  was  educated  at 
Amherst  Academy ;  studied  surveying 
and  engineering ;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1844 ;  and  settled  in  Wauke- 
gan,  111.,  to  practice,  in  the  following 
year.  He  served  in  the  Lower  House 
of  the  Legislature  in  1852-1854,  and 
in  the  State  Senate  in  1859-1865 ;  and 
was  United  States  District  Judge  for 
the  Northern  District  of  Illinois  from 
1869  till  1893,  when  he  retired.  He 
was  appointed  one  of  the  counsel  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States  before 
the  Arbitration  Tribunal  on  the  Ber- 
ing Sea  fur  seal  controversy  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
in  1892.  Died,  Feb.  9,  1905. 

Bloemf  ontein,  city  and  capital  of 
the  former  Orange  Free  State  (name 
changed  by  the  British,  May  29,  1900, 
to  Orange  River  Colony),  South  Af- 
rica ;  on  the  Modder  river,  200  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Durban,  the  base  of  Brit- 
ish operations  in  the  war  against  the 
Boers.  It  occupies  an  elevated  site ; 
is  connected  with  Natal  and  Cape 
Colony  by  telegraph;  and  is  the  seat 
of  an  Anglican  bishopric,  and  a  col- 
lege. In  the  war  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  South  African  and  Orange 
Free  State  Republics  in  189^1900  it 
was  the  seat  of  important  military  op- 
erations. In  June,  1899,  a  confer- 
ence was  held  here  between  President 
Kruger  of  the  South  African  Repub- 
lic and  Sir  Alfred  Milner,  the  British 
Commissioner  of  Cape  Colony,  with  a 
view  of  averting  war.  After  the  ap- 
pointment of  Lord  Roberts  to  the  su- 
preme command  of  the  British  forces 
operating  against  the  Boers,  he  led  an 
expedition  against  the  city  and  forced 
its  surrender  on  March  13,  1900, 
President  Steyn  escaping  capture. 
Soon  afterward  the  part  of  the  repub- 
lic occupied  by  the  British  was  for- 
mally placed  under  British  adminis- 
tration. 


Blois 


Bloody  Falls 


Blois,  the  capital  of  the  French 
Department  of  Loir-et-Cher,  99  miles 
S.  S.  W.  of  Paris,  on  the  Loire. 

Blondel,  a  French  minstrel  and 
poet  of  the  12th  century,  a  confidential 
servant  and  instructor  in  music  of 
Richard  Co?ur  de  Lion.  While  his 
master  was  the  prisoner  of  the  Duke 
of  Austria,  Blondel,  according  to  the 
story,  went  through  Palestine  and  all 
parts  of  Germany  in  search  of  him. 
He  sang  the  king's  own  favorite  lays 
before  each  keep  and  fortress  till  the 
song  was  at  length  taken  up  and  an- 
swered from  the  windows  of  the  cas- 
tle of  Loewenstein,  where  Richard 
was  imprisoned. 

Blondiu,  Charles,  a  French  rope 
dancer,  born  at  St.  Omer,  Pas-de- 
Calais,  in  1824,  was  trained  at  Lyons, 
where  he  made  such  rapid  progress 
that  he  was  designated  "  The  Little 
Wonder."  After  making  a  several 
years'  tour  of  the  United  States,  on 
June  30,  1859,  before  a  crowd  of  25,- 
000  persons,  he  crossed  the  Falls  of 
Niagara  on  a  tight-rope  in  five  min- 
utes ;  on  July  4,  he  crossed  blindfold, 
trundling  a  wheelbarrow;  on  Aug.  19, 
he  carried  a  man  on  his  back ;  on 
Sept  14,  1860,  he  crossed  on  stilts  in 
the  presence  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
His  last  appearance  was  in  1888.  He 
died  Feb.  22.  1897. 

Blood,  the  fluid  which  circulates 
through  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the 
human  body  and  that  of  other  animals, 
which  is  essential  to  the  preservation 
of  life  and  nutrition  of  the  tissues. 
In  insects  and  in  others  of  the  lower 
animals  there  is  an  analogous  fluid 
which  may  be  colorless,  red,  bluish, 
greenish,  or  milky.  The  venous  blood 
of  mammals  is  a  dark  red,  but  in  pass- 
ing through  the  lungs  it  becomes  oxi- 
dized and  acquires  a  bright  scarlet 
color,  so  that  the  blood  in  the  arteries 
is  of  a  brighter  hue  than  that  in  the 
veins.  The  central  organ  of  the  blood 
circulation  is  the  heart.  The  specific 
gravity  of  blood  varies  from  1.045  to 
1.075.  and  its  normal  temperature  is 
99°  Fahr.  1000  parts  contain  783.37 
of  water,  2.83  fibrin,  67.25  albumen, 
126.31  blood  corpuscles,  5.16  fatty  mat- 
ters and  salts.  The  blood  corpuscles 
or  globules  are  characteristic.  These 
are  minute,  red  and  white  bodies  float- 
ing in  the  fluid  of  the  blood.  The  red 


ones  give  color,  and  are  flattish  discs, 
oval  in  birds  and  reptiles,  and  round 
in  man  and  most  mammals.  In  man 
they  average  l-3300th  inch  in  diame- 
ter, and  in  the  Proteus,  which  has 
them  larger  than  any  other  vertebrate, 
l-400th  inch  in  length  and  l-727th  in 
breadth.  The  white  or  colorless  cor- 
puscles are  the  same  as  the  lymph  or 
chyle  corpuscles,  and  are  spherical  or 
lenticular,  nucleated,  and  granulated, 
and  rather  larger  than  the  red  globules. 

Blood,  Council  of,  the  name  pop- 
ularly applied  to  the  Council  of  Trou- 
bles, established  by  the  Duke  of  Alva, 
in  the  Netherlands,  in  1567.  Although 
it  had  no  charter  or  authority  from 
any  source,  it  was  omnipotent  and 
superseded  all  other  authorities.  In 
the  first  three  months  alone  its  vic- 
tims numbered  1,800,  and  soon  there 
was  hardly  a  Protestant  house  in  the 
Netherlands  that  had  not  furnished  a 
victim. 

Blood-hound,  a  variety  of  hound 
or  dog,  so  called  from  the  ability  which 
it  possesses  to  trace  a  wounded  animal 
by  the  smell  of  any  drops  of  blood 
which  may  have  fallen  from  it. 

Blood  Indians,  a  tribe  of  North 
American  Indians  of  the  Siksika  Con- 
federacy, dwelling  in  the  Northwest 
Territories  of  Canada ;  known  also  as 
Kino  Indians. 

Blood  Poisoning,  a  name  loosely 
used  of  pya?mia  and  allied  diseases. 

Blood-vessels,  the  tubes  or  ves- 
sels in  which  the  blood  circulates. 
They  are  divided  into  two  classes- 
arteries  and  veins — which  have  two 
points  of  union  or  connection — the 
first  in  the  heart,  from  which  they 
both  originate,  and  the  other  in  the 
minute  vessels  or  network  in  which 
they  terminate. 

Bloody  Assizes,  the  name  given 
by  the  people  to  those  courts  which 
were  held  in  England  by  the  infamous 
Judge  Jeffreys,  in  1685,  after  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth's 
rebellion.  Upward  of  300  persons  were 
executed  after  short  trials ;  very  many 
were  whipped,  imprisoned  and  fined; 
and  nearly  1,000  were  sent  as  slaves 
to  the  American  plantations,  some  of 
whom  established  families. 

Bloody  Falls,  the  lowest  cataract 
of  the  Copper  Mine  river  in  the  North* 


FIG  4 

SECTION  OF  THF  HEAR 


KEY  TO  FIG.  I 

A    THE  GSEAT  ARTERIAL  TRUNK 
B    THE  GREAT  BRANCH 

C.  THE  LEFT  CAROTID  ARTERY 

D.  THE  LEFT  SUBCLAVIAN  ARTERY 

E.  THE  TWO  ILIAC  ARTERIES 

F.  THE  GREAT  VEIN 

(ASCENDING  VtNA  CWA) 
G   THE   GREAT  VEIN 

'DESCENDING  VENACAVA) 


KEY  TO  FIG.  4 

1  THE  GREAT  VEIN  (DUCINDINGVCHAWI 

2  THE  GREAT  VFIN  (*SCENOING  VDIACWA) 

3  UPPER  PART  OF  THE  CAVITY  OF  THE  RIGHT  AURICLE 

4  UPPER  PART  OF  THE  RIGHT  VENTRICLE 

5  THE  THREE  POINTED  VALVE 

6  VALVES  AT  THE  ORIFICE  OF  THE  PULMONARY  ARTERY 


FIG.  5 
SECTION  OF  AIR  TUBE 


FIG.I       PLAN  OF  THE  ARTERIES 


FIG.  3 

THREE  VALVES 
AT  THE  COMMENCEMENT 
OF  THE  PULMONARY 
ARTERY 


FIG.  2 

SECTION  OF  VEIN 

(SHOWING  VALVES) 


COPYRIGHT,    1913,   BY   F.   E.   WRIGHT 

CIRCULATION      OF     THE      BLOOD 


'Bloody  Mary 

west  Territories  of  Canada ;  so  named 
because  of  a  massacre  here  of  Eski- 
mos by  Chippewa  Indians,  in  1770. 

Bloody  Mary,  an  epithet  popular- 
ly applied  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, on  account  of  the  persecutions 
of  the  Protestants  during  her  reign. 

Bloomer,  Amelia  Jenks,  au 
American  reformer,  born  in  Homer, 
N.  Y.,  May  27,  1818;  died  in  1894. 
She  will  be  remembered  because  of 
her  adoption  of  a  costume  of  a  short 
skirt  and  Turkish  trousers. 

Bloomfield,  a  town  in  Essex 
county,  N.  J.;  on  the  Morris  canal, 
several  railroads,  and  a  trolley  line 
connecting  it  with  all  nearby  cities; 
10  miles  N.  W.  of  New  York  city; 
founded  in  1685;  is  the  seat  of  a 
German  theological  seminary  and  of 
a  noted  mountainside  hospital;  manu- 
factures organs,  hats,  shoes,  rubber 
goods,  electric  elevators,  and  paper; 
and  is  theresidenceof  many  New  York 
business  men.  Pop.  (1910)  15,070. 

Bloomfield,  Maurice,  an  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  in  Bielitz,  Aus- 
tria, Feb.  23,  1855;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1857;  became  an 
Associate  in  Johns  Hopkins  Univer- 
sity in  1881;  and  subsequently  Pro- 
fessor of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative 
Philology  there. 

Bloomington,  city  and  capital  of 
McLean  county,  111.;  on  several  rail- 
roads; 60  miles  N.  E.  of  Springfield; 
is  the  seat  of  the  Illinois  Wesleyan 
University,  of  a  Roman  Catholic 
college,  and  of  the  general  offices  of 
the  Chicago  &  Alton  railroad;  and 
nearby  are  the  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity and  the  State  Soldiers'  Or- 
phans' Home.  The  city  has  important 
manufactures,  is  in  a  rich  corn  and 
oat  section,  and  has  large  interests 
in  raising  cattle,  swine,  and  fine 
horses.  Pop.  (1910)  25,768. 

Blouet,  Paul  (MAX  O'REtr),  a 
French  lecturer  and  author,  born  in 
Brittany,  France,  March  2,  1848. 
After  the  publication  of  his  first 
book,  "  John  Bull  and  His  Island v 
(1883),  he  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture. He  made  several  lecturing 
tours  of  the  United  States.  Died  in 
Paris,  June,  1903. 

Blount,  James  H.,  an  American 
legislator,  born  in  Macon,  Ga.,  Sept. 
12,  1837.  He  made  his  first  appear- 


Blow  Fly 

ance  in  public  affairs  in  1872,  when 
he  was  elected  to  Congress  from  the 
Sixth  District  of  Georgia.  He  held 
his  seat  by  successive  re-elections  till 
1893,  when  he  declined  a  further 
term.  As  he  finished  his  last  term  the 
House  paid  him  the  unusual  honor  of 
suspending  its  proceedings  to  give 
the  members  an  opportunity  to  testify 
to  their  appreciation  of  his  worth.  In 
his  last  term  he  was  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  and  his 
familiarity  with  American  relations 
with  other  countries  led  President 
Cleveland  to  appoint  him  a  Special 
Commissioner  to  Hawaii  in  March, 
1893,  for  the  purpose  of  investigating 
the  deposition  of  the  royal  government 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Ameri- 
can protectorate  over  the  kingdom.  On 
his  arrival  in  Honolulu  he  at  once 
caused  the  American  flag  to  be  hauled 
down  from  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment House,  and  the  United  States 
marines  to  be  withdrawn  from  the 
locality.  This  proceeding  led  to  con- 
siderable excitement  in  the  United 
States;  the  withdrawal  of  United 
States  Minister  Stevens  from  Hono- 
lulu ;  the  appointment  of  Commission- 
er Blount  as  his  successor ;  and  a 
renewal  both  in  Washington  and  Hon- 
olulu of  the  agitation  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  Hawaii  to  the  United  States. 
On  the  completion  of  his  mission  Min- 
ister Blount  resumed  private  practice 
at  his  home.  Died  March  6,  1903. 


BLOW-FLY. 

Blow  Fly,  the  name  popularly 
given  to  such  two  winged  flies  as  de- 
posit eggs  in  the  flesh  of  animals, 
thus  making  tumors  arise.  Several 
species  of  musca  do  this,  so  do  breeze 
flies,  etc. 


Blowing  Machine 


"BVacher 


Blowing  Machine,  an  apparatus 
for  producing  an  air  blast  for  metal- 
lurgical purposes. 

Blowitz,  Henry  Georges  Steph- 
ane  Adolphe  Opper  de,  a  French 
journalist,  born  in  Pilsen,  Austria, 
Sept  28,  1832 ;  settled  in  France ;  was 
successively  appointed  Professor  of 
German  in  the  Lycee  of  Tours  and  at 
Limoges,  Poitiers,  and  Marseilles ; 
was  naturalized  a  French  citizen  in 
1870 ;  and  became  the  Paris  corre- 
spondent of  the  London  "  Times  "  in 
1871.  He  died  January  19,  1903. 

Blowpipe,  a  small  instrument 
used  in  the  arts  for  glass  blowing  and 
soldering  metals,  and  in  analytical 
chemistry  and  mineralogy,  for  de- 
termining the  nature  of  substances  by 
the  action  of  an  intense  and  continu- 
ous heat.  Its  utility  depends  on  the 
fact,  that  when  a  jet  of  air  or  oxygen 
is  thrown  into  a  flame,  the  rapidity  of 
combustion  is  increased,  while  the  ef- 
fects are  concentrated  by  diminishing 
the  extent  or  space  originally  occu- 
pied by  the  flame. 

Blowpipe,  a  kind  of  weapon  much 
used  by  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  of 
South  America,  both  in  war  and  for 
killing  game.  It  consists  of  a  long, 
straight  tube,  in  which  a  small  poi- 
soned arrow  is  placed,  and  forcibly 
expelled  by  the  breath. 

Blubber,  the  fat  of  whales  and 
other  large  sea  animals,  from  which 
train  oil  is  obtained.  The  blubber 
lies  under  the  skin  and  over  the  mus- 
cular flesh.  It  is  eaten  by  the  Eski- 
mos and  the  seacoast  races  of  the 
Japanese  Islands,  the  Kuriles,  etc. 
The  whole  quantity  yielded  by  one 
whale  ordinarily  amounts  to  40  or  50, 
but  sometimes  to  80  or  more  hundred 
weights. 

Blncher,  Gebhard  Leberecht 
Ton,  a  distinguished  Prussian  Gen- 
eral, born  at  Rostock,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  Dec.  16,  1742.  He  entered 
the  Swedish  service  when  14  years  of 
age  and  fought  against  the  Prussians, 
but  was  taken  prisoner,  in  his  first 
campaign,  and  was  induced  to  enter 
the  Prussian  service.  Discontented  at 
the  promotion  of  another  officer  over 
his  head,  he  left  the  army,  devoted 
himself  to  agriculture,  and  by  indus- 
try and  prudence  acquired  an  estate. 
After  the  death  of  Frederick  II.  he 


became  a  Major  in  his  former  regi- 
ment, which  he  commanded  with  dis- 
tinction on  the  Rhine  in  1793  and 
1794.  After  the  battle  of  Kirrweiler 
in  1794  he  was  appointed  Major-Gen- 
eral of  the  Army  of  Observation  sta- 
tioned on  the  Lower  Rhine.  In  1802, 
in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Prussia, 
he  took  possession  of  Erfurt  and 
Muhlhausen.  Oct.  14,  1806,  he  fought 
at  the  battle  of  Auerstadt.  After  the 
Peace  of  Tilsit  he  served  in  the  De- 
partment of  War  at  Konigsberg  and 
Berlin.  He  then  received  the  chief 
military  command  in  Pomerania,  but 
at  the  instigation  of  Napoleon  was 
afterward,  with  several  other  distin- 
guished men,  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. In  the  campaign  of  1812,  when 
the  Prussians  assisted  the  French,  he 
took  no  part ;  but  no  sooner  did  Prus- 
sia rise  against  her  oppressors  than 
Blucher,  then  70  years  old,  engaged 
in  the  cause  with  all  his  former  activ- 
ity, and  was  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Prussians  and  the  Rus- 
sian corps  under  General  Winzinger- 
ode.  His  heroism  in  the  battle  of 
Lutzen  (May  2,  1813),  was  rewarded 
by  the  Emperor  Alexander  with  the 
Order  of  St.  George.  The  battles  of 
Bautzen  and  Hanau,  those  on  the 
Kat/bach  and  Leipsic,  added  to  his 
glory.  He  was  now  raised  to  the  rank 
of  Field-Marshal,  and  led  the  Prus- 
sian army  which  invaded  France  early 
in  1814.  After  a  period  of  obstinate 
conflict  the  day  of  Montmartre 
crowned  this  campaign,  and,  March 
31,  Blucher  entered  the  capital  of 
France.  His  King,  in  remembrance 
of  the  victory  which  he  had  grained  at 
the  Katzbach,  created  him  Prince  of 
Wahlstadt,  and  gave  him  an  estate 
in  Silesia.  On  the  renewal  of  the 
war  in  1815  the  chief  command  was 
again  committed  to  him,  and  he  led 
his  army  into  the  Netherlands.  June 
15  Napoleon  threw  himself  upon  him, 
and  Blucher,  on  the  16th,  was  de- 
feated at  Ligny.  In  this  engagement 
his  horse  was  killed,  and  he  was 
thrown  under  his  body.  In  the  battle 
of  the  18th  Blucher  arrived  at  the 
most  decisive  moment  upon  the 
ground,  and  taking  Napoleon  in  the 
rear  and  flank  assisted  materially  in 
completing  the  great  victory  of  Belle 
Alliance  or  Waterloo.  He  was  a 
rough  and  fearless  soldier,  noted  for 


Bine  Law* 


his  energy  and  rapid  movements, 
which  had  procured  him  the  name  of 
Marshal  Vorwarts  (Forward).  He 
died  at  Krieblowitz,  Silesia,  Sept.  12, 
1819. 

Blue,  one  of  the  seven  colors  into 
which  the  rays  of  light  divide  them- 
selves when  refracted  through  a  glass 
prism,  seen  in  nature  in  the  clear  ex- 
panse of  the  heavens;  also  a  dye  or 
pigment  of  this  hue. 

Blue,  Victor,  an  American  naval 
officer,  born  in  Marion,  S.  C.,  Dec.  6, 
1865 ;  entered  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1883 ;  was  commissioned 
a  passed  naval  cadet  in  1887 ;  trans- 
ferred to  the  Engineer  Corps  in  1889, 
and  promoted  to  Ensign,  Dec.  12, 
1892.  After  serving  on  the  "Alli- 
ance "  and  "  Thetis  "  he  was  assigned 
to  duty  at  the  Naval  Academy  in 
1896,  and  early  in  1898  was  promoted 
to  Lieutenant,  junior  grade.  In  the 
war  against  Spain  he  traversed  the 
enemy's  lines  during  the  bombardment 
of  Santiago,  and  reported  the  location 
of  Cervera's  vessels.  Chief  of  Staff, 
Pacific  fleet,  1910-11 ;  and  became 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
with  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  1913. 

Blue  Beard,  the  name  of  the 
blood  thirsty  husband  in  the  familiar 
tale  of  "  Blue  Beard,"  best  described 
in  Perrault's  "Tales"  (1697).  The 
original  of  this  monstrous  personage 
was  a  character  celebrated  in  Breton 
legend,  Gilles  de  Laval,  Baron  de  Retz 
(1396-1440),  famous  in  the  wars  of 
Charles  VII.  According  to  tradition 
he  used  to  entice  the  children  of  peas- 
ants into  his  castle,  and  there  sacri- 
fice them  to  the  Devil  and  practice 
sorcery  with  their  remains.  After  14 
years  of  such  a  course  he  grew  so  bold 
that  his  crimes  were  discovered,  and 
a  heap  of  children's  bones  found  in 
his  castle.  He  was  condemned  to 
death,  strangled,  and  his  corpse 
burned  at  the  stake  at  Nantes  in 
1440.  Another  Breton  legend  repre- 
sents de  Retz  with  a  red  beard  about 
to  marry  a  beautiful  girl  after  haying 
already  made  away  with  seven  wives. 
The  bride  expostulates  at  the  altar. 
De  Retz  offers  her  fine  clothes,  cas- 
tles, all  his  possessions,  finally  his 
body  and  soul.  "  I  accept !  "  shrieks 
the  bride,  turning  into  a  blue  devil 
and  making  a  sign  which  transforms 
de  Retz's  beard  from  red  to  blue. 

£.20 


Henceforth  he  belonged  to  Hell,  and 
became  the  dread  of  the  country 
round,  under  the  name  of  Blue  Beard. 

Bine  Berry,  a  name  given  in  the 
United  States  to  the  genus  vaccinium, 
that  which  contains  the  bilberry, 
called  in  Scotland  the  blae  berry. 

Bine  Bird,  a  beautiful  bird.  Its 
whole  upper  parts  are  sky  blue,  shot 
with  purple,  with  its  throat,  neck, 
breast,  and  sides  reddish  chestnut,  and 
part  of  its  wings  and  its  tail  feathers 
black. 

Bine  Book,  a  printed  volume,  is- 
sued by  authority  of  the  British  Par- 
liament containing  a  report. 

Bine  Bottle,  a  two-winged  fly,  the 
body  of  which  has  some  faint  resem- 
blance to  a  bottle  of  blue  glass. 

Blnefields,  town,  seaport,  and  cap- 
ital of  the  former  Mosquito  Indian 
Reservation ;  now  the  Department  of 
Zelaya,  Nicaragua,  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bluefielda 
river,  and  165  miles  E.  of  Managua. 
The  reservation  lies  along  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  extending  S.  almost  to  Gray- 
town,  one  of  the  termini  of  the  pro- 
jected Nicaragua  canal. 

Bine  Fish,  a  species  of  coryphsena 
found  in  the  Atlantic ;  also,  a  fish  like 
a  mackerel  but  larger,  found  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  sometimes  called 
horse  mackerel  and  salt  water  tailor. 

Bine  Grass,  a  grass  cultivated  for 
pasturage  in  Northern  and  Central 
Kentucky,  deriving  its  name  from  the 
underlying  strata  of  blue  limestone 
which  gives  it  a  luxuriant  growth. 

Bine  Hen  State,  a  sobriquet  for 
the  State  of  Delaware.  During  the 
War  for  Independence,  a  certain  pop- 
ular officer  of  Delaware,  named  Cap- 
tain Caldwell,  asserted  that  a  game 
cock  to  be  unconquerable  must  be 
"  a  blue  hen's  chicken."  This  name 
was  at  once  applied  to  his  regiment 
and  later  to  the  State  and  its  people. 

Bine  Jay,  a  common  North  Amer- 
ican bird  of  the  crow  family,  and  oc- 
cupying in  the  New  World  the  place 
held  by  the  jays  of  the  Old. 

Bine  Laws,  a  name  given  to  cer- 
tain rulings  or  decisions  of  colonial 
magistrates  reported  by  Rev.  Samuel 
A.  Peters,  a  Church  of  England  cler- 
gyman, of  Connecticut,  as  the  actual 
laws  of  the  New  Haven  _  colony.. 


Blue  Monday 

Though  one  of  them  forbade  a  woman 
to  kiss  her  child  on  the  Sabbath  or  a 
fast  day,  and  another  provided  in  what 
fashion  men  should  cut  their  hair, 
they  have  been  soberly  accepted  by 
great  numbers  of  people  as  actually 
enacted  laws,  illustrative  of  Puritan 
illiberality.  They  appear  in  Peters' 
44  General  History  of  Connecticut," 
and  were  evidently  a  somewhat  spite- 
ful satire  upon  the  Puritan  legislation, 
which  contained  many  statutes  con- 
cerning Sabbath  observances  and  the 
vices  of  drinking  and  gambling  that 
would  now  be  deemed  inquisitorial. 
The  term  is  generally  applied  to  any 
law  one  does  not  like  that  affects  per- 
sonal habits. 

Blue  Monday,  in  Bavaria  and 
some  other  parts  of  Europe,  a  name 
formerly  given  to  the  Monday  before 
Lent,  when  the  churches  were  deco- 
rated with  blue.  It  was  kept  as  a 
holiday  by  classes  whose  ordinary  avo- 
cation required  them  to  labor  on  Sun- 
days. As  this  led  to  violent  disturb- 
ances the  custom  was  legally  abol- 
ished. 

Blue  Mountains,  a  beautiful 
wooded  range  of  mountains  in  Oregon, 
from  8,000  to  9,000  feet  high,  which, 
with  the  Powder  River  Mountains, 
separate  the  Columbia  valley  from  the 
Great  Basin. 

Blue  Mountains,  the  central 
mountain  range  of  Jamaica,  the  main 
ridges  of  which  are  from  6,000  to 
8,000  feet  high. 

Bine  Point,  the  S.  extremity  of 
Patchogue  Bay,  Long  Island,  N.  Y., 
which  lends  its  name  to  the  well 
known  oysters  —  blue  points. 

Bine  Print  Paper,  paper  sensi- 
tized by  potassium  ferricyanide  and 
citric  acid ;  used  for  making  blue 
print  photographs  and  print  plans, 
mechanical  drawings,  etc.,  giving 
white  lines  on  blue  ground. 

Blue  Ridge,  the  most  easterly 
range  of  .the  Alleghany  Mountains.  It 
forms  the  continuation  of  the  chain 
called  South  Mountain  in  Pennsylva- 
nia and  Maryland.  It  is  known  as  the 
Blue  Ridge  till  it  crosses  the  James 
river;  thence  to  North  Carolina  as  Al- 
leghany Mountains ;  and  in  North  Car- 
olina again  as  Blue  Ridge. 

Bine  Stockings,  a  literary  wom- 
an, generally  with  the  imputation  that 


Blunt 

she  is  more  or  less  pedantic.  Boswell, 
in  his  "  Life  of  Johnson,"  states  that 
in  his  day  there  were  certain  meet- 
ings held  by  ladies  to  afford  them  op- 
portunity of  holding  converse  with 
eminent  literary  men.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished talker  at  these  gatherings 
was  a  Mr.  Stillingfleet,  who  always 
wore  blue  stockings.  His  absence  was 
so  felt  that  the  remark  became  com- 
mon, "  We  can  do  nothing  without 
the  blue  stockings."  Hence  the  meet- 
ings at  which  he  figured  began  to  be 
called  sportively  Blue  Stocking  Clubs, 
and  those  who  frequented  them  blue 
stockings. 

Blum,  Robert,  a  German  Liberal 
leader,  born  in  very  humble  circum- 
stances at  Cologne,  Nov.  10,  1807; 
was  secretary  and  treasurer  of  a  thea- 
ter at  Cologne,  and  subsequently  at 
Leipsic,  until  1847,  when  he  estab- 
lished himself  as  bookseller  and  pub- 
lisher. His  leisure  was  devoted  to 
literature  and  politics,  and  in  1840  he 
founded  at  Leipsic  the  Schiller  So- 
ciety, which  celebrated  the  poet's  an- 
niversary, as  a  festival  in  honor  of 
political  liberty.  When  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  broke  out  in  1848, 
he  was  one  of  its  foremost  leaders. 
At  Vienna  he  joined  the  insurgents, 
was  arrested,  and  was  shot  on  Nov.  9. 

Blumenbach,  Johann  Fried- 
Rich,  a  German  naturalist,  born  in 
Gotha,  May  11,  1752.  He  advocated 
the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  human 
species,  which  he  divided  into  five  va- 
rieties, Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Negro, 
American,  and  Malay.  His  anthrop- 
ological treatises,  and  memoirs  of  his 
life  by  Marx  and  Flourens,  were 
translated  into  English.  He  died  in 
Gottingen,  Jan.  22,  1840. 

Blunderbuss,  a  short  gun,  unri- 
fled  and  of  large  bore,  widening 
toward  the  muzzle.  It  is  by  no  means 
to  be  ranked  with  arms  of  precision, 
but  is  loaded  with  many  balls  or  slugs, 
which  scatter  when  fired,  so  that  there 
is  a  certainty  of  some  one  of  them  hit- 
ting the  mark. 

Blunt,  Edmund  March,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  June  20,  1770;  was 
noted  for  his  publication  of  the 
"American  Coast  Pilot"  (1796),  de- 
scribing all  the  coasts  of  the  United 
States,  and  containing  a  vast  amount 


Blunt 

of  invaluable  information  for  seamen. 
.  More  than  30  editions  of  this  work 
have  been  published,  and  it  is  still  in 
use  in  the  United  States  and  the  prin- 
cipal European  countries,  having  been 
translated  into  nearly  every  foreign 
language.  He  also  compiled  a  num- 
ber of  nautical  books  and  charts.  He 
died  in  Sing  Sing,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  2,  1862. 

Blunt,  George  William,  an 
lAmerican  hydrographer,  born  in  New- 
buryport,  Mass.,  March  11,  1802;  a 
eon  of  Edmund  March  Blunt.  He 
went  to  sea  when  14  years  old  and 
served  as  a  sailor  till  nearly  21 ;  and 
in  1822-1866  was  a  publisher  of 
charts  and  nautical  books  in  New 
York.  He  made  original  surveys  of 
many  American  harbors ;  was  one  of 
the  committee  that  organized  the  pres- 
ent system  of  pilotage  for  New  York 
city ;  made  several  revisions  of  the 
"  American  Coast  Pilot ;"  and  was  in- 
fluential in  causing  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment to  adopt  the  French  system 
of  lighthouses  and  to  organize  the 
Lighthouse  Board.  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  April  19,  1878. 

Blunt,  Stanhope  English,  an 
American  military  officer ;  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  29,  1850;  was 
graduated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy  and  commissioned  2d 
lieutenant  in  1872.  He  rose  through 
the  ranks  to  colonel  in  the  ordnance 
department;  retired  in  1912. 

Blushing,  a  sudden  reddening  of 
the  skin,  induced  by  various  mental 
states,  particularly  those  involving 
shame  or  humiliation,  shyness  or  mod- 
esty. 

Blyden,  Edward  Wilmot,  a  ne- 

fro  author,  born  at  St.  Thomas,  W. 
.,  Aug.  3,  1832.  After  vainly  seek- 
ing, in  1845,  admission  to  some  col- 
lege in  the  United  States,  he  went  to 
Liberia,  and  graduated  at  the  Alex- 
ander High  School,  of  which  he  after- 
ward became  principal.  In  1880  he 
became  President  of  Liberia  College. 
He  was  commissioner  to  the  Presby- 
terian General  Assembly  of  the  United 
States  in  1861  and  1880.  He  died 
Feb.  8,  1912. 

Blythe,  Herbert  (better  known  as 
MAUBICE  BARRYMORE)  ,  an  American 
actor ;  born  in  India  in  1847 ;  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge  University, 
England ;  studied  for  the  civil  service ; 


Boardman 

was  admitted  to  the  bar  but  did  not 
practise  this  profession,  giving  it  up 
for  the  stage.  Died  March  25.  1905. 

Boa,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  rep- 
tiles belonging  to  Cuvier's  tribe  of 
serpents  proper. 

The  species  properly  belonging  to 
this  genus  are  among  the  largest  of 
the  serpent  tribe,  some  of  them,  when 
full  .grown,  being  30,  and  even  40  feet 
long.  Though  destitute  of  fangs  and 
venom,  nature  has  endowed  them 
with  a  degree  of  muscular  power 
which  renders  them  terrible.  Hap- 
pily, they  are  not  common  in  situa- 
tions much  frequented  by  mankind, 
but  are  chiefly  found  in  the  vast 
marshy  regions  of  Guiana  and  other 
hot  parts  of  the  American  continent. 

Boabd.il  (properly  Abu-Abdallah, 
and  nicknamed  Ez-Zogoiby,  "  the  un- 
lucky"), the  last  Moorish  King  of 
Granada,  dethroned  his  father,  Abu-1- 
Hasan,  in  1481,  and  two  years  later 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Casti  Hans  near  Lucena.  He  was  set 
free  on  condition  of  paying  tribute, 
and  returned  to  Granada  to  struggle 
with  his  father  and  with  his  heroic 
uncle,  Es-Zaghal,  for  the  throne. 
Going  to  Africa,  he  there  flung  away 
his  life  in  battle. 

Boadicea,  Queen  of  the  Iceni,  in 
Britain,  during  the  reign  of  Nero. 
Having  been  treated  in  the  most  igno- 
minious manner  by  the  Romans,  she 
headed  a  general  insurrection  of  the 
Britons,  attacked  the  Roman  settle- 
ments, reduced  London  to  ashes,  and 
put  to  the  sword  all  strangers  to  the 
number  of  70,000.  Suetonius,  the 
Roman  general,  defeated  her  in  a  de- 
cisive battle  (A.  D.  62),  and  Boadicea, 
rather  than  fall  into  the  hands  of  her 
enemies,  put  an  end  to  her  own  life  by 
poison. 

Boanerges,  a  Greek  word  trans- 
lated in  Mark  iii:.17,  "sons  of  thun- 
der." It  is  of  doubtful  etymology, 
but  is  probably  the  Aramaic  pronun- 
ciation of  Hebrew  beni  regesh,  regesh 
in  Hebrew  meaning  tumult  or  uproar, 
but  in  Arabic  and  Aramaean  thunder. 
It  is  an  appellation  given  by  Christ 
to  two  of  His  disciples,  the  brothers 
James  and  John,  apparently  on  ac- 
count of  their  fiery  zeal. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  an 
American  missionary,  born  in  Liver- 


Boardman 

more,  Me.,  Feb.  8,  1801.  He  studied 
at  Andover  and  was  ordained  in  the 
Baptist  Church.  In  1825  he  went  to 
Burma,  where  he  labored  assiduously 
in  spreading  Christianity.  The  mis- 
sion planted  by  him  became  the  cen- 
tral point  of  all  Baptist  missions  in 
Burma.  He  died  In  Burma,  Feb.  11, 
1831. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  an 
American  clergyman  and  author, 
born  in  Tavoy,  British  Burma,  Aug. 
18,  1828;  son  of  the  American  Bap- 
tist missionary  of  the  same  name.  He 
was  educated  in  the  United  States, 
graduating  at  Brown  University  in 
1852,  and  at  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution in  1855.  He  became  pastor 
at  Barnwell,  S.  C. ;  afterward  at 
Rochester  and  Philadelphia.  D.  1903. 

Boardman,  Mabel  T.,  an  Amer- 
ican executive  widely  known  for  her 
activities  in  the  American  National 
Red  Cross,  of  which  she  was  a  vice- 
chairman  in  1917.  Of  her  work  Pres- 
ident Taft  wrote :  "The  moving  spirit 
of  the  American  Red  Cross  today  is 
Miss  Mabel  Boardman.  It  is  due  to 
her  indefatigable  industry,  her  wide 
acquaintance,  her  high  character  as  a 
woman,  and  the  confidence  that 
wealthy  and  benevolent  men  have  in 
her  that  the  association  has  become 
so  prosperous  and  powerful  for  good." 

Boas,  Franz,  a  German  ethnolo- 
gist, born  in  Minden,  Westphalia, 
July  9,  1858;  studied  at  Heidelberg, 
Bonn,  and  Kiel  Universities,  in  1877- 
1882;  traveled  in  the  Arctic  regions 
in  1883-1884;  was  assistant  in  the 
Royal  Ethnographical  Museum  in 
Berlin,  and  privat  decent  in  geogra- 
phy at  the  University  in  1885-1886; 
and  teacher  oi;  anthropology  in  Clark 
University,  Worcester,  Mass.,  in 
1888-1892 

Boat  Bill,  the  English  name  of 
a  genus  of  birds  belonging  to  the  true 
herons.  The  bill,  from  which  the 
English  name  comes,  is  very  broad 
from  right  to  left,  and  looks  as  if 
formed  by  two  spoons  applied  to  each 
other  on  their  concave  sides.  It  in- 
habits the  hot  and  humid  parts  of 
South  America. 

Boatswain,  an  officer  on  board 
a  ship,  whose  function  it  is  to  take 
charge  of  the  rigging,  cables,  cordage, 
anchors,  sails,  boats,  flags  and  stores. 


Bock 

He  must  inspect  the  rigging  every 
morning  and  keep  it  in  good  repair; 
and  must  either  by  himself  or  by  dep- 
uty steer  the  life  boat.  If  on  a  ship 
of  war  he  must  call  the  men  to  their 
duty  by  means  of  a  silver  whistle  given 
him  for  the  purpose ;  besides  taking 
into  custody  those  condemned  by  a 
court  martial,  and,  either  by  himself 
or  by  deputy,  inflict  on  them  the  pun- 
ishment awarded. 

Boaz,  a  Bethlehemite  of  means, 
who  took  upon  himself  the  duty  of 
providing  for  Ruth,  as  the  near  rela- 
tion of  her  dead  husband's  family. 
From  him  Jesus  Christ  was  directly 
descended. 

Bobbin,  a  reel  or  other  similar 
contrivance  for  holding  thread. 

Bobbin  Ket,  a  machine  made  cot- 
ton net,  originally  imitated  from  the 
lace  made  by  means  of  a  pillow  and 
bobbins. 

Bobolina,  a  Greek  woman,  cele- 
brated for  her  courage  in  aid  of  the 
Greek  revolt.  After  her  husband  had 
been  slain  by  the  Turks  in  1812,  she 
resolved  to  avenge  his  death.  In  1821, 
she  equipped  three  vessels  at  her  own 
expense,  fought  with  extraordinary 
courage  at  Tripolitiza  and  Naupha 
and  was  killed  in  action,  in  1825. 

Bob-o-link,  Boblink,  Reed 
Bird,  or  Rice  Bird,  a  common 
American  bird  found  from  Paraguay 
to  Canada,  the  only  one  of  its  kind, 
and  that  difficult  to  classify.  Sqms 
place  it  near  the  Baltimore  bird, 
others  near  starlings,  but  both  the 
characteristics  and  the  character  of 
the  bob-o-link  exhibit  much  that  is 
unique. 

The  name  —  originally  Bob  Lin- 
coln —  is  an  imitation  of  the  bird's 
note.  In  song,  the  full  throated  male 
bob-o-Iink  is  unique,  rivaling  the  lark, 
inimitable  by  the  mocking  bird. 

Bob  White,  popular  name  of  a 
small  game  bird  of  the  United  States, 
given  because  of  its  peculiar  call.  In 
the  Northern  States  it  is  known  as 
QUAIL,  and  in  the  Southern  as  PART- 
EIDGE. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  an  Italian 
novelist  and  poet,  son  of  a  Florentine 
merchant,  born  in  1313 ;  died  in  Cer- 
taldo,  in  1375. 

Bock,  Karl  Ernst,  a  German 
anatomist,  born  in  1809;  died  in 


COPYRIGHT,    IfciiJ,  BY   F.   E.   WRIGHT 

BOATS  OF  VARIOUS  CLIMES 


Bock  Beer 


Bog 


1847.  His  title  to  fame  rests  chiefly 
on  his  "  Handbook  of  Human  Anat- 
omy." 

Bock  Beer.  (See  BEER). 

Bode,  John  Elert,  German  astron- 
omer, born  1747,  died  1826.  His  best 
works  are  his  Astronomical  Almanac 
and  his  large  Celestial  Atlas  (Him- 
melsatlas),  giving  a  catalogue  of  17,- 
240  stars  (12,000  more  than  in  any 
former  chart). — Bode's  Law  is  the 
name  given  to  an  arithmetical  formula, 
previously  made  known  by  Kepler  and 
Titius  of  Wittenberg,  expressing  ap- 
proximately the  distances  of  the  plan- 
ets from  the  sun.  It  assumes  the  se- 
ries 0,  3,  6,  12,  24,  48,  96,  etc.,  each 
term  after  the  second  being  double  the 
preceeding  term  ;  to  each  term  4  is  add- 
ed, producing  the  series  4,  7, 10,  14,  28, 
56,  100,  etc.  These  numbers  are,  with 
the  exception  of  28,  roughly  propor- 
tional to  the  distances  between  the 
planets  and  the  sun.  The  law  has  no 
theoretical  foundation. 

Bodin,  Jean,  a  French  political 
writer;  born  in  1530,  or  1529.  His 
great  work  "  De  la  Rgpublique " 
(1576)  has  been  characterized  as  the 
ablest  and  most  remarkable  treatise 
on  the  philosophy  of  government  and 
legislation  produced  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  to  that  of  Montesquieu.  Ac- 
cording to  his  view,  the  best  form  of 
government  is  a  limited  monarchy. 
He  died  in  Laon  in  1596. 

Bodleian,  or  Bodleyan,  libra- 
ry, a  library  founded  at  Oxford,  Eng- 
land, by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  in  1597. 
All  members  of  Oxford  University  who 
have  taken  a  degree  are  allowed  to 
read  in  it,  as  are  literary  men  of  all 
countries. 

Bodmer,  Georg,  a  Swiss  inven- 
tor, born  in  Zurich,  Dec.  6,  1786.  He 
invented  the  screw  and  cross  wheels ; 
and  made  valuable  improvements  in 
fire  arms  and  in  various  kinds  of  ma- 
chinery, particularly  in  that  of  wool 
spinning.  He  died  in  Zurich,  May  26, 
1864. 

Bodmer,  Johann  Jakob,  a  Swiss 
literary  critic,  born  near  Zurich,  July 
19,  1698;  was  the  first  to  make  Eng- 
lish literature  known  in  Germany ; 
and  wrote  dramas,  and  epics.  He  was 
leader  of  the  movement  which  released 
German  literature  from  French  clas- 
sicism. He  died  Jan.  2,  1783. 


Boece,  or  Boyce,  Hector,  a  Scot* 

tish  historian,  born  in  Dundee  about 
1465 ;  died  in  1536. 

Boehm.  Sir  Joseph  Edgar,  & 
British  sculptor,  born  in  Vienna,  July 
6,  1834.  He  executed  busts  of  Glad- 
stone, John  Bright,  John  Ruskin,  etc., 
and  designed  the  effigy  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria for  the  coinage  commemorative 
of  the  50th  year  of  her  reign.  He 
died  in  London,  Dec.  12,  1890. 

Boehme,  Jacob,  a  German  mysti- 
cal writer,  born  in  1575.  A  sect,  tak- 
ing their  name  from  Boehme,  was 
formed  in  England.  He  died  in  1624. 

Bosotia,  a  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  lying  between  Africa  and 
Phocis,  and  bounded  E.  and  W.  by  the 
Euboean  Sea  and  the  Corinthian  Gulf 
respectively,  had  an  area  of  about 
1,100  square  miles.  With  Attica, 
Bceotia  now  forms  a  department  of  the 
"old  territory"  of  Greece,  with  a  pop. 
(census  of  1907)  of  407,063. 

Boerhaave,  Hermann,  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  physician,  one  of  the 
most  influential  medical  authorities 
living  in  the  18th  century ;  born  in 
Woorhout,  near  Leyden,  Dec.  12,  1668. 
He  died  Sept  23,  1738. 

Boers  (Dutch,  boer,  a  peasant  or 
husbandman),  the  name  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  South  African  colonists  of 
Dutch  descent. 

Boethus,  a  Greek  sculptor,  bom 
in  Chalcedon  in  the  2d  century  B.  c. 
He  is  celebrated  for  his  statues  of 
children. 

Boethius,  Anicius  Manlius  Se- 
verinns,  a  Roman  statesman  and 
philosopher,  called  "  the  last  of  the 
classic  writers " ;  born  in  Rome  or 
Milan,  of  an  ancient  family,  about 
A.  D.  470;  was  educated  in  Rome,  in 
a  manner  well  calculated  to  develop 
his  extraordinary  abilities.  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  then  master 
of  Italy,  loaded  him  with  marks  of 
favor  and  esteem,  and  raised  him  to 
the  first  offices  in  the  empire. 

Later,  however,  he  was  accused  of  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the 
court  of  Constantinople.  He  was  ar- 
rested, imprisoned,  and  executed  A.  D. 
524  or  526. 

Bog,  a  piece  of  wet,  soft,  and 
spongy  ground,  where  the  soil  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  decaying  and  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  Such  ground  is 


Bogardns 

valueless  for  agriculture  until  reclaim- 1 
ed,  but  often  yields  abundance  of  peat 
for  fuel. 

Bogardus,  Everardus,  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
in  New  Amsterdam,  now  New  York; 
husband  of  Anneke  Jans.  The  latter 
owned  a  farm  of  60  acres,  comprising 
now  one  of  the  most  valuable  sections 
of  New  York  city.  The  Bogardus 
heirs  have  for  many  years  endeavored 
unsuccessfully,  to  recover  this  proper- 
ty, which  is  held  by  the  corporation 
of  Trinity  Church.  He  died  Sept  27, 

-10"!  i  • 

Bogardus,  James,  an  American 
Inventor,  born  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.t 
March  14,  1800;  was  apprenticed  to  a 
watchmaker,  and  early  showed  the 
bent  of  his  mind  by  improvements  in 
the  construction  of  eight-day  clocks, 
and  by  the  invention  of  a  delicate  en- 
graving machine.  The  dry  gas  meter 
is  his  invention,  as  is  also  the  trans- 
fer machine  to  produce  bank  note 
plates  from  separate  dies ;  and  in  1839 
his  plan  for  manufacturing  postage 
stamps  was  accepted  by  the  British 
Government  Later  he  introduced 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
india  rubber  goods,  tools,  and  machin- 
ery; and  invented  a  pyrometer,  a  deep 
•ea  sounding  machine,  and  a  dynamo- 
meter. He  died  in  New  York,  April 
13,  1874. 

Boggs,  Charles  Stuart,  an  Amer- 
ican naval  officer,  born  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  1811 ;  entered  the 
navy  in  1826;  served  on  the 
"Princeton"  in  the  Mexican  War; 
was  assigned  to  the  gunboat  "  Va- 
runa"  in  Farragut's  Gulf  Squadron 
in  1861.  In  the  attack  on  Forts  St 
Philip  and  Jackson,  in  April,  1862,  he 
destroyed  six  Confederate  gunboats 
and  two  rams,  and  in  the  last  mo- 
ments of  the  fight  his  own  vessel  was 
sunk.  In  1869-1870  he  served  with 
the  Europe'an  fcquadron;  in  the  lat- 
ter year  was  promoted  to  Rear-Ad- 
miral; and  in  1873  was  retired.  He 
died  in  New  Brunswick,  April  22, 
1888. 

Bogomilian,  a  Sclavonic  Chris- 
tian sect,  founded  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury by  a  monk  called  Basil.  His 
tenets  were  akin  to  those  of  the  Mani- 
cheans  and  of  the  Gnostics.  He  be-  i 
lieved  that  the  human  body  was  ere- 1 


Bohemia 

ated  by  a  demon  cast  from  Heaven, 
and  was  burned  for  his  heresy. 

Bogoslof  Islands,  a  volcanic  trip- 
let in  the  Aleutian  chain.  The  first 
appeared  May,  1796 ;  the  second  Sept., 
1883 ;  the  third  May,  1906,  after  the 
San  Francisco  earthquake. 

Bogota,  capital  of  the  Republic  of 
Columbia,  situated  within  the  limits 
of  the  department  of  Cundinamarca, 
on  a  tableland  which,  at  an  elevation 
of  8,694  feet  above  the  sea,  separates 
the  basin  of  the  Magdalena  from  that 
of  the  Orinoco.  The  tableland  has  an 
area  of  about  400  square  miles,  and  is 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  mountains, 
which,  though  lofty  enough  to  give 
shelter,  are  yet  below  the  line  of  per- 
petual snow.  This  extensive  plain — 
a  temperate  zone  on  the  verge  of  the 
equator,  with  a  salubrious  climate  and 
an  average  temperature  of  60°  F. — is 
exceedingly  fertile,  being  as  rich  in 
pasture  as  in  grain.  The  few  manu- 
factures of  the  city  include  soap, 
leather,  cloth,  and  articles  made  from 
the  precious  metals.  In  1912  the  de- 
partment of  Cundinamarca  had  an 
area  of  8,046  square  miles  and  pop. 
of  713,968 ;  Bogota  had  a  pop.  of  121,- 
257. 

Bogne,  David,  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  London  Missionary  Society, 
was  born  in  Berwickshire,  in  1750. 
Bogue  also  took  an  active  part  in  the 
establishment  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  and  the  Religious 
Tract  Society.  He  was  on  the  point 
of  going  as  a  missionary  to  India  in 
1796,  when  the  East  India  Company 
refused  to  sanction  the  scheme.  Bogue 
died  at  Brighton,  Oct.  25,  1825. 

Bohemia,  a  former  Kingdom,  now 
a  Province  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  (Austrian  or  Cisleithan  por- 
tion) bounded  by  Bavaria,  Saxony, 
the  Prussian  Province  of  Silesia,  Mo- 
ravia, and  the  Archduchy  of  Austria ; 
area  about  20,060  square  miles,  of 
which  less  than  1  per  cent,  is  not  till- 
able. Population  (1910)  6,769.548, 
(over  2,000,000  Germans).  In  1916 
Bohemia  had  130  deputies  in  the 
Reichsrath.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  the  coun- 
try being  an  archbishopric  with 
three  bishoprics.  The  language  of  the 
country  is  the  Czech  dialect  of  the 
Slavonic  in  some  districts,  and  in  most 


BENDING  ROLLS 


COMBINED  SHEARING  AND  PUNCHING  MACHINE 


MODERN  PLATE  W 


RIVETING  MACHINE 


KING  MACHINERY 


Bohlen  Lectures 


Boise 


of  the  cities,  German  is  spoken.  Bo- 
hemia is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
mountains,  and  has  many  large  for- 
ests. Its  plains  are  remarkably  fer- 
tile. The  chief  rivers  are  the  Elbe 
and  its  tributary  the  Moldau,  which 
is  even  larger. 

Bohlen  Lectures,  a  lecture  course 
on  a  foundation  of  $10,000  furnished 
by  John  Bohlen,  a  lay  member  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  They 
are  delivered  each  year  in  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  by  eminent  representatives 
of  that  Church. 

Bohol,  one  of  the  Philippine 
Islands,  belonging  to  the  Visayas  or 
Bisayas  group.  It  has  an  area  of 
about  1,300  square  miles  and  a  popu- 
Jation  of  245,000.  Sugar  cane  is 
grown  and  the  island  is  reputed  rich 
in  gold  deposits. 

Boiardo,  Matteo  Maria,  Count 
of  Scandiano,  one  of  the  greater 
Italian  poets,  was  born  in  1434  at 
Scandiano,  a  village  situated  at  the 
foot  of  the  Lombard  Apennines.  He 
died  at  Reggio,  in  1494. 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Aurien,  a 
French  musical  composer,  born  in 
1775;  died  in  1835. 

Boies,  Horace,  an  American  law- 
yer, born  in  Aurora,  Erie  co.,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  7,  1827.  His  opposition  to  the  tar- 
iff and  prohibition  policy  of  the  Re- 
publican Party  caused  him  to  unite 
with  the  Democrats ;  and,  in  1890- 
1894,  he  served  two  terms  as  Governor 
of  Iowa,  being  defeated  for  a  third 
term  in  1893.  He  was  a  conspicuous 
candidate  for  the  presidential  nomina- 
tion in  the  National  Democratic  Con- 
ventions in  1892  and  1896 ;  and  in  the 
campaign  of  1896  he  supported  Mr. 
Bryan. 

Boii,  a  powerful  Celtic  people  who 
dwelt  originally  in  Transalpine  Gaul, 
part  of  whom  settled  in  the  modern 
Bohemia,  and  bequeathed  their  name 
to  that  country. 

Boil,  a  disease  called  by  medical 
men  furunculus.  It  is  a  phlegmonous 
tumor,  which  rises  externally,  attend- 
ed with  redness  and  pain,  and  some- 
times with  a  violent,  burning  heat. 
Ultimately  it  becomes  pointed,  breaks, 
and  emits  pus.  A  substance  called  the 
core  is  next  revealed.  It  is  purulent, 
but  so  thick  and  tenacious  that  it 
looks  solid,  and  may  be  drawn  out  in 


the  form  of  a  cylinder,  more  pus  fol- 
lowing. The  boil  then  heals.  A! 
blind  boil  is  one  which  does  not  sup- 
purate. 

Boileau,  Nicolas,  a  French  poet, 
born  at  Paris,  Nov.  1,  1636.  He  died 
March  13,  1711. 

Boiler,  the  name  applied  to  any 
vessel  or  cauldron  for  boiling  large 
quantities  of  liquor,  but  most  com- 
monly used  as  the  designation  of  a 
metallic  vessel  in  which  water  is  con- 
verted into  steam  by  the  action  of 
fire,  the  steam  being  intended  by  its 
expansive  force  to  give  motion  to  a 
steam  engine,  or  to  be  used  for  a  va- 
riety of  manufacturing  purposes. 
Boilers  may  be  subdivided  into  the  fol- 
lowing clases :  (a)  Shell  or  tank 
boilers,  (b)  Water-tube  boilers. 

Boiling,  in  general,  the  change  of 
a  substance  from  the  liquid  to  the 
paseous  state  which  takes  place 
throughout  the  liquid.  The  boiling 
point,  in  science,  is  the  point  or  de- 
gree of  the  thermometer  at  which  any 
liquid  boils. 

Boisard,  Francois  Marie,  a 
French  fabulist,  born  in  1774;  died 
in  1833. 

Bois  d'Arc  (sometimes  corrupted 
into  BODOCK),  also  bow-wood,  or  ps- 
age  orange,  a  tree  which  is  a  native 
of  the  Southern  United  States.  Its 
large,  beautiful  orange  like  fruits  are 
scarcely  eatable,  but  its  pines  make  it 
useful  as  a  hedge  plant.  Its  wood  is 
strong,  and  hard,  and  elastic,  and 
hence  was  used  by  the  Indians  in  the 
manufacture  of  their  bows. 

Bois  de  Bologna,  a  pleasant 
grove  near  the  gates  on  the  W.  of 
Paris,  so  named  after  the  suburb  Bou- 
logne-sur-Seine. 

Boise,  city,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Idaho,  and  county-seat  of  Ada  co. ;  on 
the  Boise  river  and  the  Union  Pacific 
railroad;  45  miles  S.  W.  of  Idaho 
City.  It  occupies  the  site  of  a  for- 
mer trading  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company;  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
a  rich  mining  region;  and  is  supplied 
with  pure  hot  water  from  a  flowing 
boiling  well.  The  city  is  said  to  be 
the  only  one  in  the  world  having  a 
natural  supply  of  hot  water.  Pop. 
(1910)  17,358. 

Boise,  James  Robinson,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Bland- 


Boisgobey 

ford,  Mass.,  Jan.  27,  1815;  died  in 
Chicago,  Feb.  9,  1895. 

Boisgobey,  Fortune-Abraham 
du,  a  French  novelist,  born  in  Gran- 
ville,  Sept  11,  1821;  died  February, 
1891. 

Bok,  Edward  William,  an  Amer- 
ican editor;  born  in  1863.  He  edited 
the  "  Ladies'  Home  Journal,"  and  is 
a  popular  literary  authority. 

Boker,  George  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican poet  and  dramatist ;  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1823.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  in  1842; 
studied  law ;  and  was  United  States 
minister  to  Turkey  in  1871-1875,  and 
to  Russia  in  1875-1879.  He  died 
Jan.  2,  1890. 

Bokhara,  a  Russian  vassal  State 
in  Central  Asia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  Russian  provinces  of  Syr-Daria 
and  Samarkand,  on  the  E.  by  the 
province  of  Ferghana,  on  the  S.  by 
Afghanistan,  and  on  the  S.  W.  by  the 
Russian  Trans-Caspian  province  and 
the  Khanat  of  Khiva.  Area,  83,000 
square  miles ;  pop.  about  1,250,000. 
It  formerly  occupied  considerably 
more  territory  than  it  does  now,  hav- 
ing been  reduced  by  the  conquests  and 
encroachments  of  Russia,  which  have 
been  only  partially  compensated  by 
additions. 

Bokhara,  the  capital  of  the  above 
state,  is  8  or  9  miles  in  circuit  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall.  It  is 
poorly  built,  consisting  of  extremely 
narrow  streets  and  paltry  houses.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  palace  of  the 
amir,  crowning  a  height  near  the  cen- 
cer  of  the  town  and  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall  70  feet  high ;  and  numer- 
ous mosques,  the  largest  of  which  is 
enameled  with  tiles  of  azure  blue,  and 
has  a  tower  210  feet  high.  The  trade 
was  formerly  large  with  India,  but 
has  now  been  almost  completely  ab- 
sorbed by  Russia.  The  pop.  is  esti- 
mated at  75,000. 

Boldrewood,  Rolf,  pseudonym  of 
THOMAS  ALEXANDER  BBOWNE,  an 
Australian  author,  born  in  England 
in  1827. 

Boleyn,  Anne,  second  wife  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  was  the  eld- 
est daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn, 
and  Elizabeth  Howard,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  She  was  born 
according  to  some  accounts,  in  1507, 


•,  Boliva* 

but  according  to  more  probable  ones 
about  1501.  About  1522  she  became 
lady  of  honor  to  Queen  Catharine, 
whom  she  soon  supplanted.  The  king, 
passionately  enamored  of  her,  found 
an  unexpected  opposition  to  his  wishes, 
and  Anne  firmly  declared  that  she 
could  be  had  on  no  terms  but  those  of 
marriage.  She  knew  that  the  king 
already  meditated  a  divorce  from  his 
wife,  Catharine  of  Arragon ;  but  she 
also  knew  what  difficulties  the  Catho- 
lic religion  opposed  to  the  execution 
of  this  plan.  Cramner  offered  his  ser- 
vices to  bring  about  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  king's  wishes,  and  thua 
gave  the  first  occasion  to  the  separa- 
tion of  England  from  the  Roman 
Church.  But  the  impetuous  Henry 
did  not  wait  for  the  ministers  of  this 
new  religion  to  confirm  his  divorce; 
on  the  contrary,  he  married  Anne  in 
January,  1533,  having  previously 
created  her  Marchioness  of  Pembroke. 
Cranmer  declared  the  first  marriage 
void,  and  the  second  valid,  and  Anne 
was  crowned  queen  at  Westminster 
with  unparalleled  splendor.  In  1533 
she  became  the  mother  of  the  famous 
Elizabeth.  She  could  not,  however, 
retain  the  affections  of  the  king,  as 
inconstant  as  he  was  tyrannical ;  and 
as  she  had  supplanted  her  queen  while 
lady  of  honor  to  Catharine,  she  was 
now  supplanted  herself  by  Jane  Sey- 
mour, her  own  lady  of  honor.  She 
was  tried  and  condemned  to  death  on 
false  charges  of  infidelity,  and  was 
executed  May  19,  1536. 

Bolingbroke,  Henry  St.  John, 
Viscount,  an  English  statesman  and 
political  writer;  born  in  Battersea, 
near  London,  of  an  ancient  family,  in 
1678.  He  died  in  Battersea  in  1751. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  an  American 
military  officer  and  statesman  (named 
EL  LIBERTADOR,  from  his  having  res- 
cued Central  South  America  from  the 
Spanish  yoke),  born  in  Caracas, 
July  24,  1783.  At  Venezuela  he  en- 
tered upon  his  military  career  as  a 
colonel  in  the  service  of  the  newly 
founded  republic.  At  length,  in  1821, 
the  Independent  troops  were  successful 
in  the  battle  of  Carabobo,  where  the 
Royalists  lost  upward  of  6,000  men, 
and  which  decided  the  cause  against 
Spain.  On  Aug.  20  of  the  same  year 
a  Republican  Constitution  was  adopt- 
ed, and  decreed  to  continue,  as  then 


Bolivia 

defined,  till  1834.  Bolivar  was  chosen 
President,  and  he  turned  his  attention 
to  the  internal  administration  of  the 
country.  In  1823  he  assisted  the  Pe- 
ruvians to  obtain  their  independence, 
and  was  declared  their  liberator,  and 
invested  with  supreme  authority.  On 
Feb.  10,  1825,  however,  he  convoked  a 
Congress,  and  resigned  his  dictator- 
ship. He  now  visited  the  Upper  Prov- 
inces of  Peru,  which,  calling  a  con- 
vention at  Chuquisaca,  gave  the  name 
of  Bolivia  to  their  country,  in  honor 
of  their  liberator,  and  appointed  him 
Perpetual  Protector,  and  to  draw  up 
a  constitution.  On  May  25,  1826,  he 
presented  his  Bolivian  code  to  the 
Congress  of  Bolivia,  which  was  after- 
ward adopted,  with  some  dissatisfac- 
tion, however,  although  it  was  also 
subsequently  adopted  by  the  Congress 
of  Lima,  where,  under  its  provisions, 
he  himself  was  elected  President  for 
life.  He  now  set  out  for  Colombia, 
where  disaffection  and  party  strife 
were  at  their  height.  His  conduct 
here  was  misconstrued,  and  he  was 
supposed  to  be  assuming  the  powers 
of  a  dictator.  In  1829  new  disturb- 
ances arose,  and,  in  1830,  a  conven- 
tion was  called  for  the  purpose  of 
framing  a  new  constitution  for  Colom- 
bia. The  proceedings  were  begun  by 
Bolivar,  who  once  more  tendered  his 
resignation.  This  was  his  last  act 
which  had  relation  to  public  affairs. 
He  died  at  San  Pedro,  near  Cartha- 
gena,  Dec.  17,  1830. 

Bolivia,  a  republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica ;  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Peru  and 
Brazil ;  on  the  E.  by  Brazil  and  Para- 
guay ;  on  the  S.  by  the  Argentine  Re- 
public and  Chile ;  and  on  the  W.  by 
Peru  and  Chile ;  area  514,155  square 
miles;  pop.  (est.  1915)  2,889,970; 
capital  and  largest  city  La  Paz;  pop. 
(1915)  100,097.  The  boundary  dis- 
putes of  Bolivia  with  Brazil  and  with 
Chile  were  settled  by  treaties  in  1903 
and  1904  respectively ;  that  with  Peru 
was  settled  by  direct  negotiations  in 
1911-12 ;  and  that  with  Paraguay, 
long  pending  was  still  unsettled  at  the 
end  of  1916. 

Agriculture  is  still  in  a  backward 
condition,  although  it  is  estimated 
that  fully  4,940.000  acres  are  under 
cultivation.  Wheat,  maize,  barley, 
beans,  and  potatoes  are  produced  for 
local  consumption ;  coffee  is  raised 
chiefly  for  export;  sugar  cane  is 


Bollworm 

grown  for  distillation;  and  rubber, 
cinchona,  and  cocoa  are  important 
and  increasing  products.  Rubber  is 
produced  on  40,642,000  acres,  and 
makes  Bolivia  rank  as  the  second  rub- 
ber exporting  country  of  South  Amer- 
ica, Brazil  ranking  first.  Cattle, 
sheep,  and  llamas  are  extensively  bred. 
Bolivia  has  a  very  large  mineral 
wealth  in  silver,  copper,  tin,  lead, 
zince,  antimony,  bismuth,  gold,  borax 
and  salt,  producing  one  quarter  of  the 
total  tin  output  of  the  world.  The 
metallic  exports  in  1915  had  a  value 
of  $28,535,055,  to  which  tin  contrib- 
uted $19,813,740. 

The  constitution  (Oct  28,  1880) 
vests  the  executive  power  in  a  Presi- 
dent, elected  by  direct  popular  vote, 
for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  ineligi- 
ble for  re-election  at  the  end  of  his 
term  of  office.  The  legislative  au- 
thority rests  in  a  Congress,  compris- 
ing a  Senate  of  16  members,  elected 
for  six  years,  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  70  members,  elected  for 
four  years.  There  are  also  two  Vice- 
Presidents,  and  a  Ministry  divided 
into  the  Departments  of  Foreign  Re- 
lations and  Worship,  Finance,  Justice 
and  Industry,  Government  and  Public 
Works,  War  and  Colonization,  and 
Education  and  Agriculture.  The 
suffrage  is  possessed  by  all  who  can 
read  and  write.  The  republic  is  di- 
vided into  eight  departments  and 
these  into  provinces  and  cantons.  The 
Roman  Catholic  is  the  recognized  re- 
ligion of  the  republic,  and  the  exercise 
of  other  forms  of  worship  is  permit- 
ted. Primary  instruction  is  free  and 
nominally  obligatory,  and  is  under  the 
care  of  the  several  municipalities.  In 
1913  there  were  798  miles  of  railroad 
open  and  about  2,300  miles  of  cart 
roads  connecting  important  towns, 
and  2,730  miles  of  State  and  1,080 
of  private  telegraph  lines.  Imports 
1915,  $7.893.225  ;  exports,  $33,951,355. 

In  1879  Chile  declared  war  against 
Bolivia.  Peru  came  to  the  aid  of 
the  latter  and  the  Chilians  de- 
feated their  allied  opponents.  As  a 
result  of  this  war  Bolivia  mortgaged 
to  Chile  the  Littoral  Department, 
which  has  an  area  of  29,910  square 
miles,  and  contains  the  important  port 
of  Antofagasta,  thus  losing  her  entire 
seacoast. 

Bollworm,  the  caterpillar  of  the 
nocturnal  moth,  Heliothis  Armigera. 


Bolo 

The  creature  feeds  on  almost  every  va- 
riety of  vegetable  and  cultivated  crop, 
and  is  known  in  each  locality  by  the 
name  of  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds, 
as  the  corn-worm,  tobacco-worm,  cot- 
ton-worm, etc.  Its  first  choice  is  cot- 
ton, and  then  corn,  and  in  the  South 
where  both  crops  grow  it  has  proven 
very  destructive  wherever  it  has  been 
permitted  to  make  headway.  There 
are  4  or  5  broods  each  year ;  the  July 
brood  attacks  corn,  the  August  brood 
eats  the  cotton,  and  the  last  brood  con- 
tinues the  race.  It  is  as  the  cotton- 
worm  that  it  is  called  boll-worm,  as 
the  young  grub  eats  the  unfolded  boll 
or  bud  of  the  cotton  plant.  The  gen- 
eral government  is  making  strenuous 
efforts  to  kill  the  pest. 

Bolo,  a  short,  broad,  lance-shaped 
weapon ;  used  by  the  Filipinos  in  their 


FILIPINO   BCLO. 

operations  again?,  the  American 
troops.  The  blade  is  about  18  inches 
in  length  by  nearly  3  inches  in 
breadth  at  its  broadest  dimension.  It 


Boma 

tapers  from  the  middle  toward  the 
haft  as  well  as  toward  the  point,  mak- 
ing it  strongly  resemble  the  ancient 
short  sword.  It  is  not  double  edged, 
however,  but  tapers  from  a  thick  back 
to  an  extremely  keen  edge.  In  April 
1904,  the  United  States  troops  operat- 
ing in  the  Philippines,  were  supplied 
with  bolos. 

Bologna,  one  of  the  oldest,  largest 
and  richest  cities  of  Italy,  capital  of 
the  Province  of  same  name,  in  a  fer- 
tile plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Apen- 
nines, between  the  rivers  Reno  and 
Savena,  surrounded  by  an  unfortified 
brick  wall.  In  the  12th  and  13th  cen- 
turies it  was  one  of  the  most  flourish- 
ing of  the  Italian  republics ;  but  the 
feuds  between  the  different  parties  of 
the  nobles  led  to  its  submission  to  the 
papal  see  in  1513.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  throw  off  the  papal  yoke, 
one  of  which,  in  1831,  was  for  a  time 
successful.  In  1849  the  Austrians 
obtained  possession  of  it.  In  1860  it 
was  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  King 
Victor  Emmanuel.  Population  (1915) 
189,770. 

Bolognese  School,  an  Italian 
school  of  painting,  founded  in  the  14th 
century,  probably  by  Franco.  The 
great  master  of  the  school  was  Fran- 
cesco Francia,  a  contemporary  of  Ra- 
phael, celebrated  for  the  purity  and 
serenity  of  his  Madonnas. 

Bolometer,  a  most  sensitive  elec- 
trical instrument  invented  by  Langley 
in  1883  for  the  measurement  of  ra- 
diant heat. 

Bolt  on  Abbey,  a  notable  English 
structure  in  Yorkshire  ;  in  a  highly-pic- 
turesque district  on  the  river  Wharfe, 
6  miles  E.  of  Skipton,  and  21  N.  W. 
of  Leeds.  Founded  for  Augustinian 
canons  about  1150,  it  has  been  cele- 
brated by  Wordsworth  in  "  The  White 
Doe  of  Rylstone "  and  "The  Force  of 
Prayer." 

Bolton,  Sarah  Tittle,  an  Ameri- 
can poet,  born  in  Newport,  Ky.,  Dec. 
18,  1815.  She  is  known  for  her  pa- 
triotic and  war  poems,  including  "  Pad- 
dle Your  Own  Canoe,"  "  Left  on  the 
Battlefield,"  etc.  She  died  in  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.,  Aug.  4,  1893. 

Boma,  city  and  capital  of  the 
former  Kongo  Independent  State,  an- 
nexed to  Belgium  by  treaty  of  1907, 
till  1876  was  the  extreme  inland  post 


Bomb 


Bombay 


of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese  traders. 
It  contains  the  establishment  of  the 
governor-general  and  also  the  local 
government  of  the  administrative  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name.  It  has  an  ex- 
tensive import  and  export  trade.  Area 
of  colony,  909,654  square  miles ;  pop. 
officially  estimated,  15,000,000. 

Bomb,  in  ordnance,  the  same  as 
a  bomb  shell ;  a  hollow  iron  ball, 
spheroid,  or  anything  similar,  filled 
with  gunpowder,  and  provided  with  a 
time  or  percussion  fuse.  It  is  fired 
from  a  mortar  or  howitzer. 

Modern  political  upheavals  have  in- 
duced a  traffic  in  packages  of  ex- 
plosives, which  have  been  christened 
bombs.  These  terrific  agents  of  de- 
struction have  been  used  with  murder- 
ous effect  in  the  larger  European  cit- 
ies :  St.  Petersburg,  Madrid  and 
Paris ;  also  in  Chicago.  The  anar- 
chists have  regularly  established  fac- 
tories for  the  production  of  these  mis- 
siles, in  which  the  elements  are  com- 
bined with  great  nicety  and  scientific 
precision.  The  usual  method  of  con- 
struction is  to  fill  a  hollow  sphere 
with  some  high  explosive  together 
with  pieces  of  scrap  iron,  nails,  bul- 
lets, or  anything  that  will  wound. 

Bomba,  a  title  popularly  conferred 
upon  King  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples 
and  by  which  he  will  be  recorded  in 
history.  This  appellation  he  received 
from  the  violation  of  his  solemn  oath 
to  the  citizens  of  Palermo,  which  city 
he  perfidiously  bombarded  in  1840 ; 
thus  outraging  his  own  plighted  word, 
the  laws  of  humanity,  and  the  consti- 
tutional policy  he  had  sworn  to  ob- 
serve. 

Bombardier  Beetle,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  many  coleopterous  insects. 
They  are  called  bombardier  beetles  on 
account  of  a  remarkable  property  they 
possess  of  violently  expelling  from  the 
anus  a  pungent  acrid  fluid,  which,  if 
the  species  be  large,  has  the  power  of 
producing  discoloration  of  the  skin, 
similar  to  that  produced  by  nitric  acid. 
It  also  changes  blue  vegetable  colors 
to  red,  and  then  to  yellow.  Found  in 
this  country  and  the  tropics. 

Bombardment,  an  attack  with 
bombs.  Specifically,  the  act  of  throw- 
ing shells  and  shot  into  a  town,  fort, 
or  ship. 

Bombax,  also  known  as  the  silk 
cotton  tree.  The  fruit  is  larger  than 


a  swan's  egg,  and  when  ripe  opens  in 
five  parts,  displaying  many  roundish, 
pea-lake  seeds  enveloped  in  dark  cot- 
ton. This  tree  yields  a  gum,  given  in 
conjunction  with  spices  in  certain 
stages  of  bowel  complaints.  The  five 
leaved  silk  cotton  tree  rises  to  a  great 
height.  Its  native  country  is  South 
America  and  the  adjacent  West  India 
Islands,  where  its  immense  trunk  is 
scooped  into  canoes. 

Bombay,  the  third  largest  of  the 
provinces  of  British  India.  It  stretch- 
es along  the  west  of  the  Indian  penin- 
sula, and  is  irregular  in  its  outline 
and  surface,  presenting  mountainous 
tracts,  low,  barren  hills,  valleys,  and 
high  tablelands.  It  is  divided  into  a 
Northern,  a  Central,  and  a  Southern 
Division,  the  Sind  and  Aden  Divisions 
and  the  island  of  Bombay.  Total  area, 
123,059  square  miles  ;  pop.  (1911)  19,- 
672,642,  including  the  city  and  terri- 
tory of  Aden  in  Arabia,  80  square 
miles  (pop.  46,165).  The  native  or 
feudatory  States  connected  with  the 
province  (the  chief  being  Kathiawar) 
have  an  area  of  63,864  square  miles  ; 
pop.  (1911)  7,411,675.  The  Portu- 
guese possessions,  Goa,  Daman,  and 
Diu,  geographically  belong  to  it. 
Many  parts,  the  valleys  in  particular, 
are  fertile  and  highly  cultivated ; 
other  districts  are  being  gradually  de- 
veloped by  the  construction  of  roads 
and  railroads.  The  southern  portions 
are  well  supplied  with  moisture,  but 
great  part  of  Sind  is  the  most  arid 

Eortion  of  India.  The  climate  varies, 
eing  unhealthful  in  the  capital,  Bom- 
bay, and  its  vicinity,  but  at  other 
places,  such  as  Poonah,  very  favorable 
to  Europeans.  The  chief  productions 
of  the  soil  are  cotton,  rice,  millet, 
wheat,  barley,  dates,  and  the  cocoa 
palm.  The  manufactures  are  cotton, 
silk,  leather,  etc.  The  great  export  is 
cotton.  The  administration  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  Governor  and  council. 
The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the 
land,  which  is  largely  held  on  the 
rayatwar  (small  farmer)  system.  Of 
the  entire  population  in  1911,  14,922,- 
965  were  Hindus. 

Bombay,  the  chief  seaport  on  the 
W.  coast  of  India,  and  capital  of  the 
Province  of  the  same  name;  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Bombay  is  divided  into  two  portions, 
one  known  as  the  Fort,  and  formerly 


Bombazine 


Bonaparte 


surrounded  with  fortifications,  on  a 
narrow  point  of  land  with  the  harbor 
on  the  E.  side  and  Back  Bay  on  the  I 
W. ;  the  other  known  as  the  City,  a  I 
little  to  the  N.  W.  In  the  Fort  are 
Bombay  Castle,  the  Government  offi- 
ces, and  almost  all  the  merchants' 
warehouses  and  offices ;  but  most  of 
the  European  residents  live  outside  of 
the  mercantile  and  native  quarters  of 
the  city  in  villas  or  bungalows.  Bom- 
bay has  many  handsome  buildings, 
both  public  and  private,  as  the  cathe- 
dral, the  university,  the  secretariat, 
the  high  court,  the  post  and  telegraph 
offices,  etc.  Various  industries,  such 
as  dyeing,  tanning,  and  metal  work- 
ing, are  carried  on,  and  there  are 
large  cotton  factories.  The  commerce 
is  very  extensive,  exports  and  imports 
of  merchandise  reaching  a  total  value  I 
of  over  $300,000,000  annually.  The 
harbor  is  one  of  the  largest  and  safest 
in  India,  and  there  are  commodious 
docks.  There  is  a  large  traffic  with 
steam  vessels  between  Bombay  and 
Great  Britain,  and  regular  steam  com- 
munication with  China,  Australia, 
Singapore,  Mauritius,  etc.  The  island 
of  Bombay,  which  is  about  11  miles 
long  and  3  miles  broad,  was  formerly 
liable  to  be  overflowed  by  the  sea,  to 
prevent  which  substantial  walls  and 
embankments  have  been  constructed. 
The  harbor  is  protected  by  formidable 
rock  batteries.  After  Madras,  Bom- 
bay is  the  oldest  of  the  British  pos- 
sessions in  the  East,  having  been  ceded  i 
by  the  Portuguese  in  1661.  Pop.  1 
(1911)  979,445. 

Bombazine,  a  mixed  silk  and 
woolen  twilled  stuff,  the  warp  consist- 
ing of  silk  and  the  weft  of  worsted. 
Black  bombazine  has  been  much  in 
use  for  mourning  garments. 

Bomb  Lance,  a  harpoon  used  in 
whale  fishing  which  carries  a  charge 
of  explosive  material  in  its  head. 

Bombon,  a  large,  fresh  water  lake 
in  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  about  50 
miles  S.  of  Manila.  It  is  105  square 
miles  in  area.  There  is  a  small 
island  in  the  center,  from  which  rises 
the  volcano  of  Taal,  the  lowest  in  the 
world,  its  height  being  only  850  feet. 
The  waters  of  the  lake  find  an  outlet 
to  the  sea  through  the  Pansipit  river. 

Bona  Dea,  a  mysterious  Italian 
goddess  of  fertility,  who  is  variously 


described  as  the  wife,  sister,  or  daugh- 
ter of  Faunus.  She  was  worshipped 
at  Rome  from  the  most  ancient  times, 
but  only  by  women,  even  her  name 
being  concealed  from  men.  Her  sanc- 
tuary was  a  grotto  on  Mons  Aven- 
tinus ;  but  her  festival  ( the  1st  of 
May)  was  celebrated  in  the  house  of 
the  consul.  The  solemnities  were  per- 
formed generally  by  high  bom  vestals. 
At  this  celebration,  no  males  were  al- 
lowed to  be  present ;  even  portraits  of 
men  were  veiled.  During  the  celebra- 
tion in  the  house  of  Caesar  the  in- 
famous Clodius  was  discovered  dis- 
guised as  a  female  musician.  The 
symbol  of  the  goddess  was  a  serpent. 

Bona  Fides,  literally,  good  faith ; 
honesty,  as  distinguished  from  mala 
fides  (bad  faith).  The  law  requires 
all  persons  in  their  transactions  to 
act  with  good  faith;  and  a  contract, 
when  the  parties  have  not  acted  bona 
fide,  is  void  at  the  pleasure  of  the  in- 
nocent party. 

Bonanno,  an  Italian  architect  and 
sculptor  of  the  12th  century.  In  1174 
he  commenced,  with  Wilhelm  of  Inns- 
bruck, the  famous  Leaning  Tower  of 
Pisa.  He  was  also  the  designer  of 
the  celebrated  bronze  doors  of  the 
cathedral  of  that  city,  which  were,  all 
but  one,  destroyed  by  a  conflagration 
in  1596. 

Bonaparte  (pronounced  in  Italian 
in  four  syllables ;  in  French  and  Eng- 
lish in  three),  the  name  of  a  famous 
family,  which  was  spelt  Buonaparte 
by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  and  his 
father  till  1796,  though  the  more 
usual,  modern  form  also  occurs  in  old 
Italian  documents.  In  the  13th  cen- 
tury and  afterward,  several  families 
named  Bonaparte  figure  with  distinc- 
tion in  Italian  records  —  at  Florence, 
San  Miniato,  Sarzano,  and  Genoa. 
But  as  the  name  of  Bonaparte  occurs 
in  Corsica  as  early  as  the  10th  cen- 
tury, it  is  probable  that  the  island 
may  have  been  their  original  home.  In 
the  16th  century  mention  is  again 
found  of  the  Bonapartes  in  Corsica, 
where  in  Ajaccio  they  occupied  a  re- 
spectable position  as  a  patrician  or 
leading  family.  In  the  18th  century 
this  family  was  represented  by  three 
male  descendants,  all  residing  at  Ajac- 
cio :  the  archdeacon,  LUCIEN  BONA- 
PARTE ;  his  brother,  NAPOLEON  BONA« 
PASTE;  and  his  nephew,  CHABLES. 


Bonaparte 

CHARLES  BONAPARTE,  father  of  the 
Emperor  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajac- 
cio  in  1746 ;  studied  law  at  Pisa ;  and 
married,  in  1767  —  without  the  con- 
sent of  his  uncles  —  a  beautiful  young 
patrician  lady,  named  Letizia  Ramo- 
lino.  He  died  in  1785. 

MARIA  LETIZIA  RAMOLINO,  mother 
of  Napoleon  I.,  lived  to  see  her  fam- 
ily placed  on  the  thrones  of  Europe, 
and  also  witnessed  their  downfall. 
She  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1750.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  her  husband  she  lived 
for  some  time  in  Corsica,  and  in  1793, 
when  the  island  came  under  British 
rule,  removed  with  her  family  to  Mar- 
seilles, where  she  lived  in  poverty, 
mainly  supported  by  the  pension  given 
to  Corsican  refugees.  After  her  son 
became  First  Consul  she  removed  to 
Paris,  and  when  her  son  was  crowned 
in  1804  received  the  title  Madame 
Mere,  and  was  made  patroness  of  all 
the  benevolent  institutions  of  the  em- 
pire. A  brilliant  court  household  was 
given  to  her,  which,  however,  was 
never  pleasing  to  her  modest  tastes. 
Remembering  former  adversities,  and 
foreboding  reverses  of  the  splendid 
success  of  her  sons,  she  was  prepared 
for  all  that  followed.  After  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon,  Letizia  lived  with 
her  stepbrother,  Cardinal  Fesch,  in 
winter  at  Rome,  and  in  summer  at  Al- 
bano,  and  submitted  to  her  change  of 
fortune  with  remarkable  dignity.  She 
died  in  1836,  leaving  a  considerable 
property,  the  result  of  saving  habits 
during  her  prosperity. 

JOSEPH  BONAPARTE,  eldest  brother 
of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Corte,  in 
Corsica,  in  1768.  After  the  coronation 
of  Napoleon  Joseph  Bonaparte  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
of  Naples ;  in  1805,  ruler  of  the  Two 
Sicilies;  and  in  1806,  King  of  Naples. 
In  1808  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  sum- 
marily transferred  by  his  brother  to 
the  throne  of  Spain,  and  Murat  took 
his  place  as  King  of  Naples.  For  Jo- 
seph, this  was  no  favorable  change ; 
he  found  himself  unprepared  to  cope 
with  the  Spanish  insurgents,  and  after 
the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Vittoria  in 
1813,  he  returned  to  his  estate  at  Mor- 
fontaine,  in  France.  After  Waterloo 
Joseph  sailed  to  the  United  States, 
became  an  American  citizen,  and  lived 
for  some  years  at  Bordentown,  N.  J., 
where  he  employed  himself  in  agri- 


Bonaparte 

J  culture,  and  was  highly  esteemed  by 
|  his  neighbors.     In  1832  he  returned  to 
Europe,  and  be  died   at  Florence  in 
1844. 

LUCIEN  BONAPARTE,  Prince  of  Ca- 
nino,  and  brother  of  Napoleon,  was 
born  at  Ajaccio  in  1775,  and  received 
his  education  in  the  college  of  Autun, 
the  military  school  at  Brienne,  and 
the  seminary  at  Aix.  Lucien  was  a 
Republican  in  opinion,  and,  therefore, 
opposed  to  the  absolute  rule  of  his 
brother;  and  his  second  marriage  to 
the  widow  of  a  stockbroker  did  not 
improve  their  relations.  On  condi- 
tion that  he  would  divorce  his  wife, 
the  crowns  of  Italy  and  Spain  were 
offered  him ;  but  he  refused  them,  and 
preferred  living  in  retirement  at  his 
estate  of  Canino,  in  the  Province  of 
Viterbo,  near  the  frontiers  of  Tus- 
cany, where  he  devoted  his  time  to  art 
and  science.  Here  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  the  Pope,  who  created 
him  Prince  of  Canino  and  Musignano ; 
but,  having  denounced  in  his  private 
capacity  the  arrogant  and  cruel  policy 
of  his  brother  toward  the  Court  of 
Rome,  he  was  advised  to  leave  the 
city  in  which  he  was  at  that  period 
residing.  In  1810  he  took  ship  for 
America,  but  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English.  After  the  defeat  at 
Waterloo,  Lucien  Bonaparte  alone 
seems  to  have  preserved  his  presence 
of  mind.  He  immediately  advised  his 
brother  to  dissolve  the  Chambers,  and 
assume  the  place  of  absolute  dictator. 
After  the  second  ascent  of  the  throne 
by  Louis  XVIII.,  Lucien  lived  in  and 
near  Rome,  and  died  at  Viterbo  in 
1840. 

Louis  BONAPARTE,  third  brother  of 
Napoleon,  born  in  1778,  was  educated 
in  the '  artillery  school  at  Chalons, 
where  he  imbibed  anti-Republican 
principles.  After  rising  from  one 
honor  to  another  he  was  made  King 
of  Holland  in  1806;  but,  in  fact,  was 
never  more  than  a  French  Governor 
of  Holland,  subordinate  to  the  will  of 
his  brother.  Yet  he  seems  to  have 
done  his  best  to  govern  in  the  interests 
of  his  Dutch  subjects,  and  when  he 
found  his  efforts  useless,  he  resigned 
in  favor  of  his  son  in  1810.  He  re- 
turned to  Paris  in  1814,  where  he  was 
coldly  received  by  the  Emperor.  After 
living  for  some  years  in  Rome  — 
where  he  separated  from  his  wite  — 


Bonar 

he  removed  in  1826  to  Florence,  where 
he  lived  in  retirement.  He  died  at 
Leghorn  in  1846. 

The  amiable  and  accomplished 
HORTENSE  EUGENIE  BEAUHARNAIS, 
the  adopted  daughter  of  Napoleon, 
Queen  of  Holland  and  Countess  St. 
Leu,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1783.  She 
became  the  wife  of  "Louis  Bonaparte, 
Napoleon's  third  brother,  and  their 
son,  Charles  Louis  Napoleon,  became 
Emperor  of  the  French  as  Napoleon 
the  Third.  She  died  at  Arenenberg 
in  1837,  and  was  buried  near  the  re- 
mains of  her  mother,  Josephine,  at 
Ruel,  near  Paris. 

JEROME  BONAPARTE,  youngest  broth- 
er of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajaccio 
in  1784.  After  receiving  his  education 
in  the  college  at  Juilly,  he  served  as 
naval  lieutenant  in  the  expedition  to 
Haiti.  When  war  broke  out  between 
France  and  England  in  1803,  Jerome 
was  cruising  off  the  West  Indies,  and 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the 
port  of  New  York.  While  in  the 
United  States  he  married  Elizabeth 
Patterson  (1785-1879),  daughter  of  a 
merchant  in  Baltimore.  He  fought  in 
the  war  against  Prussia,  and  in  1807 
was  made  King  of  Westphalia.  His 
administration  of  his  kingdom  was 
careless,  extravagant,  and  burdensome 
to  his  subjects.  The  battle  of  Leipsic 
brought  the  reign  of  Jerome  to  a  close. 
He  fought  by  the  side  of  the  Emperor 
at  Waterloo.  After  his  brother's  ab- 
dication he  left  Paris  and  visited 
Switzerland  and  Austria,  but  ulti- 
mately settled  in  Florence.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  February  Revolution 
(1848),  Jerome  Bonaparte  was  in 
Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  Gover- 
nor of  the  Invalides,  and  in  1850  was 
made  a  French  marshal.  He  died  in 
1860. 

His  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Patter- 
son having  been  declared  null  by  Na- 
poleon, Jerome  was  forced,  after  he 
had  gained  the  Westphalian  crown,  to 
marry  Catharine,  daughter  of  King 
Frederick  I.  of  Wurtemberg.  After 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  her  father 
wished  to  annul  the  marriage ;  but 
she  declared  her  resolution  to  share 
through  life  the  fortunes  of  her  hus- 
band. Jerome  Bonaparte  left  in  the 
United  States  one  son,  Jerome  Na- 
poleon (1805-1870),  by  his  first  mar- 
riage, who  was  a  wealthy  resident, 


Bond 

though  he  never  became  a  naturalized 
citizen.  He  left  two  sons,  (1)  JEROME 
NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE,  born  in  Balti- 
more, hi  1832.  He  served  with  credit 
in  the  United  States  and  French  ar- 
mies. (2)  CHARLES  JOSEPH  BONA- 
PARTE, b.  Baltimore,  1851 ;  graduated 
in  law  at  Harvard  ;  became  a  promi- 
nent public  man  ;  U.  S.  Sec.  of  Navy 
1905;  and  in  1906  U.  S.  Atty.  Gen. 
By  his  second  wife,  Jerome  Bonaparte 
had  three  children.  Of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  I.  and  his  brothers,  Joseph 
and  Louis,  male  issue  is  now  extinct. 
The  Emperor's  brothers,  Lucien  and 
Jerome,  are  represented  by  living  de- 
scendants. (See  NAPOLEON). 

Bonar,  Horatins,  a  celebrated 
Scotch  hymnist,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  19,  1808;  wrote  "Hymns  of 
Faith  and  Hope,"  many  of  which  have 
been  taken  into  the  hymnals  of  most 
of  the  Protestant  Churches.  He  also 
wrote  more  than  20  volumes  on  theo- 
logical and  religious  subjects.  He  died 
July  31,  1889. 

Bonaventnra,  St.,  an  Italian 
friar  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis,  born 
in  Tuscany  in  1221.  He  died  July 
15,  1274,  from  sheer  ascetic  exhaus- 
tion. 

Bona  Vista,  a  bay,  cape,  and  town 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Newfoundland.  The 
town  is  a  port  of  entry,  and  one  of 
the  oldest  settlements  in  the  island. 

Bonchamp,  Charles,  Marquis 
de,  a  Vendean  leader,  was  born  in 
Anjou,  May  10,  1760.  He  served  as 
a  volunteer  in  the  American  Revolu- 
tionary War,  and  was  a  captain  in 
the  French  army  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution.  A  strong 
Royalist,  he  naturally  disliked  the 
Revolution,  and  consequently  lived  in 
retirement  until  chosen  leader  of  the 
Anjou  insurgents.  In  the  encounter 
at  Cholet,  Oct.  17,  1793,  Bonchamp 
received  a  fatal  shot  in  the  breast, 
and  when  his  followers  vowed  to  re- 
venge his  death  on  5,000  Republican 
prisoners,  the  dying  hero  exclaimed : 
"  Spare  your  prisoners.  I  command 
it !  "  This,  his  last  command,  was 
obeyed. 

Bond,  a  written  acknowledgment 
or  binding  of  a  debt  under  seal.  The 
person  who  gives  the  bond  is  called 
the  obligor,  and  he  to  whom  it  10 
given  the  obligee. 


Bond 


Bone  Manure 


Bond,  in  masonry,  a  stone  or  brick 
which  is  laid  with  its  length  across  a 
wall,  or  extends  through  the  facing 
course  into  that  behind,  so  as  to  bind 
the  facing  to  the  backing. 

Bond,  George  Phillips,  an  Amer- 
ican astronomer,  born  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  May  20,  1825;  a  son  of  Wil- 
iian  Cranch  Bond ;  assisted  his  father 
in  the  Harvard  College  Observatory, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  la  tier's  death 
wns  appointed  director.  He  discov- 
ered independently  11  new  comets,  and 
was  the  author  of  an  elaborate  me- 
moir on  the  appearance  of  Donati's 
comet  in  1858.  Died  Feb.  17,  1865. 

Bond,  Sir  Robert,  an  English 
colonial  statesman;  born  in  Torquay, 
England,  Feb.  25,  1857;  was  edu- 
cated for  the  bar,  but  early  entered 
political  life;  became  premier  and 
colonial  secretary  of  Newfoundland 
in  1900;  was  long  conspicuous  in 
international  negotiations  concerning 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries;  and  con- 
cluded the  Bond-Blaine  convention  in 
1890  and  the  Hay-Bond  treaty,  which 
the  United  States  Senate  rejected,  in 
1902. 

Bond,  William  Cranch,  an 
American  astronomer,  born  in  Port- 
land, Me.,  Sept  9,  1789;  began  life 
as  a  watch  maker,  and  constructed  the 
first  ship's  chronometer  made  in  the 
United  States.  He  established  a  pri- 
vate observatory  at  Dorchester,  Mass., 
which  was  at  the  time  the  finest  in 
the  country.  Invited  to  move  his  ob- 
servatory to  Cambridge,  he  accepted 
the  invitation  of  the  Harvard  College 
authorities,  and  in  1840  was  appointed 
Astronomical  Observer  to  the  univer- 
sity, and  later  to  the  directorship  of 
the  observatory  erected  there  in  1843- 
1844.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
method  of  registering  the  beats  of  a 
clock  by  galvanic  circuit,  together 
with  the  observed  transits  of  stars 
over  the  wires  of  a  transit  instrument, 
upon  a  chronograph,  and  he  invented 
the  spring  governor,  which  bears  his 
name,  for  controlling  the  motion  of 
the  chronograph  barrel.  His  most  im- 
portant work  was  in  connection  with 
the  determination  of  longitudes,  both 
of  points  in  the  United  States  from 
the  Harvard  College  Observatory,  and 
that  of  the  observatory  itself  from 
Greenwich  by  the  observation  of  a 
vast  number  of  ocultations  of  stars  by 


the  moon,  both  at  Dorchester  and 
Cambridge.  He  died  Jan.  29,  1859. 

Bonded  Warehouses,  places 
where  taxable  imports  or  manufac- 
tures may  be  left  in  government  cus- 
tody, under  bond  for  payment  of  the 
duty,  till  the  importer  or  manufac- 
turer is  prepared  to  make  full  pay- 
ment of  duty. 

Bondi,  Clemente,  one  of  the  most 
popular  poets  of  modern  Italy ;  born 
in  Mizzano,  in,  the  duehy  of  Parma, 
June  27,  1742;  died  in  Vienna,  June 
20,  182L 

Bone.  The  bones  are  the  hardest 
and  most  solid  parts  of  animals;  they 
constitute  the  frame,  serve  as  points 
of  attachment  to  the  muscles,  and  af- 
ford support  to  the  softer  solids.  They 
are  the  instruments,  as  muscles  are 
the  organs,  of  motion.  In  the  mam- 
malia, birds,  fish,  and  reptiles,  the 
whole  system  of  bones  united  by  the 
vertebral  column  is  called  the  skele- 
ton. 

Bone,  or  Bona,  a  town  and  sea' 
port  of  Algiers,  85  miles  N.  E.  of  Con- 
stantine,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sey- 
bouse  river.  It  is  built  on  the  site  of 
Aphrodisium,  the  port  of  ancient  Hip- 
po. The  Vandals  having  destroyed 
Aphrodisium,  an  Arab  town  arose  on 
its  ruins.  The  city  having  outgrown 
its  former  limits,  the  present  ramparts 
are  beyond  the  old  walls.  Bone  has 
been  modernized  to  some  extent,  many 
old  buildings  being  removed  to  make 
room  for  new  ones.  The  surface  is 
irregular  and  some  of  the  streets  steep. 
There  are  mosques,  a  cathedral  and 
other  churches  and  a  synagogue. 

Bone  Ash,  ash  made  of  calcined 
bones. 

Bone  Bed,  in  geology,  a  bed  con- 
taining numerous  fragments  of  fossil 
bones,  teeth,  etc. 

Bone  Back,  animal  charcoal.  It 
is  obtained  by  charring  bones.  It  has 
the  power  of  absorbing  gases,  remov- 
ing the  coloring  matter  and  alkaloids, 
etc.,  from  their  solutions.  It  is  used 
to  disinfect  ulcers,  etc.,  also  to  decol- 
orize sugar  and  other  organic  sub- 
stances ;  its  properties  can  be  re- 
stored by  heating  it  to  redness  in 
closed  vessels. 

Bone  Manure,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant fertilizers  in  agriculture.  The 
value  of  bones  as  manure  arises  chief- 


Boner 

ly    from    the   phosphates    and     nitro- 

fenous  organic  matters  they  contain, 
t  is  of  most  service,  therefore, 
where  the  soil  is  deficient  in  -Ibis  re- 
spect, or  in  the  case  of  crops  whose 
rapid  growth  or  small  roots  do  not  en- 
able them  to  extract  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  phosphate  from  the  earth,  tur- 
nips, for  instance,  or  late  sown  oats 
and  barley. 

Boner,  John  Henry,  an  Ameri- 
can poet  and  literary  worker,  born  at 
Salem,  N.  C.,  Jan.  31,  1845. 

Boneset,  or  Thorough-wort,  a 
useful  annual  plant,  indigenous  to  the 
United  States,  and  easily  recognized 
by  its  tall  stem,  4  or  5  feet  in  height, 
passing  through  the  middle  of  a  large, 
double,  hairy,  leaf,  and  surmounted 
by  a  broad,  flat  head  of  light  purple 
flowers.  It  is  much  used  as  a  domes- 
tic medicine. 

Bongabong,  a  town  in  the  S.  E. 
part  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands, 
with  an  estimated  popplation  of  20,- 
000.  It  lies  in  a  mountainous  dis- 
trict, and  attained  military  impor- 
tance as  the  headquarters  of  a  regi- 
ment of  United  States  troops.  The 
town  has  a  municipal  government 
based  upon  popular  election. 

Bonheur,  Rosa,  (properly  MARIE 
ROSA),  celebrated  French  artist  and 
painter  of  animals  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux, March  22,  1822.  She  received 
early  tuition  from  her  father,  a  draw- 
ing teacher,  and  when  only  18  years 
of  age,  exhibited  at  the  Salon,  two 
pictures,  "  Goats  and  Sheep,"  and 
"Two  Rabbits  eating  Carrots."  Among 
her  famous  pictures  are,  "  Ploughing 
in  the  Nivernais,"  "  Haymaking  in 
Auvergne,"  "  The  Normandy  Horse 
Fair,"  and  "  Deer  in  the  Forest " 
(the  last  two  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  New  York  city). 
She  died  at  By,  May  25,  1899. 

Boniface,  St.,  a  saint  of  the  Ro- 
man calendar,  and  a  native  of  Eng- 
land, who  was  sent  by  Gregory  II.  to 
convert  the  Germans.  Gregory  III. 
made  him  an  archbishop.  Born  in 
Devonshire  in  680,  slain  by  some  peas- 
ants in  Friesland,  in  755.  His  let- 
ters were  printed  in  1616. 

Bonington,  Richard  Parkes,  an 
English  painter  in  oil  and  water  col- 
ors, born  near  Nottingham.  Oct.  25, 
180L  He  died  Sept.  23,  1828. 


Bonner 

Bonivard,  or  Bonnivard,  Fran- 
cois de,  cadet  of  a  family  holding 
large  possessions  under  the  House  of 
Savoy,  was  born  about  1496  at  Seys- 
sel,  on  the  Rhone,  and  in  1513  became 
prior  of  St.  Victor  at  Geneva.  Fall- 
ing under  the  suspicion  of  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  him 
in  1519.  After  20  months'  imprison- 
ment he  was  set  free,  but  in  1530  he 
was  again  seized,  and  taken  to  the 
castle  of  Chillon  at  the  E.  end  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  six  years,  the  last  four 
in  that  subterranean  vault  which  the 
genius  of  Byron  has  made  famous  by 
his  poem  on  the  sufferings  of  "  The 
Prisoner  of  Chillon."  He  died  in 
1570,  leaving  the  town  his  books, 
which  were  the  nucleus  of  the  Geneva 
library. 

Bonn,  a  German  town  in  the 
Rhenish  Province  of  Prussia,  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  with  magnificent  promenades 
and  prospects  in  the  environs.  It  has 
some  trade  and  manufactures,  but  is 
chiefly  important  for  its  famous  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1777  by  Elector 
Maximilian  Frederick  of  Cologne,  and 
for  its  cathedral,  which  has  a  crypt 
of  the  llth  century  and  mediaeval 
wall  paintings.  Enlarged  and  amply 
endowed  by  the  King  of  Prussia,  in 
1818,  the  university  is  now  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  learning  in  Europe, 
with  a  library  of  more  than  200,000 
volumes,  an  anatomical  hall,  mineral- 
ogical  and  zoological  collections,  mu- 
seum of  antiquities,  a  botanical  gar- 
den, etc.  The  teachers  in  the  five  fac- 
ulties number  about  150,  and  the  stu- 
dents nearly  2,000.  Lange,  Niebuhr, 
Ritschl,  Brandis,  and  other  names 
famous  in  science  or  literature  are 
connected  with  Bonn,  and  Beethoven 
was  born  here.  Bonn  was  long  the 
residence  of  the  Electors  of  Cologne, 
and  finally  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Prussia  by  the  arrangements  of  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815.  Pop. 
(1910)  87,978. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  an  English 
prelate  of  infamous  notoriety,  was 
born  about  1495,  of  obscure  parentage. 
He  took  a  doctor's  degree  at  Oxford, 
in  1525,  and,  attracting  the  notice  of 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  received  from  him 
several  offices  in  the  church.  On  the 
dealth  of  Wolsey  he  acquired  the  favor 


Bonncr 


Bonsai 


of  Henry  VIII.,  who  made  him  one 
of  his  chaplains,  and  sent  him  to 
Rome  to  advocate  his  divorce  from 
Queen  Catharine.  In  1540  he  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  London,  but  on 
the  death  of  Henry  ( 1547 ) ,  having 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy, 
he  was  deprived  of  his  see  and  thrown 
into  prison.  On  the  accession  of  Mary 
he  was  restored  to  his  bishopric,  and 
he  distinguished  himself  during  this 
reign  by  a  persecution  of  the  Protest- 
ants, 200  of  whom  he  was  instrumental 
in  bringing  to  the  stake.  After  Eliza- 
beth succeeded  he  remained  unmolest- 
ed until  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy,  on  which  he  was  com- 
mitted to  the  Marshalsea  (1560), 
where  he  remained  a  prisoner  until  his 
death  in  1569. 

Bpnner,  Robert,  an  American 
publisher,  born  near  Londonderry, 
Ireland,  April  28,  1824.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  early  youth,  and 
learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  In 
1844  he  removed  to  New  York,  and, 
in  1851,  purchased  the  "  Ledger,"  then 
an  insignificant  paper.  He  made  it 
remarkably  successful.  As  a  result 
he  became  very  rich,  and  gratified 
his  taste  for  fast  horses  by  purchas-  i 
ing  the  most  celebrated  trotters  in  the  : 
world,  though  withdrawing  them  from  | 
the  race  course.  Among  these  are 
"Peerless,"  "Dexter,"  "Maud  S.," 
which  he  bought  from  William  H. 
Vanderbilt  for  $40,000,  her  record  of 
speed  being  2.09%,  which  he  afterward 
reduced  to  2.08%,  and  "  Sunol."  He 
made  large  gifts  of  money  to  Prince- 
ton University  and  was  widely  known 
for  his  many  benefactions.  He  re- 
tired from  active  control  of  the  "  Led- 
ger "  in  1887,  giving  it  into  the  hands  i 
of  his  sons.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  July  6,  1899.  He  prided  himself 
on  the  facts  that  he  had  never  raced  a 
horse  for  money,  never  made  a  bet, 
never  borrowed  a  dollar,  and  never 
gave  a  note  in  his  life. 

Bonnet,  a  head  dress ;  a  dress  or 
covering  for  the  head  worn  by  wom- 
en ;  a  cap  or  head  covering,  much  used 
before  the  introduction  of  hats,  and 
still  worn  by  the  Scotch  Highlanders. 

Bonneville,  Benjamin  L.  E.,  an 
American  soldier  and  explorer,  born 
in  France,  in  1793 ;  explored  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  California ; 
fought  in  the  Mexican  War;  was 

E.21. 


wounded  at  Churubusco ;  served  as  su- 
perintendent of  barracks  and  recruit- 
ing officer  in  Missouri  during  the  Civil 
War  of  1861-1865.  He  died  in  Port 
Smith,  Ark.,  June  12,  1878. 

Bonney,  Charles  Carroll,  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y., 
Sept.  4,  1831;  finished  his  studies  at 
Colgate  University,  which  gave  him 
the  degree  LL.D.  After  a  teaching 
and  lecturing  career  in  Illinois,  aid- 
ing in  the  establishment  of  the  State's 
educational  system,  he  joined  the 
Illinois  bar  in  1852.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  International  Law  and 
Order  League  (1885-93);  president  of 
the  World's  Congress  Auxiliary  of  the 
Chicago  Columbus  Exposition  (1893); 
and  president  of  the  World's  Religi- 
ous Parliament  Extension.  He  wrote 
valuable  legal  text-books.  D.  1903. 

Bonnivard.     See  BONIVABD. 

Bonnycastle,  Charles,  an  Anglo- 
American  mathematician,  born  in 
Woolwich,  in  1792.  He  was  Professor 
of  Mathematics  at  Woolwich  Military 
Academy,  Professor  of  Natural  Philos- 
ophy in  the  University  of  Virginia 
(1825-1827)  and  of  Mathematics 
there  from  1827.  He  died  in  Char- 
lottesville,  Va.,  October,  1840. 

Bonnycastle,  Sir  Richard 
Henry,  an  English  military  engi- 
neer, born  in  1791 ;  spent  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  in  British  North 
America ;  died  in  1848. 

Bonpland,  Aime,  a  French  bo- 
tanist, born  in  Rochelle,  Aug.  22,  1773. 
While  pursuing  his  studies  at  Paris  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Alexander 
von  Humbpldt,  and  agreed  to  accom- 
pany him  in  his  celebrated  expedition 
to  the  New  World.  During  this  expe- 
dition he  collected  upward  of  6,000 
Slants,  previously  unknown,  and  on 
is  return  to  France,  in  1804,  was 
made  Director  of  the  Gardens  at  Na- 
varre and  Malmaison.  On  the  Restor- 
ation be  proceeded  to  South  America, 
and  became  Professor  of  Natural  His- 
tory at  Buenos  Ayres.  Subsequently, 
while  on  a  scientific  expedition  up  the 
river  Parana,  he  was  arrested  by  Dr. 
Francia,  the  Dictator  of  Paraguay,  as 
a  spy  and  detained  for  eight  years. 
He  afterward  settled  in  Brazil,  where 
he  died  in  1858. 

Bonsai,  Stephen,  an  American 
journalist,  born  in  Virginia  in  1865. 


Book  of  Mormon 


He  was  educated  at  Concord  and  Hei- 
delberg. In  the  Bulgarian-Servian 
War  he  was  special  correspondent  of 
the  New  York  "  Herald,"  serving  in 
the  same  capacity  in  Macedonia  and 
Cuba.  He  served  as  Secretary  of  Le- 
gation of  the  United  States  in  Pekin, 
Madrid,  Tokio,  and  Korea  in  1891-6 ; 
appointed  Commissioner  of  Public 
Utilities  in  the  Philippines  in  1914. 

Bontebok,  an  antelope  of  South 
Africa,  allied  to  the  blesbok. 

Bonzano,  Giovanni,  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  the  United  States,  born 
in  Vigevano,  Province  of  Pavia,  Italy, 
in  1867 ;  was  ordained  in  Rome  in 
1890;  served  as  vicar-general  of  the 
diocese  of  yigevano;  appointed  a 
Papal  domestic  prelate  in  1904,  rector 
of  the  Pontifical  Urban  College  in 
Rome  in  1906,  and  Apostolic  Delegate 
to  the  United  States,  Feb.  1,  1912; 
and  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Mili- 
tene  on  March  3  following. 

Booby,  (Sula  fusca),  a  swimming 
bird  allied  to  the  gannet,  and  so  named 
by  early  mariners,  owing  to  the  stupid- 
ity with  which  it  allowed  itself  to  be 
killed  without  attempting  to  escape. 

Book  Binding,  the  art  of  stitch- 
ing or  otherwise  fastening  together 
and  covering  the  sheets  of  paper  or 
similar  material  composing  a  book. 

Bookkeeping,  the  art  of  keeping 
books  in  which  pecuniary  transactions 
are  so  unremittingly  and  so  accurate- 
ly entered  that  one  is  able  at  any  time 
to  ascertain  the  exact  state  of  his 
financial  affairs,  or  of  any  portion  of 
them,  with  clearness  and  expedition. 
It  is  generally  divided  into  bookkeep- 
ing by  single  and  bookkeeping  by  double 
entry.  In  the  former  every  entry  is 
single,  i.  e.,  is  placed  to  the  debit  or 
credit  of  a  single  account,  while  in 
the  latter  it  is  double,  that  is,  it  has 
both  a  debtor  and  creditor  account. 
In  other  words,  by  single  entry  each 
transaction  is  entered  only  once  in 
the  ledger,  and  by  double  entry  twice. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  the 
book  that  forms  the  liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England.  It  is  a  develop- 
ment from  the  "  Breviary  Missal  " 
and  "Manual"  compiled  in  the  llth 
century  by  Osmund,  BisBop  of  Salis- 
bury. A  revision  of  the  "  Breviary  " 
was  made  in  1516,  by  order  of  Cardi- 
nal Wolsey,  and  it  was  again  revised 
in  1531,  and  the  "Missal"  in  1533. 


In  1542  a  Committee  of  Convocation 
was  appointed  whose  work,  a  litany, 
in  English,  was  issued  in  1544.  In 
1547  Cranmer's  rendering  of  the  "  Mis- 
sal "  into  English  appeared  as  the 
"  Order  of  Communion."  In  1548  the 
first  version  of  the  present  "  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  "  was  reported  to  the 
convocation  and  adopted  by  Parlia- 
ment, as  a  part  of  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity of  1548-;1549.  A  second  re- 
vision was  sanctioned  by  Parliament 
in  1552.  This  was  repealed  by  Queen 
Mary,  and  restored  by  Elizabeth,  with 
changes  in  1559.  The  Puritans  sup- 
pressed the  book,  but  it  was  restored  at 
the  Restoration.  The  Savoy  Confer- 
ence of  1661  modified  it  by  concession 
to  the  Puritans.  It  was  adopted  in 
Ireland  in  1662  and  has  since  been 
used  by  the  Anglican  Church,  in  ita 
various  branches.  It  consists  of  va- 
rious tables,  Morning  and  Evening 
Prayers,  the  /Litany,  Prayers  and 
Thanksgivings,  Collects,  Epistles  and 
Gospels  chosen  in  accordance  with  the 
Church  calendar,  Order  of  Commun- 
ion and  other  special  services,  as 
Matrimony,  and  Burial  of  the  Dead, 
the  Catechism,  the  Psalter  services 
connected  with  the  imposition  of  the 
clerical  and  lay  offices,  and  Articles 
of  Religion.  The  "  Prayer  Book  "  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  United  States  is  a  revision  of  the 
Anglican  book,  authorized  in  1789, 
and  revised  again,  1886-1893. 

Book  of  Martyrs,  a  history  of 
the  persecution  of  Reformers  in  Eng- 
land, by  John  Fox. 

Book  of  Mormon,  a  book  form- 
ing the  authoritative  scriptures  of  the 
members  of  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ 
of  Latter-Day  Saints.  Joseph  Smith, 
an  American,  of  Manchester.  N.  Y., 
professed  to  have  heard  in  1823  the" 
Angel  Moroni  reveal  to  him  in  visions 
that  the  Bible  of  the  Western  Conti- 
nent was  buried  in  a  box  near  his  resi- 
dence. This,  according  to  his  own 
account,  he  at  length  found  —  a  vol- 
ume six  inches  thick,  with  leaves  of 
thin  gold  plate,  eight  inches  long  by 
seven  broad,  bound  together  with  three 
gold  rings ;  on  which  leaves  was  a  mys- 
tic writing  that  he  characterized  as 
reformed  Egyptian.  With  the  book 
he  professed  to  have  found  a  pair  of 
magic  spectacles,  by  means  of  which 
he  was  able  to  read  the  contents, 


Bookplate 

which  he  dictated  to  an  amanuensis. 
This  book  consists  of  an  alleged  his- 
tory of  America  from  600  B.  c.,  when 
Lehi  and  his  family  (descended  from 
the  dispersion  after  the  building  of  the 
Babel  tower)  landed  in  Chile.  Be- 
tween the  descendants  of  Nephi,  Lehi's 
youngest  son,  and  the  offspring  of  his 
older  brothers,  who  are  the  North 
American  Indians,  long  conflicts  were 
waged ;  the  Nephites  finally  being  al- 
most annihilated.  There  remained  a 
fragment,  among  whom  were  Mormon 
and  his  son,  Moroni.  They  collected 
the  records  of  their  people,  and  bur- 
ied them  in  the  hill  of  Cumorah,  on 
the  Divine  assurance  that  they  would 
be  found  by  the  Lord's  prophet.  Be- 
sides this  history,  the  book,  as  it  final- 
ly was  received,  has  various  moral  and 
religious  teachings. 

Bookplate,  an  English  name  for 
labels  of  ownership  frequently  placed 
on  the  inside  covers  of  books. 

Bookworm,  any  grub  which  feeds 
on  the  paper  of  books.  Most  people 
are  familiar  with  the  effects  of  the 
bookworm's  ravages ;  but  the  creatures 
are  extremely  rare  in  the  United 
States,  especially  since  so  many  chem- 
ical substances  have  been  introduced 
into  the  manufacture  of  paper.  In 
the  United  States  books  in  libraries, 
though  usually  free  from  the  ravages 
of  the  bookworm,  are  inrested  and 
damaged  by  a  small  cockroach. 

Boom,  a  beam,  tree,  or  pole.  In 
navigation,  a  long  pole  run  out  from 
any  part  of  a  ship  to  stretch  the  foot 
of  any  particular  sail ;  whence,  jib 
boom,  main  boom,  studdingsail  boom, 
etc.  In  fortification,  in  marine  de- 
fenses, a  strong  chain  or  cable 
stretched  across  the  mouth  of  a  river 
or  harbor,  to  prevent  the  enemy's 
ships  from  entering,  and  having  a 
number  of  poles,  bars,  etc.,  fastened  to 
it ;  whence  the  name ;  as,  to  cut  or 
burst  the  boom.  In  navigation,  a 
pole  set  up  as  a  sea  mark  to  point  out 
the  channel  to  seamen,  when  navigat- 
ing in  shallows.  The  word  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  hollow,  roaring  sound ;  as 
the  boom  of  a  cannon ;  the  reverberat- 
ing cry  of  the  bittern ;  and  likewise  to 
a  sudden  rise  in  the  market  value  of 
real  estate,  stocks  or  commodities;  an 
enthusiastic  popular  movement  in 
favor  of  any  person,  cause  or  thing; 


Boot 

as,  a  real  estate  boom,  a  political 
boom;  a  boom  in  sugar. 

Boomerang,  a  missle  weapon  in- 
vented and  used  by  the  native  Aus- 
tralians, who  are  generally  deemed  the 
lowest  in  intelligence  of  any  tribe  or 
race  of  mankind.  It  is  a  curved  stick, 
round  on  one  side  and  flat  on  the 
other,  about  three  feet  long,  two  niches 
wide,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick.  It  is  grasped  at  one  end  and 
thrown  sickle-wise,  either  upward  into 
the  air,  or  downward  so  as  to  strike 
the  ground  at  some  distance  from  the 
thrower.  On  throwing  it  downward 
to  the  ground,  it  rebounds  in  a 
straight  line,  pursuing  a  ricochet 
motion  until  it  strikes  the  object  at 
which  it  is  thrown.  The  most  singu- 
lar curve  described  by  it  is  when  it 
is  thrown  at  an  angle  of  about  45°. 

Boone,  city  and  capital  of  Boone 
county,  la.;  on  the  Chicago  &  North- 
western and  other  railroads;  37  miles 
N.  W.  of  Des  Moinesi  is  in  a  fire 
and  pottery  clay  section;  has  large 
milling,  manufacturing,  and  coal  min- 
ing interests;  and  contains  extensive 
railroad  and  machine  shops.  Pop. 
(1910)  10,347. 

Boone,  Daniel,  the  pioneer  of 
Kentucky,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pa., 
Feb.  11,  1735.  He  was  a  Colonel  in 
the  United  States  service,  and  signal- 
ized himself  by  his  many  daring  ex- 
ploits against  the  Indians,  and  also  by 
his  extensive  surveys  and  explorations 
of  the  State  of  Kentucky.  In  1793 
he  removed  to  Upper  Louisiana,  then 
belonging  to  the  Spaniards,  and  was 
appointed  by  them  commandant  of  a 
district  there.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  successful  of  the  enterprising 
American  pioneers  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, and  may  be  said  to  have  ex- 
plored and  aided  in  the  settlement  of 
the  country  from  the  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains to  the  frontier  of  Missouri. 
Many  places  have  been  named  in  his 
honor.  Died  in  Missouri,  Sept.  26, 1820. 

Boot,  an  article  of  dress,  general- 
ly of  leather,  covering  the  foot  and  ex- 
tending to  a  greater  or  less  distance 
up  the  leg.  Hence  the  name  was  given 
to  an  Instrument  of  torture  made  of 
iron,  or  a  combination  of  iron  and 
wood,  fastened  on  to  the  leg,  between 
which  and  the  boot  wedges  were  in- 
troduced and  driven  in  by  repeated 
blows  of  a  mallet,  with  such  violence 


Bootes 


Booth 


as  to  crush  both  muscles  and  bones. 
The  special  object  of  this  form  of 
torture  was  to  extort  a  confession  of 
guilt  from  an  accused  person. 

Bootes.  In  astronomy,  a  constella- 
tion called  also  Arctophylax,  or  the 
Bear  river.  It  contains  54  stars,  in- 
cluding 1  of  the  first  magnitude,  Arc- 
turus,  7  of  the  third,  and  10  of  the 
fourth. 

Booth,  Balling-ton,  General  of 
the  Volunteers  of  America,  born  in 
Brighouse,  England,  July  28,  1859. 
He  is  a  son  of  Gen.  William  Booth, 
founder  of  the  Salvation  Army,  with 
which  body  he  was  officially  connect- 
ed until  1896,  when  he  seceded  and 
founded  the  Volunteers,  a  religious 
military  body  organized  in  the  interest 
of  the  unchurched  masses.  His  wife, 
MAUDE,  has  ably  seconded  her  hus- 
band's efforts,  and  is  very  popular  on 
the  lecture  platform. 

Booth,  Barton,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish actor,  born  in  1681;  died  in  1733. 

Booth,  Edwin  Thomas,  an 
American  actor,  born  near  Belair, 
Md.,  Nov.  13,  1833;  the  fourth  son 
of  Junius  Brutus  Booth.  When  16 
years  of  age,  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage,  in  the  part  of 
Tressel,  his  father  acting  as  Richard 
III.  Two  years  later  he  himself  suc- 
cessfully assumed  the  part  of  Richard 
in  place  of  his  father,  who  unexpect- 
edly refused  to  fulfill  an  evening's  en- 
gagement. The  following  year  the 
two  went  to  California,  where  the 
son  remained  for  several  years,  visit- 
ing Australia  meanwhile.  Meeting 
with  little  pecuniary  success,  in  1856, 
he  returned  tp  the  Atlantic  States,  and 
from  that  time  forward  was  recog- 
nized as  a  leading  member  of  his  pro- 
fession. He  visited  England  (1861- 
1862),  and  in  1864  produced  "Ham- 
let "  at  New  York  for  100  nights  con- 
secutively. In  1869  he  opened  a 
splendid  theater  in  New  York,  whose 
building  cost  over  $1,000,000,  but  j 
which  involved  him  in  pecuniary  ruin.  ' 
He  revisited  California  in  1876,  and 
in  the  spring  of  1877  was  able  to  set- 
tle with  his  creditors,  having"  earned  , 
during  the  season  over  $600,000.  ] 
Booth  visited  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many in  1880-1882,  and  was  every- 
where received  with  enthusiasm.  He 
died  in  New  York,  June  7,  1893. 


Booth,  John  Wilkes,  an  Ameri- 
can actor,  born  in  Hartford  county, 
Md.,  in  1838;  another  son  of  JUNIUS 
BRUTUS  BOOTH.  He  sided  with  the 
Confederates  in  the  Civil  War,  and 
to  avenge  the  defeat  of  their  cause  he 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  the  life 
of  President  Lincoln.  He  mortally 
wounded  the  President,  while  the  lat- 
ter was  attending  a  performance  in 
Ford's  Theater,  in  Washington,  on 
April  14,  1865;  broke  his  own  leg  in 
escaping  from  the  building;  and  con- 
cealed himself  in  Virginia  till  the 
26th,  when,  on  being  discovered,  and 
refusing  to  surrender,  he  was  shot. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  an  An- 
glo-American tragedian,  born  in  the 
parish  of  St.  Pancras,  London,  May 
1,  1796.  He  received  a  classical  edu- 
cation, but  early  manifested  a  predi- 
lection for  the  stage,  and  when  17 
years  of  age  appeared  in  some  unim- 
portant parts.  Subsequently  he  played 
Richard  III.,  at  Covent  Garden,  a  part 
in  which  he  suddenly  became  famous. 
In  1821  he  went  to  the  United  States, 
where  for  the  ensuing  30  years  he 
followed  his  profession  with  much 
success.  He  died  suddenly  on  board 
a  Mississippi  river  steamer,  Nov.  12, 
1852. 

Booth,  Mary  Louise,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  author,  born  in 
Yaphank,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  April 
19,  1831 ;  was  widely  known  as  the 
editor  of  "  Harper's  Bazar,"  which 
place  she  held  from  1867  till  her 
death  in  New  York  city,  March  5, 
1889. 

Booth,  William,  founder  and 
General  of  the  Salvation  Army,  was 
born  at  Nottingham,  England,  April 
10,  1829,  was  educated  there,  and 
from  1850  to  1861,  acted  as  minister 
of  the  Methodist  New  Connection. 
From  the  first  he  was  zealous  in  hold- 
ing evangelistic  services,  but  the  new 
departure  which  led  to  the  creation 
of  the  Salvation  Army  on  military 
lines  began  ir  1865  with  mission  work 
among  the  lower  classes  in  the  East 
End  of  London.  Since  1878  Booth's 
movement  has  been  known  as  the  Sal- 
vation Army,  of  which  he  had  con- 
tinued to  be  the  mainspring  and  con- 
trolling power,  directing  its  move- 
ments at  home  and  abroad  from  his 
headquarters  in  London.  His  enthusi- 


Booth-Tucker 


Borden 


asm  and  wonderful  organizing  power 
gave  much  life  to  the  religious  military 
system,  of  which  he  was  really  ''gen- 
eral." The  property  of  the  Salvation 
Army  is  held  for  its  exclusive  use  by 
Booth.  His  wife  was  associated  with 
him  in  the  publication  of  several  hymns 
and  religious  works  dealing  with  the 
movement,  till  her  death  in  1890.  He 
died  Aug.  21,  1912. 

Booth-Tucker,  Emma  Moss, 
daughter  of  William  Booth  of  the  Sal- 
vation Army,  and  wife  of  F.  St. 
George  Booth-Tucker,  was  born  in 
1860,  and  died  in  Oct.  1903,  the  victim 
of  a  railway  accident.  She  held  the 
rank  of  Consul,  and  with  her  husband, 
directed  the  army  in  the  United  States. 
She  possessed  remarkable  executive 
ability,  and  was  loved  by  all  with 
whom  she  came  in  contact. 

Booth-Tucker,  Frederick  St. 
George  de  Lautour,  commander 
of  the  Salvation  Army  in  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  India,  in  1S53. 
He  held  important  official  posts  in  In- 
dia, but  resigned  them  in  1881  to 
join  the  Salvation  Army.  Upon  his 
marriage  with  Emma  Moss  Booth, 
daughter  of  Gen.  William  Booth  of 
the  Salvation  Army,  he  prefixed  Booth 
to  his  own  name  of  Tucker.  In  1896 
he  became  commander  of  the  United 
States  branch  of  the  Salvation  Army. 

Bora,  Katharina  von,  wife  of 
Luther,  was  born  in  1499.  She  took 
the  veil  early ;  but  feeling  unhappy  in 
her  situation,  applied,  with  eight  other 
nuns,  to  Luther.  The  nuns  were  re- 
leased from  their  convent,  and,  in 
1525,  Luther  married  her,  having  him- 
self by  this  time  laid  aside  the  cowl. 
After  Luther's  death  she  kept  board- 
ers for  her  support.  She  died  at  Tor- 
gau,  in  1532. 

Borax,  the  anhydroborate  of  sodium, 
forms  large  transparent  six-sided 
prisms,  which  dissolve  readily  in  wat- 
er, effloresce  in  dry  air,  and  when 
heated  melt  in  their  water  of  crys- 
tallization, swell  up,  and  finally  fuse 
to  a  transparent  glass.  In  this  state 
borax  dissolves  metallic  oxides  which 
frequently  impart  to  it  characteristic 
colors.  From  this  property  borax  is 
employed  in  soldering  metals,  as  it 
removes  films  of  oxide,  and  leaves 
the  metals  in  metallic  contact  with 
each  other  and  with  the  solder.  It  ia 


also  employed  in  making  fine  glaze  for 
porcelain,  as  it  renders  the  materials 
more  fusible.  In  medicine  it  is  em- 
ployed in  ulcerations  and  in  skin  dis- 
eases. 

Borcligrevink,  Carsten  Ege- 
bert,  a  Norwegian  explorer  and  lec- 
turer, born  hi  Christiania,  in  1864, 
his  mother  being  English  and  his 
father  a  Scandinavian.  He  went  to 
sea  at  an  early  age,  but  returned  to 
go  to  college.  In  1898  he  went  to 
Australia,  joined  the  Survey  Depart- 
ment, and  scaled  Mount  Lindsay.  In 
1894-1895  he  was  in  Antarctic  waters, 
a  region  fully  explored  by  him  in 
1897,  when  he  attempted  to  reach  the 
South  Pole  without  success.  In  1899 
(Feb.  17)  he  had,  however,  reached 
Kobertston  Bay.  Returning  to  Lon- 
don in  1900  he  reported  having 
reached  lat.  78.50  S.,  long.  195.50  E. 
In  1902  he  investigated  volcanic  con- 
ditions at  St.  Pierre. 

Bordeaux,  a  city  and  port  of 
France,  capital  of  the  Department  of 
Gironde,  on  the  Garonne  river,  about 
70  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  built  in  a 
crescent  form  round  a  bend  of  the 
river,  which  is  here  lined  with  fine 
quays  and  crossed  by  a  magnificent 
stone  bridge,  and  consists  of  an  old 
and  a  new  town.  The  former  is  mostly 
composed  of  irregular  squares  and 
narrow,  crooked  streets ;  while  the 
latter  is  laid  out  with  great  regular- 
ity, and  on  a  scale  of  magnificence 
hardly  surpassed  by  any  provincial 
town  in  Europe.  The  chief  exports 
are  wine  and  brandy ;  sugar  and  other 
colonial  produce  and  wood  are  the 
chief  imports.  Shipbuilding  is  the 
chief  industry,  and  there  are  sugar  re- 
fineries, woolen  and  cotton  mills,  pot- 
teries, soap  works,  distilleries,  etc. 
On  Sept.  2,  1914,  when  the  Germans 
were  attempting  the  capture  of  Paris, 
the  French  government  removed  to 
Bordeaux.  See  APPENDIX  :  Wofld 
War.  Pop.  (1911)  261,678. 

Borden,  Robert  Laird,  a  Cana- 
dian statesman ;  born  in  Halifax,  N. 
S.,  in  1854 ;  engaged  in  law  practice ; 
elected  to  the  Dominion  Parliament, 
1896 ;  became  Conservative  leader, 
1901 ;  succeeded  Sir  Wilfred  Laurier 
as  Premier,  1911. 

Borden,  Simeon,  an  American 
inventor  and  surveyor,  born  in  the 
present  Fall  River,  Mass.,  Jan.  29, 


Borgia 


1798.  He  instructed  himself  in  math- 
ematics and  devised  successful  survey- 
ing instruments.  The  first  American 
geodetic  survey  was  his  work.  In  1846 
he  began  the  construction  of  railroads. 
He  died  in  Fall  River,  Oct.  28,  1856. 

Bordentown,  a  city  in  Burling- 
ton co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  river, 
the  Delaware  and  Raritan  canal,  and 
the  Pennsylvania  railroad;  57  miles 
S.  W.  of  New  York  city.  It  is  noted 
as  being  a  former  residence  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napoleon  I.  and 
for  many  years  the  house  and  grounds 
belonging  to  the  estate  possessed  much 
interest.  Pop.  (1910)  4,250. 

Bore,  or  Eagre,  a  sudden  influx 
of  the  tide  into  the  estuary  of  a  river 
from  the  sea,  the  inflowing  water  ris- 
ing to  a  considerable  height  and  ad- 
vancing like  a  wall  against  the  cur- 
rent. Chief  among  American  bores 
are  those  of  the  rivers  emptying  into 
the  Bay  of  Fundy ;  in  Europe  the 
eagres  of  the  Severn  and  Trent,  Eng- 
land ;  and  the  mascaret  of  the  Seine, 
France.  See  also  EAGRE. 

Bore,  in  metallurgy,  a  tool  bored 
to  fit  the  shank  of  a  forged  nail,  and 
adapted  to  hold  it  while  the  head  is 
brought  to  shape  by  the  hammer.  The 
depression  in  the  face  of  the  bore  is 
adapted  to  the  shape  required  of  the 
chamfered  under  part  of  the  head. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  cavity 
of  a  steam  engine  cylinder,  pump  bar- 
rel, pipe,  cannon,  barrel  of  a  firearm, 
etc. 

Boreas,  a  bellowing  \vind;  the 
Northern  wind;  a  cold,  Northerly 
•wind.  In  mythology,  the  son  of  As- 
trseus  and  Eos,  usually  worshipped  as 
the  god  of  the  North  Wind.  The  as- 
siduity with  which  the  worship  of 
Boreas  was  cultivated  at  Athens  pro- 
ceeded from  gratitude,  the  North  Wind 
having  on  one  occasion  destroyed  the 
fleet  of  the  Persians  when  meditating 
the  invasion  of  Attica.  A  similar 
cause  induced  the  inhabitants  of  Me- 
galopolis to  consider  Boreas  as  their 
peculiar  divjnity,  in  whose  honor  they 
instituted  an  annual  festival.  Boreas 
was  usually  represented  with  wings 
dripping  with  golden  dewdrops,  and 
the  train  of  his  garment  sweeping 
along  the  ground. 

Borghese,  a  Roman  family,  which 
derives  its  origin  from  Sienna,  and 


[which  held  the  highest  offices  in  this 
republic  from  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century.  Pope  Paul  V.,  who  belonged 
to  this  family,  and  ascended  the  papal 
chair  in  1605,  loaded  his  relations 
with  honors  and  riches. 

Borghese,  Princess  Marie 
Pauline,  the  beautiful  sister  of  Na- 
poleon; born  in  Ajaccio,  Oct.  20, 
1780.  She  died  in  Florence,  June  9, 
1825.  She  left  many  legacies,  and  a 
donation,  the  interest  of  wlych  was  to 
enable  two  young  men  of  Ajaccio  to 
study  medicine  and  surgery.  The  rest 
of  her  property  she  left  to  her 
brothers,  the  Count  of  St  Leu  and  the 
Prince  of  Montfort.  The  whole  prop- 
erty amounted  to  2,000,000  francs. 

Borgia  Cesare,  the  natural  son 
of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and  of  a  Ro- 
man lady  named  Vanozza,  born  in 
1478.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Cardinal  in  1492,  but  afterward  di- 
vested himself  of  the  office,  and  was 
made  Due  de  Valentinois  by  Louis 
XII.  t  In  1499  he  married  a  daughter 
of  King  John  of  Navarre,  and  accom- 
panied Louis  XII.  to  Italy.  He  then, 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  mercenaries, 
carried  on  a  series  of  petty  wars,  made 
himself  master  of  the  Romagna,  at- 
tempted Bologna  and  Florence,  and 
had  seized  Urbino  when  Alexander  VI. 
died,  1503.  ^  He  was  now  attacked  by 
a^  severe  disease,  at  a  moment  when 
his  whole  activity  and  presence  of 
mind  were  needed.  He  found  means, 
indeed,  to  get  the  treasures  of  his 
father  into  his  possession,  and  assem- 
bled his  troops  in  Rome ;  but  enemies 
rose  against  him  on  all  sides,  one  of 
the  most  bitter  of  whom  was  the  new 
Pope,  Julius  II.  Borgia  was  arrested 
and  carried  to  Spain.  He  at  length 
made  his  escape  to  his  brother-in-law, 
the  King  of  Navarre,  and  was  killed 
before  the  castle  of  Viana,  March  12, 
1507.  He  was  charged  with  the  mur- 
der of  his  elder  brother,  of  the  hus- 
band of  his  sister  Lucretia,  and  the 
stiletto  or  secret  poisoning  was  freely 
used  against  those  who  stood  in  his 
way.  With  all  his  crimes  he  was  a 
patron  of  art  and  literature. 

Borgia,  Imcretia,  daughter  of 
Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and  sister  of  Ce- 
sare Borgia,  was  born  in  1480.  She 
was  accused  of  almost  every  species  of 
crime ;  but  several  modern  writers 
maintain  that  the  charges  against  her 


Boring 

are  false  or  much  exaggerated.  She 
patronized  art  and  literature.  She 
died  in  1523. 

Boring,  a  process  in  mechanical 
and  engineering  operations,  variously 
performed  according  to  the  medium 
dealt  with. 

Bornemann,  Wilhelm,  a  Low 
German  dialect  poet,  born  in  Garde- 
legen  in  17G6.  He  is  one  of  the  fore- 
most representatives  of  modern  Low 
German  poetry.  He  died  in  1851. 

Borneo,  an  island,  next  to  Austra- 
lia   and    Papua,    the    largest    in    the 
world,  is  situated  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago.    It  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  Sea  of  Celebes  and  the  Macassar 
Strait.  S.  by  the  Sea  of  Java,  W.  and 
N.  by  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  China 
Sea.     Of  the  estimated  total  area  of 
300,000  square  miles  and  pop.  of  1,- 
846,000,  Great  Britain  claims  an  area 
of   31,106  square   miles   and   pop.   of 
208,183,  and  the  Netherlands  an  area 
of  212,737  square  miles  and  pop.  of 
1,250,000. 

British  Borneo  is  north  of  the  Madei 
Mountains  ;  Dutch  Borneo  to  the  south. 
The  lowlands  are  malarious  and  un- 
healthful ;  the  north  highlands  temper- 
ate. Nutmegs,  cloves,  cinnamon,  pep- 
per, betel,  ginger,  rice,  millet,  sweet 
potatoes,  yams,  cotton  in  Amuntai, 
sugar  cane  in  Sambas  and  Montrado, 
indigo,  tobacco,  coffee  in  Sambas,  pine- 
apples, cocoanuts,  etc.,  are  cultivated. 
The  mountains  and  forests  contain 
many  monkeys,  among  which  is  the 
orang  outang.  Tapirs,  a  small  kind  of 
tiger,  small  Malay  bears,  swine,  wild 
oxen  or  banteng,  and  various  kinds  of 
deer  abound.  The  elephant  is  only 
found  in  the  N.,  and  the  rhinoceros  in 
the  N.  W.  The  few  domesticated  ani- 
mals are  buffaloes,  sheep,  goats,  dogs, 
and  cats.  A  few  horses  are  seen  in 
Banjermassin.  Among  the  birds  are 
eagles,  vultures,  argus  pheasants,  pea- 
cocks, flamingoes,  pigeons,  parrots, 
and  also  the  swifts,  which  construct 
the  edible  nests  prized  by  the  Chinese 
for  making  soup.  The  rivers,  lakes, 
and  lagoons  swarm  with  crocodiles, 
and  many  kinds  of  snakes,  frogs,  liz- 
ards, and  leeches.  Fish  is  plentiful, 
and  the  coasts  are  rich  in  tortoises, 
pearl  mussels,  oysters,  and  trepang. 
Brilliant  butterflies  and  moths  are  in 
great  variety.  Among  the  mineral 
products  are  coal,  gold,  and  copper, 


Borniy 

especially  in  Montrado ;  antimony, 
iron,  tin,  platina,  nickel,  diamonds  and 
other  precious  stones,  rock  crystals, 
porcelain  clay,  petroleum,  and  sulphur. 
The  diamond  mines  are  chiefly  in  Lan- 
dak  and  Pontianak ;  Sambas  produces 
the  greatest  quantity  of  gold ;  the 
kingdom  of  Brunei,  Kutei,  and  Ban- 
jermassin, the  largest  amount  of  coal. 
The  Pengaron  coal  field,  worked  by  the 
Dutch  Government,  is  one  of  the  most 
important. 

Tfie  population  consists  of  threa 
classes,  the  Dyaks  or  Dayaks,  who 
are  the. aboriginal  heathen  inhabitants, 
and  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the 
population;  the  Mohammedans  or  Ma« 
lays  —  for  this  name  is  extended  so 
as  to  include  all  professors  of  Islam, 
whether  true  Malays,  Buginese,  Ja- 
vanese, Dyaks,  or  Arabs ;  and  the  Chi- 
nese. The  Dyaks  live  chiefly  in  the 
interior,  and  employ  themselves  with 
tillage  and  the  collecting  of  gutta 
percha,  resin,  gums,  rattans,  gold  dust, 
and  wax.  They  are  divided  into  nu- 
merous tribes.  The  Malays  (taking 
the  name  ethnographically )  dwell  on 
the  coasts,  are  traders  and  bold  sail- 
ors. They  are  more  civilized  than  the 
Dyaks,  cultivate  the  grounds  around 
their  houses,  lay  out  gardens,  keep  cat- 
tle, and  live  partly  by  fishing.  The  Chi- 
nese, chiefly  from  Canton,  have  pene- 
trated far  into  the  interior.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  gold,  gold  dust,  dia- 
monds, coal,  rattans,  gutta  percha,  edi- 
ble nests,  cotton,  wax,  timber,  dye 
woods,  mats,  resins,  sandalwood,  cam- 
phor, etc. ;  the  imports,  earthenware; 
iron,  steel,  and  copper  work,  piect 
goods,  yarns,  woolen  and  silk  fabrics, 
medicines,  provisions,  wines,  spirits, 
rice,  sugar,  tea,  tobacco,  opium,  tre- 
pang, gambir,  gunpowder,  etc. 

Hornier,  Henri,  Vicomte  de, 
a  French  dramatist,  member  of  the 
Academy,  born  at  Lunel,  Dec.  25, 
1825.  His  plays  are  notable  for  splen- 
dor of  diction.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  successful  novels  and  ro- 
mances. He  died  in  1868. 

Bornn,  formerly  a  negro  kingdom 
of  Central  Africa;  now  divided 
between  England,  France  and 
Germany;  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Lake  Tchad,  and  N.  by  the  Sahara. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  yields  plentiful 
crops  of  tropical  produce.  Wild 
beasts  are  very  numerous.  Coats  of 


Boro  Bndor 


Bosnia 


mail  are  made  both  for  horses  and 
their  riders.  The  population,  which 
is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000,  are 
mostly  of  negro  race,  and  called  Bor- 
nuese  or  Kanuri.  The  ruling  race, 
called  Shuwas,  are  of  Arab  descent 
and  bigoted  Mohammedans ;  but  many 
traces  of  fetichism  remain  among  the 
masses.  Whatever  they  have  of  civil- 
ization is  derived  from  the  Arabs.  The 
shores  and  islands  of  Lake  Tchad  are 
inhabited  by  negro  pirates.  The  slave 
trade  is  eagerly  prosecuted  in  Bornu. 

Boro    Budor    (the    "Great    Bud- 
dha"),  the  ruin  of  a  splendid  Bud- 
dhist temple  in  Java,  Kadu  Residency, 
near    the   junction    of    the    Ello    and ! 
Progo,    is  the   most  elaborate   monu- 
ment of  the  Buddhist  style  of  architec-  ! 
ture  anywhere  existing.  Buddhism  was  I 
early  introduced  into  Java,  and  Jav- 
anese chronicles  place  the  building  of 
the  temple  in  the  beginning  of  the  7th 
century ;  there  are  no  inscriptions,  but 
it  was  probably  finished  between  1400 
and  1430. 

Borodino,  a  village  of  Russia,  70 
miles  W.  of  Moscow ;  on  the  Kaluga, 
an  affluent  of  the  Moskwa.  It  gave 
name  to  the  great  battle  fought  be- 
tween the  French  army  under  Napo- 
leon and  the  Russians  under  Kutusoff, 
Sept.  7,  1812.  Out  of  257,000  men 
engaged,  between  70,000  and  80,000 
were  killed  and  wounded.  The  Rus- 
sians retreated  on  the  following  day, 
but  in  the  most  perfect  order,  and, 
therefore,  claim  this  battle  as  a  vic- 
tory; but  the  French,  who  name  the 
battle  from  the  Moskwa,  have  always 
maintained  a  similar  claim. 

Borough,  originally  a  fortified 
town.  In  England,  a  corporate  town 
or  township ;  a  town  with  a  properly ! 
organized  municipal  government.  If 
it  sends  a  representative  or  representa- 
tives to  Parliament  it  is  a  Parliamen- 
tary borough,  if  not,  it  is  only  a  muni- 
cipal borough.  The  name  is  given  to 
the  five  local  divisions  of  the  city  of 
New  York. 

Borroxnean  Islands,  a  group  of 
four  email  islands  on  the  W.  side  of 
Lago  Maggiore,  Northern  Italy. 

Borrow,  George  Henry,  traveler, 
linguist,  and  writer  on  gypsy  life,  born 
in  Norfolk,  England,  in  1803.  Chief 
works,  "  The  Bible  in  Spain,"  "  Laven- , 
*ro,"  "The  Romany  Rye,"  Died  1881.1 


Borsippa,  a  very  ancient  city  of 
Babylonia,  the  site  of  which  is  marked 
by  the  ruins  Birs  Nimrud. 

Bpscawen,  Edward,  a  British 
admiral,  son  of  the  first  Viscount  Fal- 
irouth,  born  in  Cornwall,  Aug.  19, 
1711.  His  chief  exploit  was  a  great 
victory,  in  1759,  over  the  Toulon  fleet, 
near  the  entrance  of  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar.  He  died  in  Surrey,  Jan. 
10,  176L 

Bosch  Bok,  the  bush  buck,  a  name 
given  to  several  South  African  species 
of  antelope. 

Bosch  Vark,  the  bush  hog  or 
bush  pig  of  South  Africa,  one  of  the 
swine  family,  about  5  feet  long,  and 
with  very  large  and  strong  tusks.  The 
Kaffirs  esteem  its  flesh  as  a  luxury, 
and  its  tusks,  arranged  on  a  piece  of 
string  and  tied  around  the  neck,  are 
considered  great  ornaments. 

Boscobel,  a  locality  in  Shropshire, 
England,  remarkable  historically  as  the 
hiding  place  of  Charles  II.  for  some 
days  after  the  battle  of  Worcester, 
Sept.  3, 1651. 

Bosna-Serai,    or    Serajeyo,    the 

capital  of  Bosnia,  on  the  Migliazza, 
570  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople. 
It  contains  a  palace,  built  by  Moham- 
med II.,  to  which  the  city  owes  its 
name.  It  was  formerly  surrounded 
with  walls,  but  its  only  defense  now 
is  a  citadel,  built  on  a  rocky  height  at 
a  short  distance  E.  from  the  town. 
Bosna-Serai  is  the  chief  mart  in  die 
province,  the  center  of  the  commercial 
relations  between  Turkey,  Dalmatia, 
Croatia  and  South  Germany,  and  has, 
in  consequence,  a  considerable  trade, 
with  various  manufactures.  It  was 
here  that  the  Archduke  Francis  Fer- 
dinand, heir  to  the  Austrian  throne, 
and  his  wife,  were  assassinated  on 
June  28,  1914,  by  an  alleged  Servian 
plotter.  The  act  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  great  war.  See  APPEN- 
DIX: World  War.  Pop.  (1910)  51,- 
919. 

Bosnia,  a  former  Turkish  prov- 
ince in  the  N.  W.  of  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula, W.  of  Servia ;  with  the  prov- 
ince of  Herzegovina  and  the  sanjak  of 
Novi-bazar  annexed  to  Austria-Hun- 
gary in  1908;  area  (including  Herze- 
govina and  Novi-bazar),  19,768  square 
miles  (of  which  Bosnia  Proper  occu- 


Bosporus 

pies  16,000)  ;  pop.  (1910)  1,898,044, 
mostly  of  Slavonian  origin,  and  main- 
ly speaking  the  Servian  language. 
The  principal  religions  are  Moham- 
medanism, Catholic  and  Greek. 

Bosnia,  in  anctent  times  a  part  suc- 
cessively of  Illyria,  Pannonia  and  Dal- 
matia,  was,  during  the  great  migra- 
tions occupied  by  Slavs  or  Slavonized 
Illyrians,  at  first  dependent  on  Hun- 
gary; but  it  became  a  kingdom  in 
1376,  under  Tivartko,  a  native  prince. 
Occupied  by  the  Turks  in  1401,  it  was 
annexed  in  1463,  but  not  recognized 
by  Europe  as  a  Turkish  Province  till 
1699.  Extortionate  taxation  caused  a 
rebellion  of  the  Christians,  in  1849, 
suppressed  by  Omar  Pasha ;  but  a 
more  determined  rising  in  1875,  which 
the  Turks  failed  to  put  down,  led  to 
the  occupation  of  the  Province  by  the 
Austro-Hungarians,  which  the  Moslem 
population  opposed  in  a  fierce  but  un- 
availing struggle.  The  Treaty  of  Ber- 
lin formally  intrusted  the  administra- 
tion to  Austria-Hungary,  the  nominal 
supremacy  of  the  Sultan  being  recog- 
nized in  1879.  Since  1880  Austrian 
methods  of  government  have  been 
gradually  introduced. 

Bosporus,  or  Bosphorus,  the 
strait,  19  miles  long,  joining  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  called 
also  the  Strait  of  Constantinople.  It 
is  defended  by  a  series  of  strong  forts ; 
and  by  agreement  of  the  European 
powers  no  ship  of  war  belonging  to 
any  nation  shall  pass  the  Bosporus 
without  the  permission  of  Turkey. 
Over  this  channel  (about  3,000  feet 
wide)  Darius  constructed  a  bridge  of 
boats  on  his  Scythian  expedition.  The 
Cimmerian  Bosporus  was  the  name 
given  by  the  ancients  to  the  strait  that 
leads  from  the  Black  Sea  into  the  Sea 
of  Azov.  There  was  also,  anciently, 
a  kingdom  of  the  name  of  Bosporus,  so 
called  from  this  strait,  on  both  sides 
of  which  it  was  situated. 

Boss,  an  elevated  or  thickened  por- 
tion, usually  around  an  aperture,  or  a 
swage  or  stump  used  in  shaping  sheet 
metal.  In  Gothic  architecture  it  is 
the  protuberance  in  a  vaulted  ceiling 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  ends  of 
several  ribs,  and  serving  to  bind  them 
together. 

Boss,  Lewis,  an  American  astron- 
omer, born  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  Oct. 
E6, 1846 ;  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 


Boston 

College,  in  1870;  astronomer  of  the 
Northern  Boundary  Survey  for  the  de- 
termination of  the  line  between  the 
W.  part  of  the  United  States  and  Brit- 
ish America ;  and,  since  the  completion 
of  that  work,  Director  of  the  Dudley 
Observatory,  Albany,  N.  Y.  He  was 
chief  of  the  United  States  party  sent 
to  Chile  in  1882  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Venus ;  elected  to  the  National 
Academy  of  Science  in  1889,  and  as 
honorary  foreign  associate  of  the  Roy- 
al Astronomical  Society,  in  1890 ;  best 
known  for  his  work  on  star  declina- 
tions. He  died  Oct.  5,  1912. 

Bossuet,  Jacques,  Benigne,  il- 
lustrious French  preacher  and  theo- 
logian, was  born  in  1627,  died  in  1704. 
In  1652  he  was  ordained  priest,  and 
made  a  canon  of  Metz.  In  1670  he 
was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Dau- 
phin, and  in  1681  he  was  raised  to  the 
see  of  Meaux.  He  drew  up  the  fa- 
mous propositions  adopted  by  the  as- 
sembly of  French  clergy,  which  secur- 
ed the  freedom  of  the  Gallican  Church 
against  the  aggressions  of  the  Pope. 
He  was  unrivalled  as  a  pulpit  ora- 
tor, and  greatly  distinguished  for  his 
strength  and  acumen  as  a  controver- 
sialist. His  wife  was  largely  occupied 
in  controverting  Protestantism. 

Boston,  a  city,  capital  of  the  State 
of  Massachusetts ;  the  commercial  me- 
tropolis of  New  England;  and  the 
fifth  city  in  population  in  the  United 
States  according  to  the  Federal  cen- 
sus of  1910.  It  is  built  at  the  W.  end 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  comprises 
Boston  proper,  East  Boston,  South 
Boston,  Roxbury,  Dorchester,  Charles- 
town,  Brighton,  West  Roxbury,  and 
adjoining  territory,  giving  it,  in  1910, 
an  area  of  about  47%  square  miles. 
Old  Boston,  or  Boston  proper,  occu- 
pied a  peninsula  of  about  700  acres,  of 
uneven  surface,  originally  contain- 
ing three  hills,  known  as  Beacon, 
Copp,  and  Fort.  These  hills  caused 
the  early  settlers  to  call  the  place  Tri- 
mountain,  since  changed  to  Tremont. 
Boston,  East  Boston,  Charlestown, 
and  South  Boston  contain  the  slips  of 
the  ocean  steamers.  Extending  about 
two  miles  along  the  harbor  and  sep- 
arated from  Boston  proper  by  an  arm 
of  it,  is  South  Boston,  containing 
large  railroad  docks  and  warehouses. 
Several  bridges  across  Charles  river 
connect  the  city  with  Charlestown 


Boston 

and  Cambridge.  The  harbor  is  an  in- 
dentation of  Massachusetts  bay,  em- 
bracing about  75  square  miles,  with 
numerous  arms,  and  containing  many 
islands  presenting  picturesque  views. 
The  population  of  the  city,  according 
to  the  Federal  census  of  1880,  was 
448,477;  1900,  560,892;  1910,  670,- 
585;  State  census  (1915)  745.439. 

Boston  is  especially  noted  for  its 
magnificent  park  system.  Among  the 
attractions  of  the  system  are  the  Com- 
mon, a  park  of  84  acres  in  the  heart 
of  the  city ;  the  Public  Garden,  sep- 
arated from  it  by  Charles  street,  and 
comprising  22  acres;  the  Back  Bay 
Fens;  the  Jamaica  Pond;  Bussey 
Park ;  the  Arnold  Arboretum ;  Marine 
Park  at  City  Point;  and  the  Charles 
River  Embankment.  In  the  Common 
is  a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument, 
erected  near  the  site  of  the  famous 
Old  Elm,  which  was  destroyed  in  a 
gale  in  1876.  In  the  Public  Garden 
are  an  equestrian  statue  of  Washing- 
ton, a  bronze  statue  of  Edward  Ever- 
ett, a  statue  of  Charles  Sumner,  one 
representing  "  Venus  Rising  from  the 
Sea,"  and  a  monument  commemorat- 
ing the  discovery  of  ether  as  an  anaes- 
thetic. 

The  State  House  stands  on  Beacon 
Hill,  and  is  a  structure  490  feet  long, 
and  211  feet  wide,  with  a  colonnade 
in  front  and  an  imposing  gilded  dome. 
Statues  of  Daniel  Webster  and  Horace, 
Mann  ornament  tne  terrace  in  front 
of  the  building,  and  within  it  are 
statues  and  busts  of  a  number  of  the 
eminent  men  of  Boston  and  Massachu- 
setts, a  collection  of  battle  flags,  and 
a  variety  of  interesting  historical  arti- 
cles. The  new  building  of  the  Public 
Library,  which  was  occupied  in  1895, 
is,  next  to  the  Library  of  Congress, 
the  largest  one  in  the  country,  The 
Old  State-house,  erected  in  1748,  at 
the  head  of  State  street,  contains  an 
historical  museum  in  its  upper  floors, 
and  business  establishments  in  its 
lower.  The  City  Hall,  one  of  the 
most  striking  buildings  of  the  city, 
on  School  street,  is  built  of  white  Con- 
cord granite  in  the  Italian  Renaissance 
style,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  dome 
over  100  feet  high.  What  is  consid- 
ered the  most  interesting  building,  his- 
torically, in  the  United  States,  next 
to  Independence  Hall  in  Philadelphia, 
to  Faneuil  Hall,  known  as  "  The  Cra- 


Boston 

die  of  Liberty  "  erected  in  1742,  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  1761,  rebuilt  in  1768, 
and  remodeled  to  its  present  size  in 
1805.  The  basement  of  the  building 
is  now  used  as  a  market,  and  the  sec- 
ond floor  for  large  public  gatherings. 
Occupying  the  site  of  the  Old  Redoubt 
on  Breed's  Hill,  in  the  Charlestown 
district,  is  the  famous  Bunker  Hill 
Monument  In  the  Charlestown  dis- 
trict also  is  located  the  United  States 
Navy  Yard,  which,  among  other  ob- 
jects of  interest,  contains  the  largest 
rope  walk  in  the  country,  and  an  im- 
mense dry  dock. 

Boston  is  widely  noted  for  the  num- 
ber and  high  character  of  its  educa- 
tional institutions.  The  institutions 
for  higher  education  include  Boston 
College  (Roman  Catholic),  opened  in 
1872 ;  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology (non-sectarian),  opened  in 
1865 ;  Boston  Normal  School ;  Massa- 
chusetts Normal  Art  School ;  Kinder- 
farten  Training  School,  and  Training 
chools  for  Nurses  at  the  Almshouse 
and  Hospital,  City  Hospital,  Chil- 
dren's Hospital,  Massachusetts  Gen- 
eral Hospital,  Massachusetts  Homoeo- 
pathic Hospital,  New  England  Baptist 
Hospital,  New  England  Deaconess' 
Home  and  Hospital,  New  England 
Hospital  for  Women  and  Children,  St. 
Elizabeth's  Hospital,  Somerville  Hos- 
pital, and  Women's  Charity  Club  Hos- 
pital. In  the  public  school  system, 
there  were  12  high  schools^  and  of 
various  secondary  schools  there  were 
12. 

Boston  was  settled  in  1630,  by  a 
party  of  Puritans  from  Salem.  It  was 
named  after  a  town  in  Lincolnshire, 
England,  from  which  most  of  the  col- 
onists had  come.  In  1632  the  first 
meeting  house  was  erected,  and  in 
1635  a  public  school  was  built.  In 
the  same  year  the  first  grand  jury  hi 
the  country  met  here.  A  memorable 
massacre  occurred  here  in  1770,  and 
in  1773  several  cargoes  of  English  tea 
were  thrown  overboard  in  the  harbor, 
by  citizens  exasperated  by  the  impo- 
sition of  taxes.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  Revolution  the  British 
were  quartered  in  the  town.'  The  .bat- 
tle of  Bunker  Hill  was  fought  on 
Breed's  Hill,  within  the  present  city 
limits,  June  17,  1775.  Washington 
forced  the  British  to  evacuate  in  177ft 
The  city  charter  was  granted  in  1822, 


Boston 

and  in  1872  a  great  fire  broke  out  in 
the  business  portion  of  the  city  and 
destroyed  about  65  acres  of  buildings. 
This  part  of  the  city  was  soon  rebuilt, 
and,  since  then,  Boston  has  been  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  cities  in  the 
United  States. 

Boston  is  the  central  reserve  city  of 
the  First  Federal  Reserve  District  un- 
der the  banking  act  of  1913,  and  the 
exchanges  at  its  clearing  house  in  the 
year  ended  Sept.  30,  1916,  aggregated 
$10,180,120,000,  an  increase  in  a  year 
of  $2,698,779,000.  The  commercial 
transactions  in  the  calendar  year  1916 
were  :  Imports  of  merchandise,  $202,- 
990,325 ;  exports,  $183,924,962,  a  con- 
siderable increase  over  the  totals  of 
each  of  the  two  preceding  years.  The 
manufacturing  interests  in  1910 
showed  3,155  establishments,  $175,- 
182,000  capital,  85,158  wage  earners, 
$124,577,000  cost  of  materials  used  in 
manufacturing,  and  $237,457,000 
value  of  products,  printing  and  pub- 
lishing ($28.021,000),  and  boots 
and  shoes  ($26,147,000)  leading.  In 
1917  the  net  public  debt  was  $86,- 
517,831,  and  the  assessed  valuation 
of  all  taxable  property  $1,608,701,- ! 
oOO. 

Boston,  a  seaport  in  Lincolnshire, 
England,  107  miles  N.  E.  of  London. 
Its  name  is  a  contraction  of  Botolph's 
town,  and  it  is  commonly  supposed  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Benedictine  Ab- 
bey founded  on  the  Witham  by  St. 
Botolph  in  654,  and  destroyed  in  870 
by  the  Danes.  Foxe,  the  martyrolo- 
gist,  and  Herbert  Ingram,  founder  of 
the  "  Illustrated  London  News,"  were 
natives  of  Boston. 

Boston  Tea  Party,  The,  a  fa- 
mous exploit  preceding  the  American 
Revolution.  In  order  to  make  as  em- 
phatic a  protest  as  possible  against 
the  British  crown's  policy  of  taxing 
imports,  a  party  of  Bostonians,  dis- 
guised as  Indians,  threw  into  the 
water  on  the  night  of  Dec.  16,  1773, 
the  cargoes  of  three  English  tea  ships 
that  had  just  arrived  in  the  harbor. 
Enraged  at  this  act,  Parliament 
passed  (March,  1774)  the  Boston 
Port  Bill,  taking  away  from  that  town 
the  privileges  of  a  port  of  entry  from 
June  1,  1774,  on.  This  bill  aroused 
much  indignation  in  the  colonies  and 
was  an  important  factor  in  precipi-  j 
tating  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 


Botany  Bay 

Boswell,  James,  a  Scotch  biog- 
rapher:  the  son  of  Lord  Auchinleck; 
born  in  Edinburgh,  Oct.  29,  1740.  In 
1791  appeared  his  "  Life  of  Johnson," 
a  work  which  he  had  been  long  pre- 
paring, and  which  at  once  gave  read- 
ers the  same  delight  as  it  has  ever 
since  inspired.  A  second  and  enlarged 
edition  came  out  in  1793.  By  this 
time  Boswell's  health  had  greatly  suf- 
fered from  his  too  convivial  habits, 
and  he  died  in  London  May  19,  1795. 

Bosworth,  Francke  Hunting- 
ton,  physician  and  author,  born  at 
Marietta,  Ohio,  Jan.  25,  1843,  gradu- 
ate of  Yale,  and  of  Bellevue  Hospital 
Medical  College,  where  he  became 
throat  specialist.  His  publications 
treat  mainly  of  his  specialty. 

Botanic  Gardens,  establishments 
in  which  plants  from  all  climates  are 
cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating the  science  of  botany,  and  also 
for  introducing  and  diffusiug  useful  or 
beautiful  plants  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Until  modern  times  their  sole 
design  was  the  cultivation  of  medici- 
nal plants.  In  the  United  States  the 
chief  are  those  of  New  York,  Wash- 
ington, Philadelphia,  and  Cambridge. 

Botany,  or  Phytology,  the  sci- 
ence which  treats  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  It  thus  forms  one  of  the 
two  great  divisions  of  biology,  or  the 
science  of  organization  and  life,  the 
other  being  zoology.  During  the  19th 
century,  and  especially  in  the  latter 
half  of  it,  enormous  progress  was  made 
in  the  study  of  vegetable  anatomy, 
histology,  and  physiology,  and  crypto- 
gamic  botany  was  carried  to  great 
perfection.  This  was  mainly  due  to 
the  great  improvement  of  the  micro- 
scope, but  much  of  the  work  done  was 
inspired  by  the  wider  conceptions  in- 
troduced into  the  science  by  the  work 
of  Darwin,  Wallace,  an<^  other  scien- 
tific evolutionists. 

Botany  Bay,  a  bay  of  New  South 
Wales,  Australia,  5  miles  S.  of  Syd- 
ney. It  was  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook,  on  his  first  voyage,  in  1770,  and 
named  by  him  from  the  great  number 
of  new  plants  found  in  its  vicinity.  In 
1787  it  received  England's  first  penal 
colony  in  the  East ;  and,  though  it  was 
supplanted  the  very  next  year  by  Port 
Jackson,  yet  it  long  continued  to  be 
the  popular  designation,  not  merely 
of  this  penal  settlement,  but  of  the 


Bot  Fly 

Australian  convict  settlements  gener- 
ally. 

Bot  Fly,  a  stout  bodied,  hairy  fly, 
with  antennae  inserted  in  rounded 
pits,  and  with  rudimentary  mouth 
parts,  developing  from  thick,  spiny 
maggots,  which  are  parasites  in  cat- 
tle, horses,  sheep,  etc. 

Botha,  Lonis,  a  Boer  statesman, 
born  in  Greytown,  Natal,  about  1863. 
He  began  life  as  a  farmer,  and,  as  a 
young  man,  had  a  share  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Transvaal  Republic. 
Later  he  fought  in  the  Kaffir  cam- 
paign. He  was  elected  to  the  Volks- 
raad  at  Pretoria.  Upon  the  outbreak 
of  the  Boer  War  with  England  in 
1899,  he  was  given  a  subordinate  com- 
mand, and,  upon  the  death  of  General 
Joubert,  in  March,  1900.  he  became 
commander  of  the  Boer  forces.  In 
1910  he  became  premier  of  the  South 
African  Union,  and  on  July  8,  1915, 
he  forced  the  surrender  of  German 
South-West  Africa,  renamed  the 
South-West  Africa  Protectorate.  See 
APPENDIX:  World  War. 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  the  N.  part  of 
the  Baltic  Sea,  which  separates  Swe- 
den from  Finland ;  length  about  450 
miles,  breadth  90  to  130,  depth  from 
20  to  50  fathoms.  Its  water  is  but 
slightly  salt,  and  it  freezes  in  the  win- 
ter, so  as  to  be  crossed  by  sledges  and 
carriages. 

Both  well,  James  Hepburn,  Earl 

of,  known  in  Scottish  history  by  his 
marriage  to  Queen  Mary ;  born  about 
1526.  It  is  believed  that  he  was 
deeply  concerned  in  the  murder  of 
Darnley,  Mary's  husband.  He  made 
love  to  the  widowed  queen,  and  seiz- 
ing her  at  Edinburgh,  he  carried  her  a  : 
prisoner  to  Dunbar  Castle,  and  pre- 
vailed upon  her  to  marry  him.  Mary 
was  soon  a  prisoner  in  Edinburgh,  and 
Bothwell  was  forced  to  flee  to  Den- 
mark, where  he  died  in  1576. 

Botocndos,  the  most  barbarous  of 
the  Indian  tribes  of  Brazil,  inhabit- 
ing the  East  Coast  range,  between  the 
Rio  Pardo  and  Rio  Doce.  They  wear 
pieces  of  wood  in  their  lower  lips  and 
ear  lobes. 

Bo  Tree,  the  peepul,  or  sacred  fig 
tree  of  India  and  Ceylon,  venerated 
by  the  Buddhists  and  planted  near 
their  temples. 


Bottle  Nose 

Botrychium,  the  rattlesnake  fern, 
from  its  growing  in  such  places  as 
'those  venomous  reptiles  frequent. 

Bottesini,  Giovanni,  an  Italian 
violinist,  born  in  Crema,  in  Lombar- 
dy,  Dec.  24,  1832.  A  concert  tour, 
begun  in  1840,  and  extending  to  the 
United  States,  established  his  fame  as 
the  greatest  master  of  the  double  bass 
fiddle.  He  died  in  Parma,  in  1889. 

Bottger,  or  Bottiger,  Johann 
Friedricli,  a  German  alchemist,  the 
inventor  of  the  celebrated  Meissen 
porcelain,  born  in  Schleiz,  Feb.  4, 
1682.  He  found  refuge  in  Saxony, 
where  the  Elector  erected  a  laboratory 
for  him,  and  forced  him  to  turn  his 
attention  to  the  manufacture  of  porce- 
lain, resulting  in  the  invention  asso- 
ciated with  his  name.  He  died  in 
Dresden,  March  13,  1719. 

Botticelli,  Sandro,  (for  Alessan- 
dro),  an  Italian  painter  of  the  Floren- 
tine school,  born  in  1447,  died  1515. 
Working  at  first  in  the  shop  of  the 
goldsmith  Botticello,  from  whom  he 
takes  his  name,  he  showed  such  talent 
that  he  was  removed  to  the  studio  of 
the  distinguished  painter  Fra  Lippo 
Lippi.  Frem  this  master  he  took  the 
fire  and  passion  of  his  style,  and 
added  a  fine  fantasy  and  delicacy  of 
his  own.  He  paints  flowers,  especially 
roses,  with  incomparable  skill.  In 
1481  Botticelli  was  in  charge  of  the 
decorations  in  the  new  chapel  of  the 
Vatican,  and  painted  a  number  of  the 
portraits  of  the  popes,  and  three  of  the 
large  frescoes :  Life  of  Moses,  Temp- 
tation of  Christ,  and  the  Punishment 
of  Korah,  Dathan  and  Abiram.  He 
also  drew  illustrations  for  Dante's  In- 
ferno. His  Madonnas  are  the  best  ex- 
amples of  his  work,  for  nowhere  else 
does  he  show  such  feeling  and  energy. 
The  best  known  of  his  paintings  is  the 
"  Primavera "  or  "  Spring "  in  the 
Florence  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  In 
his  later  years  Botticelli  became  an 
ardent  disciple  of  Savonarola,  and  is 
said  by  Vasari  to  have  neglected  his 
painting  for  the  study  of  mystical  the- 
ology. 

Bottle  Gourd,  a  gourd  called 
also  the  white  pumpkin.  The  Hindus 
cultivated  it  largely  as  an  article  of 
food. 

Bottle  Nose,  a  cetacean,  the  bottle 
nosed  whale,  very  destructive  to  food 


Botts 

fishes,  and  of  comparatively  little  eco- 
nomic value  itself. 

Botts,  John  Minor,  an  American 
legislator,  born  in  Dumfries,  Va.,  Sept. 
16,  1802.  He  studied  law  and,  in 
1833,  entered  the  Virginia  legislature. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839 
and  was  frequently  re-elected.  Upon 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  as- 
serted his  devotion  to  the  Union,  and, 
in  1862,  he  suffered  imprisonment  on 
that  account.  After  the  war  he  was 
one  of  Jefferson  Davis'  bondsmen ; 
and  attended  the  Convention  of  South- 
ern Loyalists,  in  Philadelphia.  He 
died  in  Culpepper,  Va.,  Jan.  7,  1869. 

Boucher,  Jonathan,  an  American 
loyalist  during  the  period  prior  to  the 
Revolutionary  War.  He  was  born  in 
England  in  1738,  came  to  America  at 
the  age  of  21,  and  later  became  rector 
of  William  and  Mary  College  in  Vir- 
ginia. With  all  the  force  of  a  vigorous 
nature  he  opposed  the  Revolution  with 
voice  and  pen,  until  he  was  forced  to 
leave  the  country  and  return  to  Eng- 
land. In  a  volume  of  collected  dis- 
courses, which  he  dedicated  to  Wash- 
ington with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of 
intimate  friendship,  he  sets  forth  the 
position  of  the  American  loyalists  dur- 
ing the  agitation  that  led  up  to  the 
Revolution. 

Boncicanlt,.  Dion,  a  dramatic 
author  and  actor,  born  in  Dublin,  Dec. 
26,  1822 ;  educated  at  London  Univer- 
sity. He  produced  his  first  dramatic 
work,  "  London  Assurance,"  before  he 
was  19  years  old.  It  was  signally  suc- 
cessful, and  its  success  determined  his 
career  in  life.  Once  embarked  in  the 
profession  of  a  play  writer,  Boucicault 
produced  piece  after  piece  in  rapid 
succession,  and  greatly  increased  the 
reputation  which  his  first  attempt  had 
brought  him.  Boucicault  distinguished 
hjmself  equally  in  comedy,  farce  and 
melodrama.  When  he  went  upon  the 
stage,  as  he  soon  did,  he  added  a  high 
reputation  as  an  actor  to  the  reputa- 
tion he  had  previously  gained  as  an 
author.  From  1853  to  1860  he  was  in 
the  United  States,  where  his  popular- 
ity was  scarcely  less  than  it  had  been 
in  England.  His  chief  works  include 
"  The  Octoroon,"  "  Colleen  Bawn," 
"  Arrah-na-Pogue,"  "  Used  up,"  "  The 
Corsican  Brothers,"  "The  Shaugraun." 
Died,  New  York  city,  Sept.  18.  1890. 


Bo  nil  16 

Bondinot,  Ellas,  a  distinguished 
American  patriot  and  philanthropist, 
born  in  Philadelphia,  May  2,  1740; 
was  President  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress (1782),  and  first  President  of 
the  American  Bible  Society  (1816- 
1821).  He  died  in  Burlington,  N.  J.. 
Oct.  24,  1821. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine 
de,  a  French  navigator,  born  in  Par- 
is, Nov.  11,  1729.  At  first  a  lawyer, 
he  afterward  entered  the  army  and 
fought  bravely  in  Canada,  under  the 
Marquis  of  Montcalm.  After  the  bat- 
tle in  which  Montcalm  was  killed, 
Bougainville  returned  to  France  and 
served  with  distinction  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1761,  in  Germany.  After  the 
peace  he  entered  the  navy,  and  be- 
came a  distinguished  naval  officer. 
Bougainville  then  made  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  which  enriched  ge- 
ography with  a  number  of  new  discov- 
eries. In  the  American  War  of  In- 
dependence he  distinguished  himself 
at  sea,  but  withdrew  from  the  service 
after  the  Revolution.  He  died  in  Paris, 
April  31,  1811. 

Boughton,  George  Henry,  an 
English-American  landscape  and  genre 
painter,  born  near  Norwich,  England, 
in  1834.  His  parents  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1839,  and  settled  in 
Albany.  He  studied  art  without  a 
master,  and,  in  1853,  went  to  London 
and  Paris  to  continue  his  studies.  He 
died  in  London,  Jan.  19,  1905. 

Boughton,  Willis,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Victor,  N.  Y.,  April 
17,  1854.  He  has  won  note  in  the 
work  of  university  extension. 

Bouguereau,  Guillaume 
Adolphe,  a  French  painter,  born 
1825.  His  admirers  consider  him  pre- 
eminent as  a  painter  of  flesh,  but  there 
is  a  certain  theatric  air  about  his 
work  that  fails  to  recommend  it  to  the 
most  discriminating.  He  was  president 
of  the  SocietiS  des  Artistes  in  1885. 
His  paintings  always  attract  atten- 
tion and  are  well  known  through  re- 
productions, his  pictures  of  child-life 
being  especially  striking.  Among  his 
later  works  are  "  Psyche  et  1  "Amour," 
"  L'Admiration,"  and  "  Compassion," 
He  died  April  19,  1905. 

B  o  u  i  1 1  e,  Francois  Claude, 
Amour,  Marquis  de,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  in  Cluzel,  Nov.  19,  1739  j 


Bonlainvilliers 

entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  14  and 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In 
1768  he  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
island  of  Guadeloupe,  and  afterward 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  French 
forces  in  the  West  Indies.  When  war 
broke  out  in  1778,  he  successively  took 
from  the  British,  Dominica,  Tobago, 
St  Eustache,  Saba,  St.  Martin,  St. 
Christopher's,  and  Nevis.  Louis  XVI. 
nominated  him  a  member  of  the  As- 
sembly of  Notables  in  1787-1788;  in 
1790  he  was  made  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  the  Meuse,  the  Saar, 
and  the  Moselle.  His  decision  of  char- 
acter prevented  the  dissolution  of  the 
army  and  the  outbreak  of  civil  war. 
For  his  share  in  the  attempted  escape 
of  Louis  XVI.  he  had  to  flee  from 
France.  In  1791  he  entered  into  the 
service  of  Gustavus  III.,  of  Sweden, 
and  afterward  served  in  the  corps  of 
the  Prince  of  Conde.  He  rejected  a 
proposal,  made  in  1793,  that  he  should 
take  the  chief  command  in  La  Vendee ; 
and  went  to  England,  where  his  advice 
in  West  Indian  affairs  was  useful  to 
the  government  He  died  in  London, 
Nov.  14,  1800. 

Boulainvilliers,  Henry,  Count, 
a  French  author,  descended  from  an 
ancient  family  in  Picardy,  born  in  St. 
Saire,  Normandy,  Oct  11,  1658  r  died 
in  Paris,  Jan.  23,  1722. 

Bonlanger,  Georges  Ernest 
Jean  Marie,  a  French  soldier,  born 
in  Rennes,  April  29,  1837.  After  a 
successful  career  in  Algeria  and  in  the 
East  he  became  Minister  of  War.  In  the 
ministerial  crisis  of  1887  he  lost  his 
portfolio,  and  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  13th  Army  Corps,  but 
was  retired  March  28,  1888.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1889,  be  was  elected  Deputy  to 
the  National  Assembly  by  81,000  ma- 
jority, in  consequence  of  which  the 
Floquet  ministry  resigned.  In  August, 
1889,  he  was  charged  with  embezzle- 
ment, treason  and  conspiracy,  and 
found  guilty  by  the  Senate ;  the  elec- 
tions in  the  12  cantons  were  annulled, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  deportation. 
He  died  in  Brussels,  Sept.  30,  189L 

Bonlder,  a  large,  rounded  block  of 
stone,  which,  whether  lying  loose  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground  or  imbedded 
in  the  soil,  is  of  different  composition 
from  the  rocks  adjacent  to  which  it 
DOW  rests. 


Bounty  Jumper 

Bonlder  Formation,  a  forma- 
tion consisting  of  mud,  sand,  and  clay, 
more  frequently  unstratified  than  the 
reverse,  generally  studded  with  frag- 
ments of  rocks,  some  of  them  angular, 
others  rounded,  with  boulders  scatter- 
ed here  and  there  through  the  mass. 

Boulevard,  a  French  word  for- 
merly applied  to  the  ramparts  of  a 
fortified  town,  but  when  these  were 
leveled,  and  the  whole  planted  with 
trees  and  laid  out  as  promenades,  the 
name  boulevard  was  still  retained. 
Modern  usage  applies  it  also  to  many 
streets  which  are  broad  and  planted 
with  trees. 

Boulogne*  or  Bo-alogne-STir- 
Mer,  a  fortified  seaport  of  France, 
Department  of  Pas  de  Calais,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Liane.  It  consists  of  the 
upper  and  lower  town.  The  former 
is  surrounded  with  lofty  walls,  and  has 
well  planted  ramparts;  the  latter, 
which  is  the  business  part  of  the  town, 
has  straight  and  well  built  streets.  In 
the  castle,  which  dates  from  1231, 
Louis  Napoleon  was  imprisoned  in 
1840.  Napoleon,  after  deepening  and 
fortifying  the  harbor,  encamped  180,- 
000  men  here  with  the  intention  of  in- 
vading England  at  a  favorable  mo- 
ment ;  but,  upon  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities  with  Austria,  in  1805,  they 
were  called  to  other  places.  Pop. 
(1911)  53,128. 

Bonltpn,  Matthew,  an  English 
mechanician,  born  in  Birmingham, 
Sept.  3,  1728.  He  engaged  hi  busi- 
ness as  a  manufacturer  of  hardware, 
and  invented  and  brought  to  great 
perfection  inlaid  steel  buckles,  buttons, 
watch  chains,  etc.  The  introduction  of 
the  steam  engine  at  Soho  led  to  a  con- 
nection between  Boulton  and  James 
Watt,  who  became  partners  hi  trade, 
in  1769.  He  died  in  Soho,  Aug.  16, 
1809. 

Bounty,  a  grant  or  benefaction 
from  the  Government  to  those  whose 
services  directly  or  indirectly  benefit 
it,  and  to  whom,  therefore,  it  desires 
to  accord  some  recompense,  OF  at  least 
recognition. 

Bounty  Jumper,  a  term  used 
during  the  Civil  War  in  the  United 
States  to  denote  one  who  enlisted  in 
the  United  States  military  service  to 
secure  the  bounty  paid  by  the  Gov- 
ernment for  volunteers,  and  then  de- 
serted. 


Bouquet  de  la  Grye 


Bonrke 


Bouquet  de  la  Grye,  Jean 
Jacques  Anatole,  a  French  hydro- 
graphical  engineer,  born  in  Thiers, 
May  20,  1827.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Institute ;  commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy.  A  project  which  he 
long  urged  was  to  make  Paris  a  sea- 
port by  means  of  a  ship-canal  up  the 
Seine,  He  died  in  1909. 

Bourbon,  an  ancient  French  fam- 
ily which  has  given  three  dynasties  to 
Europe,  the  Bourbons  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Naples.  The  first  of  the 
line  known  in  history  is  ADHEMAB, 
who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  10th  cen- 
tury, was  Lord  of  the  Bourbonnais 
(now  the  Department  of  Allier).  The 
power  and  possessions  of  the  family 
increased  steadily  through  a  long  series 
of  Archambaulds  of  Bourbon,  till,  in 
1272,  BEATRIX,  daughter  of  Agnes  of 
Bourbon  and  John  of  Burgundy,  mar- 
ried Robert,  sixth  son  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  and  thus  connected  the  Bour- 
bons with  the  royal  line  of  the  Ca- 
pets. Their  son,  Louis,  had  the  bar- 
ony converted  into  a  dukedom  and  be- 
came the  first  Due  de  Bourbon.  Two 
branches  took  their  origin  from  the 
two  sons  of  this  Louis,  Duke  of  Bour- 
bon, who  died  in  1341.  The  elder  line 
was  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Bourbon, 
which  became  extinct  at  the  death  of 
the  Constable  of  Bourbon  in  1527,  in 
the  assault  on  the  city  of  Rome.  The 
younger  was  that  of  the  Counts  of  La 
Marche,  afterward  Counts  and  Dukes 
of  Vendome.  From  these  descended 
ANTHOXY  of  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome, who,  by  marriage,  acquired  the 
kingdom  of  Navarre,  and  whose  son, 
HENRY  of  Navarre,  became  Henry  IV. 
of  France. 

By  the  death  of  the  Count  of  Cham- 
bord,  in  1883,  the  elder  line  of  the 
Bourbons  of  France  became  extinct, 
and  the  right  of  succession  merged  in 
the  Count  of  Paris,  grandson  of  King 
Louis  Philippe,  representative  of  the 
younger,  or  Orleans  line. 

Bourbon,  Charles,  Duke  of,  or 
Constable  of  Bourbon,  son  of  Gil- 
bert, Count  of  Montpensier,  born  in 
1489,  and,  by  his  marriage  with  the 
heiress  pf  the  elder  Bourbon  line,  ac- 
quired immense  estate.  He  received 
from  Francis  I.,  in  the  20th  year  of 
his  age,  the  sword  of  Constable,  and 
in  the  war  in  Italy  rendered  important 


services  by  the  victory  of  Marignano 
and  the  capture  of  Milan.  On  May 
G,  1527,  his  troops  took  Rome  by 
storm,  and  the  sacking  and  plundering 
continued  for  months.  But  the  Bour- 
bon himself  was  shot  as  he  mounted 
the  breach  at  the  head  of  his  soldiers. 
He  was  but  38  years  of  age. 

Bourbonnais,  a  village  of  Illinois 
in  Kankakee  county,  55  miles  south  of 
Chicago.  Noted  since  1S65  as  the  seat 
of  the  R.  C.  College  of  St.  Viateur's, 
and  of  Notre  Dame  Academy. 

Bonrdalone,  Louis,  a  Jesuit,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  preachers  France 
ever  produced,  was  born  in  1632.  The 
extreme  popularity  of  his  sermons  in- 
duced his  superiors  to  call  him  to 
Paris,  and  he  became  the  favorite 
preacher  of  Louis  XI V.  Died  in  1704. 

Bourdon  (named  after  Mr.  Bour- 
don of  Paris,  who  invented  it  in  1849 ) , 
a  barometer  consisting  of  an  elastic 
flattened  tube  of  metal  bent  to  a  circu- 
lar form  and  exhausted  of  air,  so  that 
the  ends  of  the  tube  separate  as  the 
atmospheric  pressure  is  diminished, 
and  approach  as  it  increases. 

Bourgeoisie,  a  name  applied  to  a 
certain  class  in  France,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  nobility  and  clergy  as 
well  as  to  the  working  classes. 

Bourget,  Paul,  a  French  novel- 
ist, born  in  Amiens,  Sept.  2,  1852. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  in 
1894.  He  ranks  among  the  first  of 
the  present  day  French  novelists. 

Bonrinot,  John  George,  a  Ca- 
nadian publicist,  born  in  Sydney, 
Nova  Scotia,  Oct.  24,  1838.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Toronto; 
founded  and  edited  the  "  Halifax  Re- 
porter," became  clerk  of  the  Dominion 
Parliamemt  in  1880 ;  was  created  a 
member  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George  in  1890;  and  in  1892 
became  President  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety of  Canada.  Died,  Oct.  12,  1902. 

Bonrke,  John  Gregory,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  June  23,  1846.  He 
was  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1869, 
and  saw  much  service  against  the  In- 
dians, rising  through  various  grades 
to  the  rank  of  major.  He  became  an 
expert  in  American  ethnological  lore. 
He  was  an  officer  of  great  courage  and 
ability.  He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
June  8,  1896. 


Bonrmont 

Bonrmont,  Louise  Angustc 
Victor  de  Ghaisne,  Cpmte  dc, 
Marshal  of  France,  born  in  Anjou, 
Sept.  2,  1773 ;  died  in  Anjou,  Oct.  27, 
1846. 

Bourne,  Hugh,  founder  of  the 
sect  of  Primitive  Methodists,  born  iii 
Staffordshire,  England,  April  3,  1772. 
In  the  course  of  his  life  he  visited 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Canada,  and  the 
United  States,  where  his  ministrations 
•were  attended  with  great  success.  He 
died  in  Bemersly,  Oct  11,  1852. 

Bourrienne,  Fauvclet  de,  a 
French  diplomatist,  born  in  1769, 
and  educated  along  with  Bonaparte  at 
the  School  of  Brienne,  where  a  close 
intimacj  sprang  up  between  them. 
Bourrienne  went  to  Germany  to  study 
law  and  languages,  but,  returning  to 
Paris  in  1792,  renewed  his  friendship 
with  Napoleon,  from  whom  he  ob- 
tained various  appointments,  and,  lat- 
terly, that  of  minister  plenipotentiary 
at  Hamburg.  Notwithstanding  that 
his  character  suffered  from  his  being" 
involved  in  several  dishonorable  mone- 
tary transactions,  he  continued  to  fill 
high  State  offices,  and,  in  1814,  was 
made  prefect  of  police.  On  the  abdi- 
cation of  Napoleon  he  paid  his  court 
to  Louis  XVIII.,  and  was  nominated 
a  Minister  of  State.  The  Revolution 
of  July,  1830,  and  the  loss  of  his 
wealth  affected  him  so  much  that  he 
lost  bis  reason,  and  died  in  a  lunatic 
asylum  in  1834. 

Bourse,  an  exchange  where  mer- 
chants, bankers,  etc.,  meet  for  the 
transaction  of  financial  business.  Used 
especially  of  the  Stock  Exchange  of 
Paris. 

Bousaa,  or  Bnssang,  a  city  of 
Africa,  in  the  Sudan,  on  the  Niger, 
Dear  which  are  rapids.  It  was  here 
that  Mungo  Park  met  his  death  in 
1805.  Pop.  est.  12,000  to  18,000. 

Boutelle,  Charles  Addison,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  Damar- 
iscotta,  Me.,  Feb.  9,  1839;  served  in 
the  navy  during  the  Civil  War,  enter- 
ing as  an  acting  master,  and  being 
promoted  to  lieutenant  for  gallantry 
in  action.  In  1870  he  became  the  edi- 
tor of  the  Bangor  "  Whig  and  Cou- 
rier." He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1882,  and  held  his  seat  till  December, 
1900,  when  he  resigned,  and  was  made 
a  captain  on  the  retired  list  of  the 


Bowditcu 

navy.  He  was  author  of  the  bill 
(1890)  authorizing  the  construction 
of  the  first  modern  battleship  of  the 
United  States  Navy.  He  died  in 
Waverly,  Mass.,  May  21,  1901. 

Bontwell,  George  Sewell,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  Brook- 
line,  Mass.,  Jan.  23,  1818;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1836;  served  in 
the  state  Legislature  in  1842-1851; 
Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1851- 
1852 ;  was  organizer  of  the  Republican 
Party  in  1854 ;  appointed  the  first 
commissioner  of  the  newly  established 
Department  of  Internal  Revenue  in 
1862 ;  a  Representative  in  Congress  in 
1863-1869 ;  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
impeachment  trial  of  President  John- 
son ;  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in 
1869-1873 ;  and  a  U.  S.  Senator,  1873- 
79.  He  died  Feb.  28,  1905. 

Bouvard,  Alexis,  a  Swiss  mathe- 
matician and  astronomer,  born  in 
1767;  went  to  Paris  about  1785  to 
study  mathematics  and  astronomy, 
and  in  1793  obtained  a  position  in  the 
Paris  Observatory.  He  is  celebrated 
for  his  researches  in  the  theory  of 
planetary  motions,  especially  those  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn.  Later  he  took 
up  the  theory  of  Uranus,  and  was  the 
first  to  suggest  that  the  discrepancies 
between  the  old  and  new  observations 
could  only  be  reconciled  by  the  hypoth- 
esis of  another  undiscovered  disturb- 
ing planet,  an  opinion  which  he  re- 
tained till  his  death,  three  years  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  Neptune. 

Bovidse,  the  ox  family  of  ruminat- 
ing animals,  containing  not  merely 
the  oxen,  but  many  others  animals, 
placed  in  other  families,  such  as  the 
bison,  buffalo,  yak,  zebu,  etc.  They 
are  generally  of  large  size,  with  broad, 
hairless  muzzles;  most  of  them  have 
been  domesticated. 

Bowditch,  Henry  Ingersoll,  an 
American  physician,  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  Aug.  9,  180&  He  discovered 
the  law  of  soil  moisture  as  a  cause  of 
consumption  in  New  England;  intro- 
duced several  new  features  in  surgical 
treatment,  and  was  author  of  many 
general  and  special  works  in  medical 
science.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Jan.  14,  1892. 

Bowditcn,  Henry  Pickering,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  April  4,  1840;.  was  graduated 


Bowdoin 

at  Harvard  in  1861,  and  subsequently 
studied  chemistry  and  medicine,  and, 
after  the  Civil  War,  in  which  he 
reached  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
Union  service,  he  took  a  special  course 
in  physiology  in  France  and  Germany. 
In  1871-1876  he  was  Assistant  Pro- 
fessor of  Physiology  in  the  Harvard 
Medical  School,  and  in  1876  was 
elected  to  the  full  chair.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  as  well  as  of  nu- 
merous medical  societies,  and  has  pub- 
lished many  papers  on  physiological 
subjects.  He  died  March  13,  1911. 

Bowdoin,  James,  an  American 
patriot,  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  8,  1727. 
He  was  prominent  in  Massachusetts 
during  the  Revolution.  He  became 
governor  of  his  State  in  1785,  and,  in 
the  following  year,  suppressed  Shay's 
rebellion.  Bowdoin  College  was  named 
after  him.  He  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  6, 
1790. 

Bowdoin  College,  a  co-education- 
al institution  in  Brunswick,  Me. ;  or- 
ganized in  1794  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Congregational  Church  ;  but  is  now 
non-sectarian.  Its  several  departments 
have  about  400  students,  and  40  in- 
structors. 

Bowen,  Henry  Chandler,  an 
American  editor  and  publisher,  born 
in  Woodstock,  Conn.,  Sept.  11,  1813. 
He  received  a  common  school  educa- 
tion and  entered  business.  In  1848  he 
helped  found  "  The  Independent,"  in 
New  York.  He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  24, 1896. 

Bowen,  Herbert  Wolcott, 
United  States  Minister  to  Venezuela, 
who  acquired  world-wide  repute  as  a 
diplomatist  by  his  management  in  be- 
half of  Venezuela  of  negotiations  with 
England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  which 
brought  to  a  close  the  blockade  of 
Venezuela  ports  by  those  powers  in 
1902-1903.  Mr.  Bowen  was  born  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  29, 1856 ;  studied 
at  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic,  in  Europe 
and  at  Yale,  and  was  graduated 
with  honor  from  the  Columbia  Law 
School  in  1881.  He  practiced  law  in 
New  York,  and  was  appointed  in  1890 
Consul  and  Consul-General  to  Barce- 
lona, and  afterward  Minister  to  Per- 
sia. In  June,  1901,  he  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Venezuela.  When  the  al- 
lies began  war  on  Venezuela  to  compel 

E.  22. 


Box 

payment  of  certain  claims  President 
Castro  requested  Mr.  Bowen  to  act  in 
behalf  of  Venezuela  in  arranging  terms 
for  a  settlement.  He  was  a  successful 
diplomat,  but  in  June,  1905,  was  dis- 
missed from  government  service  owing 
to  injudicious  charges  against  his 
predecessor,  Assist.  Sec.  of  State  F. 
B.  Loomis. 

Bower  Birds,  the  name  given  to 
certain  birds  found  in  Australia.  The 
name  is  given  because  these  birds  are 
in  the  habit  of  building  bowers  as  well 
as  nests. 

Bowery,  The,  a  New  York  street. 
It  begins  at  Chatham  Square  and  ter- 
minates at  Cooper  Union.  It  was  long 
notorious  for  the  resorts  located  along 
its  length,  but  its  character  has  under- 
gone improvement. 

Bowie,  James,  an  American  fron- 
tiersman, born  in  Burke  county,  Ga., 
about  1790.  He  took  part  in  the  re- 
volt of  Texas  against  Mexico,  and  fell 
in  the  Alamo  massacre,  March  6,  1836. 
He  gave  his  name  to  the  bowie  knife. 

Bowling,  an  ancient  English  game, 
still  exceedingly  popular.  The  favor- 
ite form  in  the  United  States  is 
played  indoors,  in  an  "  alley  "  50-65 
feet  long  and  about  6  feet  wide.  At 
the  further  end  10  "  pins,"  generally 
of  ash  wood,  are  set  up  in  the  form 
of  a  triangle.  The  players  roll  wooden 
balls  at  these,  with  the  object  of 
knocking  down  as  many  as  possible 
at  each  throw. 

Bowman,  Edward  Morris,  Amer- 
ican organist  and  musical  theorist,  b. 
Barnard,  Vt.,  in  1848 ;  studied  in  Ber- 
lin, Paris,  and  London,  under  famous 
masters ;  and  was  the  first  American 
A.  R.  C.  O.  of  London.  In  1877  he  pub- 
lished "  Bowman- Weitzmann's  Manual 
of  Musical  Theory ;"  in  1891  succeed- 
ed Dr.  F.  L.  Ritter  at  Vassar;  was 
organist  of  the  Bapt.  Temple,  Brook- 
lyn, 1895-1905;  then  of  Calvary 
Church,  N.  Y.  C.  He  died  Aug.  27, 
1913. 

Bowne,  Borden  Parker,  an 
American  philosophical  writer,  born 
in  Leonardsyille,  N.  J.,  Jan.  14,  1847. 
He  was  religious  editor  of  the  New 
York  "Independent,"  1875-1876,  be- 
coming Professor  of  Philosophy  at 
Boston  University  in  1876.  D.  1910. 

Box,  the  English  name  of  buxus, 
a  genus  of  plants.  In  its  wild  state 


Boxers 

it  is  a  small  tree.  It  is  found  all 
over  the  world  in  some  form  of  spe- 
cies. It  is  an  evergreen. 

Boxers,  members  of  a  Chinese  se- 
cret society  which  aims  ostensibly  at 
the  expulsion  of  foreigners.  The 
origin  of  the  Boxers  appears  to  have 
been  due  to  fanatic  opposition  to 
Christian  missionaries,  and  to  the  en- 
croachments of  European  powers  upon 
Chinese  territory. 

Early  in  1900  the  native  popu- 
lation in  Shantung  were  found  to  be 
rallying  around  the  standard  of  the 
Boxers  and  adopting  its  motto,  "  Up- 
hold the  dynasty,  drive  out  the  for- 
eigners." The  Diplomatic  Corps  at 
Peking  called  upon  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment to  suppress  the  movement. 
In  May,  1900,  they  began  a 
concerted  movement  upon  the  Chinese 
capital  which,  notwithstanding  the 
protests  of  the  Diplomatic  Corps,  re- 
mained unchecked. 

The  situation  had  been  rendered  ad- 
ditionally threatening  by  the  action  of 
the  allies  in  opening  fire  upon  the  forts 
at  Taku.  On  June  17  the  warships 
of  the  Powers  were  in  force  at  that 
port ;  when  fired  upon  by  the  Chinese 
they  opened  a  bombardment.  The 
demonstration  before  Taku  had  been 
Deprecated  by  the  United  States  com- 
mander, Admiral  Kempff,  who  did  not 
participate  in  the  bombardment.  His 
warning  that  hostilities  would  unite 
the  Chinese  against  the  foreigners  was 
justified  by  events. 

In  June,  1900,  Peking  was  reduced 
to  a  state  of  siege  by  the  Boxers.  The 
position  of  the  foreigners  in  the  capi- 
tal became  precarious.  The  entire 
Diplomatic  Corps  was  cut  off  from 
communication  with  the  outside  world. 
After  capturing  Tien-Tsin  the  forces 
of  the  powers  advanced  on  Peking,  de- 
feating the  Chinese  who  opposed  them, 
and  rescuing  the  legations  from  de- 
struction. The  troops  were  just  in 
time  to  save  the  inmates  of  the  lega- 
tions, and  a  large  number  of  native 
Christians  from  outrage  and,  massacre. 
The  Chinese  court  fled  from  Peking, 
and  after  many  months  of  desultory 
warfare  and  negotiation  China  con- 
sented to  pay  full  indemnity  and  to 
punish  the  officials  guilty  of  inciting 
the  Boxers.  The  society  is  still  a 
menace  to  foreigners. 

Boxing.    See  PUGILISM. 


Boycotting 

Box  Tortoise,  a  name  given  to 
one  or  two  North  American  tortoises 
that  can  completely  shut  themselves 
into  their  shell. 

Boyaca,  a  Department  of  Colom- 
bia, touching  Venezuela.  In  the  W.  it 
is  mountainous;  in  the  E.  it  has  vast 
prairies,  and  is  watered  by  the  Meta 
and  its  tributaries.  The  Muzo  emer* 
aid  mine  is  the  richest  in  the  world, 
and  the  Department  is  rich  in  salt 
springs,  coal,  .iron,  plumbago,  and 
copper  ore.  Area,  16,460  square 
miles;  population  (1912)  586,499. 
Capital,  Tunja. 

i>oyar,  Boiar,  or  Boyard,  a 
name  first  used  by  the  Bulgarians, 
Serbs  and  Russians,  subsequently 
adopted  by  the  Moldavians  and  Walla- 
chians,  and  synonymous  with  bojarin, 
used  by  the  Bohemians,  Poles,  and 
other  Slavic  tribes,  to  qualify  the  high- 
est social  condition ;  corresponding  in 
certain  respects  to  that  of  an  English 
peer. 

Boycotting,  a  practice  which 
owes  its  name  to  Capt.  C.  C.  Boycott 
(died  June  21,  1897),  of  Lough  Mask 
House,  in  Mayo,  Ireland,  and  agent, 
in  1880,  of  Lord  Erne,  an  Irish  noble- 
man. The  former  gentleman  having 
given  offense  about  agrarian  matters  to 
the  people  among  whom  he  lived,  dur- 
ing the  land  agitation  of  1880-1881, 
no  one  would  gather  in  his  crops.  The 
case  being  reported  in  the  "  Press," 
about  60  Orangemen,  belonging  to  the 
North  of  Ireland,  each  man  carrying 
a  revolver,  organized  themselves  into 
a  "  Boycott  relief  expedition."  The 
Government  gave  them  a  strong  es- 
cort of  cavalry,  besides  foot  soldiers 
and  constabulary,  artillery  also  being 
added  on  the  return  journey.  The 
crops  were  gathered  in  and  sent  away, 
and  the  Captain  himself  brought  off  to 
a  region  of  greater  security.  The  ob- 
ject of  a  boycott  is  to  put  a  person 
outside  the  pale  of  the  society,  amid 
which  he  lives,  and  on  which  he  de- 
pends; socially  to  outlaw  him,  to  re- 
fuse to  sell  to,  and  decline  to  buy  from, 
him ;  to  refuse  to  work  for  or  to  em- 
ploy him. 

In  the  United  States  and  in  England 
the  boycott  is  made  use  of  by  trade 
unionists  as  a  strike  measure.  It  has 
in  some  instances  been  enjoined  by  the 
courts,  and  in  some  States  laws  have 
been  passed  against  it. 


Boyd 

Boyd,  Belle,  a  Confederate  spy, 
born  in  Martinsburg,  VV.  Va.,  May  9, 
1843.  She  rendered  aid  to  the  South- 
ern cause  by  detecting  the  Federal 
plans  of  campaign  and  revealing  them 
to  the  Confederates.  Gen.  "  Stone- 
wall "  Jackson  sent  her  a  letter  of 
thanks.  She  died  at  Kilbourn,  Wis., 
June  11,  1900. 

Boyd,  Thomas  Duckett,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Wythe- 
ville,  Va.,  Jan.  20,  1854.  He  was 
graduated  at  Louisiana  State  Univer- 
sity, and  has  held  important  posts  in 
the  educational  institutions  of  Louisi- 
ana. Since  1896  he  has  been  Presi- 
dent of  Louisiana  State  University. 

Boyden,  Seth,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Foxboro,  Mass.,  Nov. 
17,  1788;  was  brought  up  on  a  farm, 
and  attended  a  district  school.  Me- 
chanically inclined,  he  spent  much 
time  experimenting  in  a  blacksmith 
shop.  His  first  invention  was  a  ma- 
chine for  making  nails,  and  in  1809 
he  undertook  to  manufacture  both 
nails  and  files.  Soon  afterward  he  in- 
vented a  machine  for  splitting  leather, 
and  in  1815,  he  took  it  to  Newark,  N. 
J.,  where  he  engaged  in  the  leather 
business.  In  1816  he  invented  a  ma- 
chine for  cutting  brads,  and  followed 
this  by  the  invention  of  patent  leather, 
which  he  manufactured  till  1831,  when 
he  began  making  malleable  iron  cast- 
ings, on  a  system  of  his  own.  In  1835 
he  turned  his  attention  to  steam  en- 
gines ;  substituted  the  straight  axle  for 
the  crank  in  locomotives ;  and  invented 
the  cut-off  now  used  instead  of  the 
throttle  valve.  In  1849  he  went  to 
California,  but  was  unsuccessful,  and 
returned  to  New  Jersey,  where  he  ap- 
plied himself  to  farming,  and  devel- 
oped a  variety  of  strawberry  previous- 
ly unequaled  in  size  or  quality.  He 
died  in  Middleville,  N.  J.,  March  31, 
1870. 

Boyer,  Jean  Pierre,  President  of 
the  Republic  of  Haiti,  was  a  mulatto, 
born  in  Port-au-Prince  in  1776.  He 
was  educated  in  France,  and,  in  1776, 
entered  the  military  service.  He 
was  unanimously  elected  President  of 
the  Republic  in  1818.  He  arranged 
the  financial  affairs,  collected  funds 
into  the  treasury,  improved  the  admin- 
istration, and  encouraged  arts  and  sci- 
ences. After  the  death  of  Christophe, 
be  united  the  monarchical  part  of  the 


Boyton 

island  with  the  Republic  in  1820 ;  and, 
in  1821,  the  eastern  district  also, 
which  had  hitherto  remained  under  the 
dominion  of  Spain;  and  he  urgently 
sought  the  recognition  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  youthful  State  by 
France,  which  was  obtained,  in  1825, 
upon  payment  of  an  indemnity  of  150,- 
000,000  francs.  Boyer  carried  on  the 
government  of  the  Republic  of  Haiti 
for  15  years  from  this  time  with  the 
most  perfect  peace ;  but  his  policy, 
which  was  rather  arbitrary,  and  direct- 
ed to  the  object  of  depressing  the  ne- 
groes in  favor  of  his  own  race,  result- 
ed in  a  victorious  insurrection  in  1843. 
Boyer  fled  to  Jamaica.  In  1848  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  died  there,  July  9, 
1850. 

Boyesen,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  an 
American  novelist,  born  at  Frederiks- 
varn,  Norway,  Sept.  23,  1848.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1869; 
returned  to  Europe  in  1872  and  studied 
Germanic  Philology  at  Leipsic  two 
years;  then,  returning  to  this  country, 
he  was  Professor  of  German  in  Cor- 
nell University  for  six  years,  and  then 
of  Germanic  Languages  and  Litera- 
ture in  Columbia  College  till  his  death. 
He  died  in  New  York,  Oct.  4,  1895. 

Boy  Scouts,  a  semi-military  or- 
ganization, founded'  in  England  in 
1910  and  introduced  into  the  United 
States  the  same  year.  The  object  is 
to  develop  patriotism,  discipline,  cour- 
age, and  self-control  in  boys,  as  well 
as  to  put  the  Golden  Rule  into  daily 
practice.  The  unit  of  the  organiza- 
tion is  the  "  patrol "  of  from  six  to 
eight  boys;  a  "troop"  comprises  two 
or  more  "patrols;"  and  the  "scout 
master "  is  the  officer  in  charge  of 
a  troop.  Lieut.-Gen.  Sir  Robert  Ba- 
den-Powell was  the  father  of  the  boy 
scout  movement  in  England,  and 
Ernest  Thompson,  Seton  in  the  United 
States.  In  both  countries  the  idea 
took  at  once  with  boys  and  found 
general  favor  among  their  elders.  In 
1910  the  founder  visited  New  York 
in  its  interest. 

Boyton,  Paul,  an  Irish-Ameri- 
can swimmer,  born  in  Dublin,  June  29, 
1848;  served  in  the  United  States  navy 
in  1863-1865.  He  invented  a  life-pre- 
serving suit,  in  which  in  1874,  he 
leaped  from  a  vessel  off  the  coast  of 
Ireland,  and,  after  remaining  seven 
hours  in  the  water,  reached  land  safe- 


Bozrah 


Bradford 


ly.  On  May  28,  1875,  he  crossed  the 
[English  Channel  in  this  suit,  swim- 
ming across  in  24  hours.  In  1876  he 
made  the  run  from  the  Bayou  Goula 
to  New  Orleans,  La.,  100  miles,  in 
24  hours.  In  May,  the  same  year, 
he  descended  the  Danube  from  Linz  to 
Budapest,  460  miles,  in  six  days. 
Later  he  went  from  Oil  City,  Pa.,  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  2,342  miles,  hi  80 
days,  being  exposed  at  first  to  great 
cold  and  later  to  extreme  heat.  In 
November,  1879,  he  descended  the 
Connecticut  river  from  Canada  to 
Long  Island  Sound.  On  Sept. 
17,  1881,  he  started  from  Cedar 
Creek,  Mont,  to  swim  to  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  and  accomplished  the  long  jour- 
ney, 3,580  miles,  Nov.  20.  In  1888  he 
made  a  voyage  down  the  Ohio  river. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  travels. 

Bozrah,  an  ancient  city  of  Pales- 
tine, E.  of  the  Jordan,  and  about  80 
miles  S.  of  Damascus. 

Bozzaris,  Marcos,  a  Greek  pa- 
triot, born  in  1789.  He  was  a  Su- 
liote,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his 
devotion  to  his  country,  in  defending 
it  against  the  Turks.  He  fell  in  a 
night  attack  upon  a  body  of  the  Turco- 
Albanian  army,  who  were  advancing 
with  the  view  of  taking  Missalonghi, 
which  he  had  successfully  defended 
for  a  considerable  time,  Aug.  20, 
1823. 

Brabant,  the  central  district  of 
the  lowlands  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
extending  from  the  Waal  to  the 
sources  of  the  Dyle,  and  from  the 
Meuse  and  Limburg  plains  to  the 
Lower  Scheldt.  It  is  divided  between 
the  Kingdoms  of  Holland  and  Belgium, 
into  three  provinces,  (1)  Dutch  or 
North  Brabant,  area  1,920  square 
miles,  pop.  (1913)  657,672;  (2)  Bel- 
gian Province  of  Antwerp,  area  1,093 
square  miles,  pop.,  1,004,909 ;  and 
(3)  the  Belgian  Province  of  South 
Brabant,  area,  1,268  square  miles, 
pop.,  1,522,941. 

Brachiopoda,  animals  with  arm- 
like  feet ;  one  of  the  great  classes  into 
which  the  moluscous  sub-kingdom  of 
the  animal  kingdom  is  divided. 

Bracken,  or  Brake,  a  species  of 
fern  very  common  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe  generally,  and  often  cov- 
ering large  areas  on  hillsides  and 
waste  grounds. 


Braddock,  a  borough  in  Alle- 
gheny county,  Pa.;  on  the  Mononga- 
hela  river  and  the  Pennsylvania  and 
other  railroads;  10  miles  S.  E.  of 
Pittsburg;  has  extensive  iron  and 
steel,  wire,  chain,  car,  and  ice  plants, 
and  large  coal-mining  interests.  It 
was  the  scene  of  Gen.  Braddock's 
defeat.  Pop.  (1910)  19,357. 

Braddock,  Edward,  a  British 
soldier,  born  in  Perthshire,  Scotland, 
about  1695,  entered  the  Coldstream 
Guards  in  1710,  and  was  appointed 
Major-General  in  1754.  Nine  months 
later  he  sailed  as  commander  against 
the  French  in  America,  and,  with  a 
force  of  nearly  2,000  British  and 
provincial  troops,  reached  the  Monon- 
gahela,  on  July  8,  1755.  On  the  9th 
he  pushed  forward  to  invest  Fort 
Duquesne,  on  the  present  site  of 
Pittsburg,  Pa.  On  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  he  was  attacked  by  a  party 
of  900  French  and  Indians,  and  63  out 
of  86  officers,  and  914  out  of  1,373 
men  engaged,  were  either  killed  or 
wounded.  Braddock  was  carried 
from  the  field,  and  died  July  13. 

Bradford,  city  in  McKean  co.,  Pa.; 
on  several  railroads;  67  miles  S.  of 
Buffalo,  N.  Y.;  is  in  a  noted  petroleum, 
natural  gas,  and  coal-mining  region; 
has  oil  pipe-lines  to  seaboard;  and 
manufactures  machinery,  glass,  boil- 
ers, motor-cycles,  chemicals,  and  tanks 
and  well  supplies.  Pop.  (1910)  14,544. 

Bradford,  a  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  and  important 
manufacturing  town  in  the  W.  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  England,  the  chief  seat 
in  England  of  the  spinning  and  weav- 
ing of  worsted  yarn  and  woolens. 
Pop.  (1911)  288,458.  1 

Bradford,  Joseph,  an  American 
journalist  and  dramatic  author,  born 
near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Oct.  24,  1843. 
His  real  name  was  WILLIAM  RAN- 
DOLPH HUNTER.  Besides  satirical 
verses  he  wrote  a  number  of  poems 
which  were  highly  esteemed,  especially 
those  on  the  death  of  Victor  Hugo 
and  of  General  Grant.  He  died  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  April  13,  1886. 

Bradford,  Royal  B.,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer,  born  in  Turner,  Me., 
July  22,  1844.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in 
1865,  and  received  promotion  through 
various  grades  to  the  rank  of  Coir 


Bradford 

mander.  He  made  a  specialty  of 
equipment,  and  after  1897  was  chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  of  the 
Navy.  He  died  Aug.  4,  1914. 
1  Bradford,  William,  an  Ameri- 
can painter,  born  in  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  in  1827.  He  entered  business 
early  in  life,  but  abandoned  it  for  art 
His  subjects  were  the  ice  fields  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  April  25,  1892. 

Bradford,  William,  an  Ameri- 
can colonial  governor  and  author,  born 
in  Austerfield,  Yorkshire,  England,  in 
March,  1588.  He  was  one  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  celebrated  compact  on  the 
Mayflower ;  and,  in  1621,  on  the  death 
of  the  first  governor,  John  Carver,  was 
elected  to  the  same  office,  which  he 
continued  to  fill  (with  the  exception 
of  a  brief  period  when  he  declined  re- 
election) until  his  death.  His  admin- 
istration was  remarkably  efficient  and 
successful,  especially  in  dealing  with 
the  Indians.  He  died  in  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  May  9,  1657. 

Bradlee,  Nathaniel,  an  Ameri- 
can architect,  born  in  Boston  in  1829 ; 
began  the  study  of  architecture  in 
1846.  He  achieved  wonderful  suc- 
cess, having  been  the  architect  of  over 
500  prominent  buildings  in  the  city  of 
Boston.  In  1869  he  made  a  national 
reputation  by  moving  bodily  the  large 
brick  structure  known  as  the  Hotel 
Pelham  to  the  corner  of  Tremont  and 
Boylston  streets.  The  work  attracted 
wide  attention,  both  in  this  country 
and  in  Europe.  He  subsequently  su- 
perintended the  removal  of  the  Boyls- 
ton Market  He  died  in  1888. 

Bradley,  John  Edwin,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Lee,  Mass.  He 
was  graduated  at  Williams  College,  in 
1865.  He  served  as  principal  of  the 
High  School  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  and 
at  Albany,  N.  Y.  In  1892-1900  he 
was  President  of  the  Illinois  College. 
Bradley,  Joseph  Philo,  an  Amer- 
ican jurist,  born  in  Berne,  N.  Y., 
March  14,  1843;  was  graduated  at 
Rutgers  College  in  1836;  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1839;  and  became  a 
Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  in  1870.  As  a  member  of  the 
Electoral  Commission  he  cast  the  vote 
which  gave  the  Presidency  to  General 
Hayes,  in  1877.  He  died  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  Jan.  22,  1892. 


Bragg 

Bradstreet,  Anne,  the  earliest 
American  poet,  born  in  Northampton, 
England,  in  1612.  She  was  a  daugh- 
ter of  Gov.  Thomas  Dudley.  In  1630 
she  emigrated  to  America  with  her 
husband,  Simon  Bradstreet,  Governor 
of  Massachusetts.  Her  poems  are 
quaint  and  literal  in  style.  She  died 
Sept  16,  1672. 

Brady,  Cyras  Townsend,  author 
and  P.  E.  clergyman,  born  in  Alle- 
gheny, Pa.,  Dec.  20,  1861;  graduated 
1883  at  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy ;  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1890. 
His  published  writings  include  several 
volumes  of  fiction,  and  semi-historical 
works,  all  exceedingly  popular. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  an  American 
military  officer;  born  in  Warren  Co., 
N.  C.,  March  22,  1817;  graduated  at 
West  Point,  in  1837;  was  appointed 
Second  Lieutenant  in  the  3d  Artillery ; 
served  with  distinction  under  General 
I  Taylor  in  the  Mexican  War ;  and  re- 
|  tired  to  private  life  in  1856.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  became 
a  Brigadier-General  in  the  Confeder- 
ate army,  and  was  stationed  at  Pensa- 
cola  to  act  against  Fort  Pickens.  In 
1862,  having  been  appointed  a  general 
of  division,  with  orders  to  act  under 
Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston,  commanding  the 
Army  of  the  Mississippi,  he  took  an 
important  part  in  the  two  days"  bat- 
tle of  Shiloh.  On  Johnston's  death  he 
was  appointed  to  his  command,  with 
the  full  rank  of  General,  and  succeed- 
ed General  Beauregard  as  commander 
of  the  Department,  in  July  of  the 
same  year.  The  last  command  he  re- 
signed in  December,  1863.  His  chief 
success  was  at  Chickamauga,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1863,  when  he  inflicted  a  de- 
feat on  the  army  of  General  Rose- 
crans,  but  was  himself,  in  turn,  de- 
feated by  General  Grant,  which  led  to 
his  temporary  removal  from  command 
in  January,  1864,  and  he  was  appoint- 
ed military  adviser  to  Jefferson  Davis. 
In  1864,  he  assumed  command  of  the 
Department  of  North  Carolina.  After 
the  war  he  was  chief  engineer  of  the 
State  of  Alabama,  and  superintended 
the  improvements  in  Mobile  Bay.  He 
died  in  Galveston,  Tex.,  Sept.  27, 1876. 
Bragg,  Edward  Stnyvesant,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  Unadilla, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  20,  1827;  educated  at 
Geneva,  now  Hobart,  College,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  New  York,  in 


Bragi 

1848.  He  removed  to  Fond  du  Lac, 
Wis.,  served  in  the  Union  army  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  won  his  way  to 
the  rank  of  Brigadier-General.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Union  Conven- 
tion, at  Philadelphia,  in  1866;  Repre- 
sentative in  Congress  in  1877-1885; 
and  a  delegate  to  the  Democratic  Na- 
tional Conventions  of  1872,  1884,  1892, 
and  1896.  In  the  Convention  of  1884, 
he  seconded  the  renomination  of  Gro- 
ver  Cleveland,  when  he  uttered  the 
memorable  phrase,  "  We  love  him  for 
the  enemies  he  has  made."  In  1888 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Mexico; 
and  in  June,  1902,  became  the  first 
United  States  consul-general  in  Ha- 
vana under  the  new  republic  of  Cuba, 
retiring  the  same  year  on  account  of 
a  letter  which  he  wrote  reflecting  on 
the  Cubans.  He  died  June  20,  1912. 

Bragi,  the  Scandinavian  god  of 
poetry.  He  is  represented  as  an  old 
man  with  a  long  flowing  beard,  like 
Odin;  yet  with  a  serene  and  unwrin- 
kled  brow.  His  wife  was  Idunna. 

Brake,  Tycho,  a  Swedish  astron- 
omer, born  in  Knudstrup,  near  Lund, 
Dec.  14,  1546.  He  was  descended  from 
a  noble  family,  and  was  sent,  at  the 
age  of  13.  to  the  University  of  Copen- 
hagen, where  he  had  not  been  more 
than  a  year,  when  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun  turned  his  attention  to  astronomy. 
His  uncle  destined  him  for  the  law, 
but  Brahe,  while  his  tutor  slept, 
busied  himself  nightly  with  the  stars. 
In  1573  he  married  a  peasant  girl. 
After  some  time  spent  in  travel,  Brahe 
received  from  his  sovereign,  Frederic 
II.,  the  offer  of  the  island  of  Hven  or 
Hoene,  in  the  Sound,  as  the  site  for 
an  observatory,  the  King  also  offering 
to  defray  the  cost  of  erection,  and  of 
the  necessary  astronomical  instrur 
ments,  as  well  as  to  provide  him  with 
a  suitable  salary.  Brahe  accepted 
the  generous  proposal,  and,  in  1576, 
the  foundation  stone  of  the  castle  of 
Uraienburg  ("fortress  of  the  heav- 
ens ")  was  laid.  Here,  for  a  period  of 
20  years,  Brahe  prosecuted  his  obser- 
vations with  the  most  unwearied  in- 
dustry. So  long  as  his  munificent  pat- 
ron, Frederick  II.,  lived,  Brahe's  posi- 
tion was  all  that  he  could  have  de- 
sired, but  on  his  death  in  1588  it  was 
greatly  changed.  For  some  years,  un- 
der Christian  IV.,  Brahe  was  just  tol- 
erated; but  in  1597  his  persecution 


Brainard 

had  grown  so  unbearable  that  he  left 
the  country  altogether,  having  been 
the  year  before  deprived  of  his  ob- 
servatory and  emoluments.  After  re- 
siding a  short  time  at  Kostock  and  at 
Wandsbeck,  near  Hamburg,  he  accept- 
ed an  invitation  of  the  Emperor  Ru- 
dolf II. —  who  conferred  on  him  a  pen- 
sion of  3,000  ducats  —  to  Benatek,  a 
few  miles  from  Prague,  where  a  new 
Uranienburg  was  to  have  been  erected 
for  him;  but  he  died  at  Prague  on 
Oct.  24,  1601. 

Brahma,  the  name  of  the  first  of 
the  three  gods  who  constitute  the  triad 
of  principal  Hindu  deities.  The  epi- 
thets applied  to  this  divinity  are  very 
numerous. 

Brahman,  Brahmin,  Bramin, 
or  Brachman,  one  of  the  Aryan 
conquerors  of  India,  who  discharged 
priestly  functions,  whose  ascendency, 
however,  over  his  fellows  was  intellec- 
tual and  spiritual,  but  not  yet  political 
or  supported  by  the  caste  system ;  also 
one  of  the  four  leading  castes  of  India. 

Brahmanism,  or  Brahminism, 
the  system  of  religious  belief  and  prac- 
tice introduced  and  propagated  by  the 
Brahmans. 

Brahmaputra,  a  large  river  of 
Asia,  whose  sources,  not  yet  explored, 
are  situated  near  Lake  Manasarovara, 
in  Tibet,  near  those  of  Indus. 

Brahmo-Spmaj,  or  the  Thiestic 
Church  of  India,  was  founded  in  1830 
by  an  enlightened  Brahman,  who 
sought  to  purify  his  religion  from  im- 
purities and  idolatries. 

Brain,  the  encephalon,  or  center 
of  the  nervous  system  and  the  seat  of 
consciousness  and  volition  in  man  and 
the  higher  animals. 

Brainard,  David  Legge,  an 
American  explorer,  born  in  Herkimer 
county,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  21,  1856.  He  re- 
ceived a  common  school  education  and 
enlisted  as  a  private  in  the  United 
States  army  in  1876.  He  rose  to  dis- 
tinction in  various  conflicts  with  the 
Indians  and  in  the  Greeley  and  other 
Arctic  Expeditions,  and  was  promoted 
to  Colonel,  June  8,  1912.  In  1899  he 
became  Chief  Commissary  at  Manila. 

Brainard,  John  Gardiner,  Cal- 
kins, an  American  poet,  born  in  New 
London,  Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1796 ;  died  in 
New  London,  Conn.,  Sept.  26,  1828. 


Brain* 


Bramante  d'TJrbino 


Braine,  Daniel  Lawrence,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  New 
York  city,  May  18,  1829.  He  entered 
the  United  States  navy  in  1846  and 
became  a  Rear-Admiral.  He  served 
with  distinction  through  the  Mexican 
and  Civil  Wars.  In  1873  he  obtained 
the  surrender  by  Spain  of  102  sur- 
vivors of  the  "  Virginius  "  prisoners. 
He  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Jan.  30, 
1898. 


HUMAN  BBAIN. 

Median  Longitudinal  Section  through 
Head  and  Upper  Part  of  Neck,  to  Show 
Relation  of  Brain  to  Cranium  and  the 
Spinal  Cord. 

C,  cerebrum;  cb,  cerebellum;  sc,  spinal 
cord;  spc,  spinal  column;  mo,  medulla 
oblongata  passing,  through  foramen 
magnum,  into  the  spinal  cord;  pv,  pons 
Varolii;  cp,  cerebral  peduncles  or  crura 
cerebri;  cqa,  anterior  corpora  quadrige- 
mina;  cqp,  posterior  corpora  quadnge- 
mina;  pg,  pineal  gland;  pb,  pituitary 
body;  cc,  corpus  collosum,  divided  trans- 
versely; f,  fornix;  mg,  marginal  gyrus; 
f^i  gyrus  fornicatus;  ctng,  calloso-mar- 
ginal  suleus;  O,  occipital  lobe;  po, 
parieto-occipital  fissure;  cf,  calcarine  fis- 
sure; dm,  dura  mater,  separating  cere- 
brum from  cerebellum. 

Brainerd,  David,  an  American 
missionary,  born  at  Haddam,  Conn., 
April  20,  1718.  He  entered  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1739,  but  three  years  later  was 
expelled  for  declaring  that  one  of  the 
college  tutors  had  no  more  of  the  grace 
of  God  than  a  chair.  That  same  year 


he  was  licensed  to  preach,  and  sent  as 
a  missionary  to  the  Indians  in  Massa- 
chusetts. He  labored  afterward  among 
the  Indians  in  Pennsylvania,  and  with 
much  success  in  New  Jersey,  baptizing 
there  no  fewer  than  77  converts,  of 
whom  38  were  adults.  He  died  in 
Northampton,  Mass.,  Oct.  9,  1747. 

Brain  Fever,  a  term  in  common 
use  for  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membranes  of  the  brain,  meningitis; 
or  of  the  brain  itself,  cerebritis.  Brain 
fever  is  characterized  by  violent  head- 
ache, intolerance  of  light,  excitement, 
extreme  sensitiveness,  hyperffimia,  de- 
lirium, convulsions,  and  coma. 

Braintree,  a  town  in  Norfolk 
county,  Mass.;  on  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroad;  10 
miles  S.  of  Boston;  is  noted  as  the 
birth-place  of  many  of  the  Adams 
family;  and  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
granite  quarrying.  Pop.  (1910)  8,066. 

Brake,  a  device  for  regulating  or 
stopping  motion  by  friction.  Rail- 
road air-brakes  consist  of  a  cylinder 
and  piston  under  each  car,  connected 
by  tubes  with  a  reservoir  for  com- 
pressed air,  automatically  filled  by  a 
special  engine  under  control  of  the 
engineer. 

Braniah,  Joseph,  an  English  in- 
ventor; born  in  Yorkshire  in  1749; 
especially  known  for  an  ingenious  lock, 
and  for  the  hydraulic  press.  He  died 
in  Pimlico,  Dec.  9,  1814. 

Bramante  d'TTrbino  (real  name 
DONATO  LAZZARI),  an  Italian  archi- 
tect, born  in  1444.  Showing  an  early 
taste  for  drawing,  he  was  brought  up 
to  the  profession  of  a  painter,  but  he 
quitted  it  to  dedicate  bis  talents  to 
architecture,  which  he  cultivated  with 
uncommon  success.  He  first  designed 
and  commenced  in  1513,  the  erection 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  carried  on  and 
finished  by  other  architects  after  his 
death.  He  was  a  great  favorite  with 
Pope  Julius  II.,  who  made  him  super- 
intendent of  his  buildings,  and,  under 
that  pontiff,  he  formed,  the  magnificent 
project  of  connecting  the  Belvidere 
Palace  with  the  Vatican  by  means  of 
two  grand  galleries  carried  across  a 
valley.  He  built  many  churches,  mon- 
asteries, and  palaces  at  Rome,  and  in 
other  I'talian  cities,  and  was  employed 
by  Pope  Julius  as  an  engineer  to  forti- 
fy Bologna,  1504.  Bramante  painted 
portraits  with  ability,  and  he  was 


Brambanan 

skilled  in  music  and  poetry.  He  died 
in  1514. 

Brambanan,  a  district  of  the 
Province  of  Surakarta,  Java,  rich  in 
remains  of  Hindu  temples,  of  which 
there  are  six  groups,  with  two  appar- 
ently monastic  buildings.  The  edifices 
are  composed  entirely  of  hewn  stone, 
and  no  mortar  has  been  used  in  their 
construction.  The  largest  is  a  cruci- 
form temple,  surrounded  by  five  con- 
centric squares,  formed  by  rows  of  de- 
tached cells  or  shrines,  embracing  an 
area  of  500  feet  square.  In  several  of 
these  dagobas  the  cross-legged  figures 
of  Buddha  remain  but  the  larger  fig- 
ures which  must  have  occupied  the 
central  temples  have  disappeared  from 
all  but  one. 

Bramble,  or  Blackberry,  a 
plant  having  prickly  stems,  which 
somewhat  resemble  those  of  the  rasp- 
berry. The  flowers  do  not  appear  till 
the  summer  is  considerably  advanced, 
and  the  fruit  ripens  toward  the  end 
of  it,  continuing  to  be  produced  till 
the  frosts  of  winter  set  in.  The  fruit 
is  too  well  known  to  need  description. 
In  the  United  States  blackberries  are 
extensively  cultivated  for  their  fruit. 

Bramwcll,  John  Milne,  a  Brit- 
ish physician  and  author,  born  at 
Perth,  New  Brunswick,  Canada,  1852. 
He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  made  a  specialty  of 
hypnotism,  combining  with  consider- 
able success  the  Parisian  and  Nancy 
methods  of  hyponosis.  His  published 
writings  include  "  What  is  Hypno- 
tism?" 

Bran,  the  skins  or  husks  of 
ground  maize,  wheat,  rye,  or  other 
grain,  separated  from  the  flour.  The 
nutritive  value  of  these  husks  in- 
creases as  we  proceed  from  the  out- 
side of  the  grain  toward  the  interior. 
The  outer  skin,  or  coarse  bran,  is  very 
indigestible,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a 
layer  of  silica. 

Branch,  that  part  of  a  plant  which 
is  produced  from  a  lateral  leaf  bud  on 
the  primary  axis  or  stem.  It  is  looked 
upon  as  part  of  the  stem,  and  not  as 
a  distinct  organ. 

Branchia,  the  gills  of  fishes  and 
various  other  inhabitants  of  water. 
They  are  the  apparatus  for  enabling 
the  animal  to  extract  oxygen  from  the 
water,  instead  of  being  dependent  on, 


Brandenburg 

the  atmosphere. 

Brand,  Sir  John  Henry,  a  Boer 
statesman,  born  in  Cape  Town,  Dec. 
6,  1823.  Queen  Victoria  knighted  him 
in  recognition  of  his  aid.  Brandford 

i  was  named  in  his  honor,  and  Lady- 
brand  was  named  in  honor  of  his  wife. 

I  He  died  July  15,  1888. 

Brandeis,  Louis  Dembitz,  an 
American  jurist,  born  in  Louisville, 
Ky.,  Nov.  13,  1856;  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1878 ;  began  practice  in 
Boston  in  1879 ;  gave  special  atten- 

i  tion  to  railroad  problems ;  was  spe- 
cial counsel  for  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  in  1913-14,  also  in 
various  Federal  and  municipal  inves- 
tigations ;  chairman  of  the  Provisional 
Committee  for  General  Zionist  Affairs 
in  1914-15 ;  widely  known  as  an  effi- 
ciency expert ;  was  confirmed  as  an 
Associate  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  June  1,  1916. 

Brandenburg,  a  province  of 
Prussia,  surrounded  mainly  by  Meck- 
lenburg and  the  provinces  of  Pome- 
rania,  Posen,  Silesia,  and  Prussian 
Saxony.  The  soil  consists  in  many 
parts  of  barren  sands,  heaths,  and 
moors ;  yet  the  province  produces  much 

frain,  as  well  as  fruits,  hemp,  flax,  to- 
acco,  etc.,  and  supports  many  sheep. 
The  forests  are  very  extensive.  The 
principal  streams  are  the  Elbe,  the 
Oder,  the  Havel,  and  the  Spree ;  but 
the  first  two  merely  skirt  the  territory. 
Brandenburg  carries  on  an  active 
trade  in  manufactured  articles,  and  is 
well  situated  for  commerce,  since  it 
has  many  canals,  rivers,  good  roads, 
and  is  intersected  by  the  railways  from 
Berlin  to  Leipsic,  etc.  The  province 
of  Brandenburg  includes,  besides  some 
other  districts,  the  greater  part  of  the 
former  mark  of  Brandenburg,  which 
formed  the  cradle  of  the  Prussian  mon- 
archy, and  the  center  round  which  the 
present  extensive  kingdom  has  grown 
up.  >  It  is  divided  into  the  three  ad- 
ministrative divisions  of  Berlin,  Pots- 
dam, and  Frankfort,  and  it  has  a  total 
area  of  15,376  square  miles,  with  a 
pop.. (census  1910)  4,092,616.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Lutherans ;  the 
rest  are  chiefly  Roman  Catholics  and 
Jews.  From  1685  to  1688  many 
French  refugees,  Walloons,  and  inhab- 
itants of  Lorraine  and  of  Palatinate, 
settled  here.  It  is  now  the  most  impor- 
tant Prussian  province,  including  as  it 


Brandes 

does  the  capital  (Berlin) ,  and  the  gov- 
ernments of  Potsdam  and  Frankfort. 

Brandes,  Georg,  a  Danish  liter- 
ary  critic  of  Jewish  family ;  born  in 
Copenhagen,  Feb.  4,  1842,  where  he 
graduated  at  the  university  in  1864. 
Several  books  on  aesthetic  and  philoso- 
phic subjects  brought  on  him  a  charge 
of  skepticism  which  was  not  removed 
by  an  epoch-making  series  of  lectures, 
delivered  before  large  audiences.  In 
1882  he  returned  to  Copenhagen, 
his  countrymen  having  guaranteed 
him  an  income  of  4,000  crowns, 
with  the  one  stipulation  that  he  should 
deliver  public  lectures  on  literature. 

Branding,  an  ancient  mode  of 
punishment  by  inflicting  a  mark  on 
an  offender  with  a  hot  iron.  It  is  gen- 
erally disused  under  the  English  civil ! 
law,  but  is  a  recognized  punishment 
for  some  military  offenses,  as  deser- 
tion. It  is  not,  however,  now  done  by 
a  hot  iron,  but  with  ink,  gunpowder, 
or  some  other  preparation,  so  as  to  be 
visible,  and  not  liable  to  be  obliterated. 
The  mark  is  the  letter  "  D,"  not  less 
than  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  marked 
on  the  left  side  two  inches  below  the 
armpit 

Brandt,  Sebastian,  a  German 
author ;  born  in  Strasburg,  in  1458 ; 
studied  law  and  the  classics  with  zeal 
at  Basel,  where  he  received  permis- 
sion to  teach ;  and  soon  became  one 
of  the  most  influential  lecturers  in 
that  city.  The  Emperor  Maximilian 
showed  his  regard  for  Brandt  by  ap- 
pointing him  an  imperial  councilor. 
His  fame  rests  wholly  upon  "  The 
Ship  of  Fools,"  a  satire  on  the  follies 
and  vices  of  the  time  (1494).  Its 
distinguishing  note  is  its  abounding 
humor ;  but  it  owed  its  great  popular 
success  very  largely  to  the  clever  j 
woodcuts  with  which  it  was  illustrat- 
ed. He  died  in  Strasburg  in  1521. 

Brandy,  a  spirit  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  both  white  and  red 
wines,  and  largely  manufactured  in 
the  United  States. 

Brandy  wine  Creek,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Delaware,  is  formed  of  two  ! 
forks,  the  E.  and  W.,  which  effect  a 
junction  in  Chester  county  of  the  first 
named  State,  and,  taking  a  S.  E. 
course,  empties  into  Christiana  creek 
at  Wilmington.  Here,  Sept  11,  1777, 
was  fought  a  severe  battle  between 


Brass 

the  British  and  German  troops,  18,000 
strong,  under  Howe,  and  the  Ameri- 
cans numbering  13,000  men,  under 
Washington.  The  consequence  of  this 
battle  was  the  occupation  of  Philadel- 
phia by  the  British  troops. 

Branner,  John  Casper,  geolo- 
gist, born  in  New  Market,  Tenn.,  1850, 
graduated  at  Cornell  University  in 
1874 :  was  attached  to  the  Brazilian 
i  Imperial  Geological  Commission  1875- 
1877,  and  in  1899  became  vice-presi- 
i  dent  of  Leland  Stanford  University. 
His  geological  works  are  valuable. 

Brant,  Joseph,  a  Mohawk  chief, 
born  in  Ohio  in  1742.  He  participat- 
ed in  the  campaign  of  1755,  and  held 
the  post  of  secretary  to  Col.  Johnson, 
superintendent-general  of  Indian  af- 
fairs. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  Brant  took  an  active 
part  in  raising  an  Indian  force  to  op- 
pose the  colonists,  and  was  present  at 
the  action  of  Cherry  Valley,  and  in 
other  engagements.  In  1786  he  vis- 
ited England  and  collected  funds  for 
an  Anglican  Church,  the  first  erected 
in  Canada  West.  He  passed  the  clos- 
ing years  of  his  life  at  Burlington 
Bay,  on  Lake  Ontario,  on  an  estate 
granted  him  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment One  of  Brant's  sons  command- 
ed a  mixed  Canadian  and  Indian  force 
during  the  War  of  1812.  He  died  in 
Canada,  Nov.  29,  1807. 

Brantford,  city  and  capital  of 
Brant  county,  Ontario,  Canada;  on 
the  Grand  river  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
and  other  railroads;  65  miles  S.  W. 
of  Toronto;  contains  many  beautiful 
churches,  Wickcliffe  Hall  (Y.  M.  C. 
A.),  Court-house  and  county  build- 
ings of  white  brick,  City  Hospital, 
Technical  School,  and  a  number  of 
benevolent  homes;  and  manufactures 
farm  implements,  brass  and  iron  cast- 
ings, engines  and  mill  machinery. 
Pop.  (1911)  23,132. 

Brasenose,  one  of  the  colleges  of 
Oxford  University,  founded  in  1509. 

Brass,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc, 
of  a  bright  yellow  color,  hard,  ductile, 
and  malleable.  The  best  brass  con- 
sits  of  two  parts  by  weight  of  copper 
to  one  of  zinc.  Before  zinc  was  ob- 
tained in  its  metallic  form  brass  was 
manufactured  from  calamine  (native 
carbonate  of  zinc)  mixed  with  copper 
and  charcoal.  Even  now  this  process 


Brasses 

is  easier  than  the  direct  fusion  togeth- 
er of  the  two  metals.  The  proportion 
of  copper  and  zinc  vary. 

Brasses,  Monumental,  large 
plates  of  brass,  or  of  the  mixed  metal 
called  latten  or  laton,  inlaid  on  slabs 
of  stone,  and  usually  forming  part  of 
the  pavement  of  a  church. 

Brassey,  Lady  Anne,  an  English 
descriptive  writer  born  in  London, 
about  1840.  After  her  marriage  she 
spent  half  of  her  life  at  sea,  on  Lord 
Brassey's.  yacht,  the  "Sunbeam." 
She  died  at  sea  Sept  14,  1887. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  an  English  en- 
gineer and  railroad  contractor,  born 
in  Baerton,  Cheshire,  Nov.  7,  1805. 
After  receiving  an  ordinary  education, 
be  was,  at  the  age  of  16  years,  ap- 
prenticed to  a  surveyor,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded in  business.  After  building 
parts  of  the  Grand  Junction  and  the 
London  and  Southampton  railways,  he 
contracted  in  1840,  in  partnership  with 
another,  to  build  the  railway  from 
Paris  to  Rouen.  In  a  few  years  he 
held  under  contract,  in  England  and 
France,  some  10  railways,  involving  a 
capital  of  $180,000,000,  and  employ- 
ing 75,000  men.  In  partnership  with 
Betts  and  Peto  he  undertook  the 
Grand  Trunk  of  Canada,  1.100  miles 
in  length.  He  died  Dec.  8,  1870.  His 
son  THOMAS,  1st  Lord  Brassey,  born 
183G,  is  an  active  British  statesman. 
He  has  written  "  Work  and  Wages," 
"The  British  Navy,"  and  other  eco- 
Domical  works. 

Brassicacese,  an  order  of  plants 
toore  generally  called  cruciferae  (cruci- 
fers).  Among  the  well  known  plants 
ranked  under  the  order  may  be  men- 
tioned the  wall  flower,  the  stock,  the 
•watercress  and  other  cresses,  the  cab- 
bage, the  turnip,  etc. 

Bravi,  the  name  formerly  given  in 
Italy,  and  particularly  in  Venice,  to 
those  wno  were  ready  to  hire  them- 
selves out  to  perform  any  desperate 
undertaking.  The  word  had  the  same 
signification  in  Spain. 

Bravo,  Nicholas,  a  Mexican 
statesman,  born  in  1790.  He  partici- 
pated in  the  revolution  against  Spain 
(1810-1817),  and  later  aided  Iturbide 
in  establishing  a  republic.  Under 
Santa  Ana  he  twice  acted  as  Presi- 
dent He  died  in  1854. 


,  Brazil 

Bravura,  an  air  requiring  great 
skill  and  spirit  in  its  execution,  each 
syllable  being  divided  into  several 
notes.  It  is  distinguished  from  a  sim- 
ple melody  by  the  introduction  of 
florid  passages,  a  style  of  both  music 
and  execution  designed  to  task  the 
abilities  of  the  artist 

Braxy,  a  disease  in  sheep.  Thia 
term  is  frequently  applied  to  totally 
different  disorders,  but  the  true  braxy 
is  undoubtedly  an  intestinal  affection, 
attended  with  diarrhoea  and  retention 
of  the  urine. 

Bray,  a  small  English  parish,  neat 
Maidenhead,  Berkshire,  of  which  Si- 
mon Aleyn  was  vicar  from  1540  to 
1588,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry 
VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Eliza- 
beth. He  kept  his  vicarage  by  chang- 
ing his  faith  according  to  that  of  the 
State  for  the  time  being,  becoming  a 
Protestant  with  Henry,  Catholic  again 
in  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  Protestant 
again  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth. 
His  principle  was  to  live  and  die  Vicar 
of  Bray,  and  to  it  he  adhered. 

Bray,  Anna  Eliza,  an  English 
woman^  of_  letters,  born  in  London, 
Dec.  25,  1790.  Her  maiden  name  was 
Kempe;  was  married  to  Charles  A. 
Stothard,  son  of  the  famous  artist, 
and,  after  his  death,  became  the  wife 
of  the  Rev.  Edward  A.  Bray,  Vicar  of 
Tavistock.  She  died  in  London,  Jan. 
21,  1883. 

Brazil,  now  called  officially  the 
UNITED  STATES  OF  BBAZIL,  a  vast  re- 
public in  South  America,  occupying  a 
space  nearly  equal  to  one-half  of  that 
entire  continent  It  is  of  extremely 
irregular  outline  and  varying  dimen- 
sions; its  greatest  diameter  being,  E. 
to  W.,  or  from  Cape  Augustin  to  the 
Yavari  or  Jabary  river,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  Peru,  2,630  miles;  and, 
N.  to  S.,  from  Cape  Orange  E.  of 
Oyapok  bay,  to  the  S.  extremity  of 
Lake  Mirim,  2,580  miles ;  area  3,209,- 
878  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  S.  E., 
E.,  and  N.  E.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
N.  by  French,  Dutch,  and  English 
Guiana,  and  Venezuela ;  W.  and  S. 
W.  by  Colombia,  Peru,  Bolivia,  Para- 
guay, and  the  Argentine  provinces  of 
Missiones,  and  by  the  republic  of  Uru- 
guay. Its  entire  coast-line,  from  the 
extreme  S.  point  already  mentioned, 
to  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Oyapok  is 


Brazil 

upward  of  3,700  miles.  Throughout 
this  vast  extent  of  coast  there  are  few- 
great  indentations,  though  in  some 
parts  smaller  harbors  and  inlets  are 
pretty  numerous,  many  of  the  former 
excellent  and  generally  surrounded  by 
flats. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Rio  Fran- 
cisco and  the  Parana,  all  the  large 
rivers  of  Brazil  empty  themselves  on 
its  N.  shores,  and  nearly  all  run  par- 
allel courses  from  S.  to  N.,  traversing 
the  vast  plains  which  occupy  the  cen- 
ter and  N.  W.  portions  of  the  coun- 
try, and  presenting  means  of  internal 
communication,  unequaled  in  any  oth- 
er part  of  the  globe. 

Brazil  is  divided,  politically,  into  21 
States  (formerly  provinces)  of  which 
there  are  at  least  nine  each  exceeding 
Great  Britain  in  superficial  extent  It 
is,  however,  difficult  to  obtain  the  area 
of  the  States,  and  of  the  whole  coun- 
try, the  existing  data  being  very  un- 
satisfactory and  conflicting.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  areas  of  the 
States  and  the  population  as  officially 
reported  in  1900: 

Area  in 

States.                sq.  Miles.  Pop.  1900. 

Alagoas    22,583  642,249 

Amazonas    732,439  249,756 

Bahia    164,643  2,117,956 

Ceara    40,247  849,127 

Espirito  Santo 17,312  209,783 

Goyaz   288,536  255,284 

Maranhao 177,561  459,508 

Matto  Grosso 532,683  118,525 

Minas  Geraes 221,951  3,594,471 

Para    443,903  445,356 

Parahyba    28,854  490,734 

Parana    85,451  327,130 

Pernambuco    49,573  1,178,150 

Piauhy    116,523  334,328 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (city) .  538  730,951 

Rio  de  Janeiro 26,634  926,035 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte.  22,195  274,317 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul...  91,335  1,149,070 

Sao  Paulo   112,307  2,282,279 

Santa  Catharina 28,632  320,289 

Sergipe   15,093  356,264 


Total  3,218,991     17,318,556 

In  1913  the  population  was  es- 
timated at  24,308,219  exclusive  of 
perhaps  600,000  uncivilized  Indians, 
and  the  area  3,290,564  square  miles. 
The  most  important  towns  in  Brazil 
are  the  capital,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bahia, 
Pernambuco,  Para  or  Belem,  San 


Brazil 

Paulo,    Parahyba,    Ceara,    and    Porto 
Algre. 

In  remarkable  contrast  to  the  coun- 
tries on  the  W.  side  of  the  South 
American  continent,  Brazil  has  no 
mountains  of  very  great  elevation.  The 
higher  mountains  of  Brazil,  most  of 
them  occurring  at  greater  and  lesser 
distances  from  the  E.  coast,  extend 
generally  in  a  direction  more  or  less 
from  S.  to  N.,  though  numerous  in- 
ferior ranges  traverse  the  country  in 
various  other  directions.  The  river 
system  of  Brazil  is  unequaled,  per- 
haps, in  any  other  part  of  the  world 
for  the  number  and  magnitude  of  the 
streams  of  which  it  is  composed,  the 
surface  of  the  whole  N.  W.  portion 
being  interlaced  with  rivers  of  every 
length  and  volume;  presenting  the 
complex  appearance  of  vessels  in  the 
human  body,  to  which  the  Amazon 
and  its  larger  tributaries  may  be  said 
to  stand  in  the  relation  of  main  ar- 
teries. By  far  the  greater  portion  of 
these  numberless  streams  have  more  or 
less  of  a  N.  direction,  and  finally  find 
their  way,  either  directly  or  through 
their  principals,  to  the  Amazon.  The 
largest  river  of  Brazil,  and  the  largest, 
it  is  believed,  in  the  world,  though  not 
the  longest,  is  the  Amazon,  which  en- 
ters the  country  from  the  W.,  about 
lat  4°  30'  S. ;  Ion.  70°  W.,  and  after  a. 
N.  E.  course  from  the  point  named  of 
about  800  miles,  flows  into  the  Atlan- 
tic near  the  equator.  In  order  of  mag- 
nitude follow  the  Rio  Negro  and  Me- 
deira,  both  tributaries  of  the  Amazon ; 
the  former  flowing  from  the  N.  W., 
the  latter  from  the  S.  W.  The  other 
large  rivers  in  this  portion  of  the 
country  are  the  Branco,  a  tributary 
of  the  Rio  Negro ;  the  Tapajos  and 
Xingu,  other  two  large  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon ;  the  Araguay,  Tocantins, 
Maranhao,  and  Paranahyba.  The 
next  in  size  is  the  Rio  Francisco, 
which,  after  flowing  N.  for  about  800 
miles,  suddenly  turns  due  E.,  and 
subsequently  S.  E.,  falling  into  the  sea 
about  lat.  11°  S.  Passing  along  the 
coast,  S.  from  the  embouchure  of  the 
Francisco,  the  following  considerable 
rivers  occur  —  the  Vazabarris,  Itapi- 
curu,  Paraguassu,  Belmonte  or  Jequit- 
inhonha,  in  the  State  of  Bahia ;  Doce, 
State  of  Espirito-Santo ;  and  the  Pa- 
raiba-do-Sul,  the  S.  boundary  of  the 
same  State.  In  this  enumeration  of 


Brazil 


Brazil 


the   rivers   having   their   embouchures  j 
on  the  E.  coast  of  Brazil,   we   have  j 
omitted  an  immense  number  of  smaller  j 
streams,   perhaps  not  many   below   a 
hundred.     In   the    interior   of   the   S. ' 
portion  of  the  country  occur  the  large  ! 
rivers  Uruguay,  Yguazu,  Paranapan- ! 
ema,  Tieta,  Para,  Paraguay,  and  Pa-  | 
rana,  with  numerous  smaller  streams  | 
— -  smaller  in  comparison  to  these,  but 
still  large  rivers  — winding  in  all  di- 
rections through  every  province.     Al- 
though unrivalled  in  the  number  and 
magnitude    of   its    rivers,    Brazil    has 
comparatively  few  lakes  of  any  great  \ 
extent.     The  largest  is  the  Lagoa  dos 
Patos,  a  lagoon  in  the  State  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  the  extreme  S.  of  the 
Brazilian  States ;  it  is  about  150  miles 
in  length,  and  35  miles  in  breadth  at 
the  widest  part,  and  is  separated  from 
the  sea  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  only ; 
it  discharges  its  water  into  the  ocean 
by  a  channel  called  the  Rio  Grande. 
Farther  N.  several  smaller  lakes  oc- 
cur, the  largest  of  which  may  be  from 
20  to  30  miles  in  length.     There  are 
hardly  any  others  worth  mentioning. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Brazil  is  con- 
siderable, and  includes  gold,  silver,  and 
iron,  diamonds,  topazes,  and  other 
precious  stones.  Among  the  earliest 
discovered  and  first  wrought  gold 
mines  were  those  of  Jaragua,  but  they  j 
have  long  ceased  to  be  regularly 
worked,  the  precious  metal  being  found 
more  easily  and  in  greater  abundance 
mingled  with  the  sands  and  alluvial 
deposits  of  rivers.  The  process  of 
separation,  the  gold  being  in  small  par- 
ticles, is  effected  by  repeated  washings, 
which  are  continued  till  nothing  but 
the  pure  metal  remains  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  The  entire  quantity  of 
gold  produced  has  now  greatly  fallen 
off,  being  hardly  a  fourth  of  what  it 
formerly  was,  owing  chiefly  to  the 
auriferous  sand  having  been  exhausted. 
Large  quantities  of  diamonds  have 
been  obtained  in  Brazil.  The  district 
from  which  most  stones  have  been  de- 
rived is  Diamantina  in  Minas  Geraes, 
adjoining  the  Serra  do  Espinhaco.  The 
diamonds  have  been  hitherto  found  in 
the  beds  of  rivers  only,  and  are  washed 
from  the  sand  and  stones  with  which 
they  are  mingled  much  in  the  same  way 
as  the  gold.  The  largest  known  Bra- 
zilian diamond  was  found  in  the  Rio 
Bogagens,  and  weighed  254^  carats. 


The  negro  who  found  a  diamond 
weighing  17  carats,  used  to  obtain  his 
liberty,  a  variety  of  proportionate  re- 
wards being  appointed  for  those  of 
lesser  value.  About  20,000  negroes 
were  at  one  time  employed  in  the  dia- 
mond mines.  The  government  re- 
ceived one-fifth  of  the  total  value  of 
all  the  gold  and  diamonds  found  in 
the  country.  Notwithstanding  the 
sounding  names  of  these  two  items  of 
the  mineral  wealth  of  Brazil,  neither 
of  them  has  been  nearly  so  profitable, 
nor  so  beneficial  to  the  general  inter- 
ests of  the  country  as  the  homeliest  of 
its  agricultural  productions.  In  the 
short  space  of  a  year  and  a  half  the 
exports  of  sugar  and  coffee  amounted 
to  more  than  the  value  of  diamonds 
found  throughout  a  period  of  80  years 
within  the  limits  of  Brazil. 

As  almost  the  whole  of  Brazil  lies 
S.  of  the  equator,  and  in  a  hemisphere 
where  there  is  a  greater  proportion  of 
sea  than  land,  its  climate  is  generally 
more  cool  and  moist  than  that  of  coun- 
tries in  corresponding  latitudes  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  This  is  partic- 
ularly applicable  to  the  flat  portions  of 
the  country,  where  impenetrable  for- 
ests occupy  the  alluvial  plains,  and, 
by  preventing  the  sun's  rays  reaching 
the  earth,  cut  off  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  heat  —  radiation.  In  the 
S.  parts  of  Brazil,  in  consequence  of 
the  gradual  narrowing  of  the  conti- 
nent, the  climate  is  of  an  insular  char- 
acter—  cool  summers  and  mild  win- 
ters. The  quantity  of  rain  that  falls 
in  Brazil  differs  widely  in  the  amount 
in  different  localities.  The  N.  States 
generally  are  subject  to  heavy  rains 
and  violent  storms ;  but  the  S.  regions 
rejoice  in  a  settled,  mild,  and  salu- 
brious climate.  The  rainy  season 
commences  in  October,  and  usually 
lasts  till  March,  setting  in  with  heavy 
thunder-storms.  At  Rio,  where  the 
climate  has  been  much  modified  by  the 
clearing  away  of  the  forests  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  year  is  72°  ;  and  the  rains  have 
been  so  diminished  as  to  have  seriously 
reduced  the  supply  of  water  to  the 
city.  Generally  the  climate  of  Brazil 
is  delightful,  diffusing  and  maintaining 
a  perpetual  summer  throughout  this 
favored  land.  In  the  N.  parts  the  air 
in  the  lower  tracts  is  somewhat  sultry 
and  oppressive ;  but  vegetation  is  vig- 
orous and  profuse,  the  ground  being 


Brazil 


Brazil 


covered  with  flowers,  and  the  trees 
with  a  foliage  that  is  ever  green ;  while 
the  nights  are  deliciously  cool.  Near 
the  coast  the  temperature  is  modified 
by  the  trade  wind,  which,  after  tra- 
versing the  Atlantic,  fans  the  shores 
of  Brazil,  imparting  a  refreshing  cool- 
ness to  the  atmosphere. 

The  soil  of  Brazil,  so  far  as  its 
capabilities  have  been  tested,  is  highly 
fertile.  Altogether  but  a  comparative- 
ly small  portion  has  yet  been  subjected 
to  this  test,  probably  not  more  than  a 
hundredth  part  of  the  surface  being 
under  cultivation,  and  this  portion  is 
almost  entirely  limited  to  the  coast, 
and  to  the  N.  E.  part  of  the  country, 
which  seems  peculiarly  well  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  maize,  sugar, 
and  coffee.  The  pastures,  moreover, 
are  of  vast  extent,  and,  as  they  afford 
food  for  immense  numbers  of  horned 
cattle,  they  form  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  the  wealth  of  the  country. 
Being  almost  wholly  within  the  limit 
of  the  palm  region,  the  vegetation  of 
Brazil  is  characterized  generally  by 
the  peculiar  physiognomy  which  tha' 
beautiful  family  of  vegetables  impresses 
on  tropical  countries.  Of  these  nearly 
200  species  are  known  as  native  to  the 
country.  The  chief  food-supplying 
plants  are  sugar,  coffee,  cacao,  rice, 
maize,  wheat,  manioc  (cassava), 
beans,  bananas,  yams,  lemons,  oranges, 
figs,  etc. —  the  two  first,  sugar  and  cof- 
fee, being  the  staple  products  of  the 
republic.  The  manioc  is  a  native  of 
Brazil,  and  its  farina  is  almost  the 
only  kind  of  meal  used  in  that  coun- 
try. An  acre  of  manioc  is  said  to 
yield  as  much  nutriment  as  six  acres 
of  wheat.  The  Indians  find  in  this 
beautiful  and  useful  plant  a  compen- 
sation for  the  rice  and  other  cereals 
of  the  Old  World.  But  it  is  in  the 
boundless  forests  of  Brazil  that  the 
vigor  of  the  vegetative  power  is  ex- 
hibited in  its  most  imposing  form. 
Rubber,  drugs,  dyes,  fibers,  vegetable 
ivory,  and  cabinet  woods  are  all  prod- 
ucts of  the  Brazilian  forests.  Among 
the  trees  are  the  andaacu,  or  Purga  da 
Paulistas,  the  seeds  of  which  yield  a 
purgative  oil;  the  cacao  or  chocolate 
tree ;  the  Brazil-wood  tree,  used,  under 
the  name  of  Pernambuco  wood,  for 
dyeing  silk  of  a  crimson  color ;  the 
rosewood  tree,  the  fustic,  mahogany, 
and  a  variety  of  others  well  adapted 


;  for  various  purposes.     The  beauty,  va- 
i  riety,  and  abundance  of  the  flowers  of 
this  extraordinary  country  are  no  less 
remarkable  than  any  other  of  its  vege- 
table productions. 

The  principal  domestic  animals  of 
Brazil  are  horned  cattle  and  horses; 
the  numbers  of  the  former  are  prodigi- 
ous, covering  the  boundless  plains  of 
the  interior.  The  greatest  part  of 
them  live  in  a  wild  or  semi-wild  state. 
Horses  are  numerous  in  the  S.  prov- 
inces ;  they  are  of  a  middling  size,  from 
12  to  14^j  hands  high,  but  strong,  live- 
ly, and  swift.  Mules  are  reared  in  the 
S.  States.  Sheep  are  in  little  repute, 
the  meat  being  ill  flavored  and  the 
wool  of  indifferent  quality.  Goats 
and  hogs  are  abundant.  The  woods 
of  Brazil  swarm  with  wild  animals, 
including  the  puma,  jaguar,  sloth,  ar- 
madillo, etc.  Wild  hogs  are  also  com- 
mon, as  well  as  an  amphibious  animal 
called  the  water  hog  or  capybara,  re- 
sembling a  hog  in  form,  but  of  the  size 
of  a  heifer.  Monkeys  are  likewise  nu- 
j  merous ;  and  vampire  bats  are  in  some 
localities  so  destructive  as  to  prevent 
the  rearing  of  cattle.  Among  the 
feathered  tribes  are,  the  smallest,  the 
humming-bird,  and  one  of  the  largest, 
the  rhea  or  ostrich.  There  are  also 
parrots  in  great  variety,  and  a  power- 
ful eagle,  the  harpy.  Water-fowl,  es- 
pecially geese  and  ducks,  abound  in 
certain  seasons  on  the  lakes  and  la- 
goons at  the  S.  extremity  of  Brazil. 
The  reptiles  consist  of  the  boa  constric- 
tor and  other  species  of  serpents,  some 
of  them  venomous,  especially  the  jar- 
raraca,  which  is  much  dreaded  by  th« 
natives.  When  full  grown  it  is  usu- 
ally about  six  feet  long,  and  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  rattlesnake  genus.  It 
prevails  over  all  the  S.  States.  Its 
bite  is  attended  with  great  suffering, 
and  with  the  most  serious  conse- 
quences, even  where  death  is  averted. 
In  the  marshy  countries  of  the  S.  the 
boa  or  python  is  said  to  attain  a 
length  of  over  20  feet  Other  im- 
portant reptiles  are  several  species  of 
alligator  and  different  kinds  of  turtle, 
which,  on  the  Amazon  in  particular, 
supply  abundance  of  food.  The  in- 
sects of  Brazil  are,  many  of  them,  re- 
'  markable  for  the  beauty  of  their  col- 
ors and  their  size,  especially  the  but- 
terflies and  moths,  of  which  as  many 
as  14,000  species  are  known.  In 


Brazil  

some  localities  insects  are  so  numerous 
in  the  woods  that  their  noise  is  heard 
in  a  ship  at  anchor  some  distance 
from  the  shore.  The  white  ants  are 
especially  numerous  and  destructive. 
The  scorpions  of  Brazil  attain  a  length 
of  six  inches.  Most  of  the  bees  of  the 
country  are  stingless,  there  being  no 
fewer  than  30  species  of  that  descrip- 
tion. The  shores  and  rivers  abound 
with  fish.  Among  the  most  valuable 
of  those  caught  on  the  former  is  the 
garopa,  which  attains  a  length  of  from 
12  to  20  feet,  and  is  well  flavored; 
they  are  most  numerous  on  the  coast 
of  Bahia,  where  great  quantities  are 
annually  taken  and  exported.  The 
numbers  of  fish  caught  in  the  Amazon 
and  other  rivers  of  the  country  are 
very  great,  constituting  a  principal 
part  of  the  subsistence  of  the  inhab- 
itants. 

In  every  town  schools  for  teaching 
the  first  rudiments  are  now  to  be 
found,  to  which  the  children  of  all 
citizens  are  admitted  free.  There  are 
no  universities,  but  there  are  govern- 
ment colleges  of  law,  medicine,  etc.  In 
all  large  towns  there  are  professor- 
ships of  Latin,  Greek,  English,  French, 
philosophy,  rhetoric,  geometry,  chem- 
istry, botany,  etc. ;  and  printing 
Eresses  are  now  common  throughout 
razil. 

The  varied  population  of  Brazil  con- 
sists of  people  of  pure  Portuguese 
blood,  who  form  a  comparatively  small 
minority  of  the  whole ;  of  full-blooded 
negroes,  who  form  the  largest  unmixed 
element  in  the  population ;  of  abor- 
igines or  native  Indians ;  and  of  peo- 
ple of  mixed  race,  the  most  numerous 
of  all ;  besides  a  certain  number  of 
German  and  other  European  immi- 
grants. The  Portuguese  portion  of 
the  population  have  made  Portuguese 
the  national  language  of  the  country. 
The  native  Indians  are  copper-colored, 
robust,  well-made,  but  of  short  stature. 
They  generally  go  naked,  paint  their 
skins,  and  are  fond  of  ornament- 
ing their  heads  with  feathers.  A 
number  are  nominally  Christians. 
They  belong  to  various  tribes  of  which 
the  chief  are  the  Tupi,  Guarani,  and 
the  Onagua.  In  recent  years  there 
has  been  a  considerable  immigration  of- 
European  colonists,  the  majority 
Italians.  Italy  enjoys  a  "  favored 
nation  "  tariff  with  Brazil.  In  Dec.. 


___ BrarU 

1906,  it  was  reported  that  the  German 
govt.  offered  exemption  from  military 
service  to  German  settlers  in  Rio 
Grande.  Commercial  activities  in 
1915  showed  imports  (excluding  spe- 
cie), $150,440,000;  exports,  $264,850,- 
000  (coffee,  $160,950,000).  Exports 
comprise  coffee  (the  most  valuable 
product),  sugar,  rubber,  cotton,  hides, 
drugs,  gums,  and  diamonds.  There 
are  over  16,000  m.  of  railroad,  over 
42,000  m.  of  telegraph  wire  and  ex- 
tending telephonic  systems.  A  feature 
of  the  telegraphic  system  is  the  cable 
laid  on  the  bed  of  the  Amazon  river 
and  giving  Para,  Manaos  and  other 
towns  on  its  banks  telegraphic  con- 
nection with  the  rest  of  the  world. 

There  is  now  no  established  religion 
in  Brazil,  but  practically  all  excepting 
100,000  of  the  population  are  Catho- 
lics. Until  recently  the  government 
was  monarchial,  hereditary,  constitu- 
tional, and  representative.  Since  the 
overthrow  of  the  empire  in  1889  repub- 
lican institutions  have  been  estab- 
lished, each  of  the  old  provinces  being 
now  a  State,  whose  internal  affairs  are 
administered  without  interference 
from  the  central  federal  government. 
At  the  head  of  affairs  is  a  president, 
by  whom,  and  the  national  congress, 
legislation  is  carried  on.  The  con- 
gress consists  of  a  chamber  of  212 
deputies  and  a  senate  of  63  members, 
the  former  elected  by  direct  vote  as 
representative  of  the  different  States ; 
while  the  senators  are  chosen  by  di- 
rect vote,  three  for  each  State  and  the 
Federal  District  for  nine  years.  On 
Jan.  1,  1915,  the  foreign  debt  was 
$409,728,800 ;  internal  debt,  $172.649,- 
935  ;  State  and  municipal  debts,  $158,- 
436.135. 

The  revenue  of  the  republic  in  1915 
aggregated  $194,570,275;  and  the  ex- 
penditures $134,652,575.  The  mili- 
tary budget  for  1915  was  $36,270,- 
695.  The  navy  comprised  two  dread- 
naughts,  two  old  battleships,  three 
protected  cruisers,  and  twenty-three 
gunboats,  destroyers,  torpedo  boats, 
etc. 

Brazil  was  discovered  Jan.  26, 1500, 
by  Vincente  Yanez  Pincon,  one  of  the 
companions  of  Columbus,  and  was  sub- 
sequently taken  possession  of  by  Pedro 
Alvares  de  Cabral.  Emanuel,  King  of 
Portugal,  had  equipped  a  squadron  for 
a  voyage  to  the  East  Indies,  under  the 


Brazil 

command  of  Cabral.  The  admiral, 
quitting  Lisbon,  March  9,  1500,  fell  in 
accidentally,  April  24,  with  the  conti- 
nent of  South  America,  which  he  at 
first  supposed  to  be  a  large  island  on 
the  coast  of  Africa.  In  this  conjec- 
ture he  was  soon  undeceived,  when  the 
natives  came  in  sight.  Having  discov- 
ered a  good  harbor,  he  anchored  his 
vessels,  and  called  the  bay  Puerto  Se- 
guro.  On  the  next  day  he  landed  with 
a  body  of  troops,  and  having  erected 
the  cross,  took  possession  of  the  coun- 
try in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  and 
called  it  Terro  da  Vera  Cruz ;  but  the 
name  was  afterward  altered  by  King 
Emanuel  to  that  of  Brazil,  from  the 
red  wood  which  the  country  produces. 
The  value  of  Brazil  to  Portugal  con- 
tinued steadily  to  increase  after  the 
discovery  of  the  gold  mines  in  1698, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  diamond  mines 
in  1728.  Up  to  the  year  1810  Brazil 
had  sent  to  Portugal  14,280  hundred- 
weights of  gold  and  2,100  pounds  of 
diamonds,  which  foreign  countries, 
and  especially  Great  Britain,  at  last 
succeeded  in  purchasing  at  the  Lisbon 
market.  Rio  Janeiro  now  became  the 
mart  for  the  proceeds  of  the  Brazilian 
mines  and  native  productions.  But 
the  administration  was  anything  but 
adapted  to  promote  the  prosperity  of 
the  country.  The  attention  of  the  gov- 
ernment was  turned  almost  exclusively 
to  the  gold  washings  and  to  the  work- 
ing of  the  diamond  mines ;  and  the 
policy  of  the  administration  consisted 
in  the  exaction  of  taxes  and  duties, 
which  were  collected  from  the  fortified 
ports,  to  which  trade  was  solely  con- 
fined. Foreigners  were  excluded  or 
jealously  w  itched,  and  trade  was  par- 
alyzed by  numerous  restrictions.  In 
the  interior,  the  lands  situated  on  the 
great  rivers,  after  being  surveyed, 
were  frequently  presented,  after  the 
year  1640,  by  the  kings  of  the  house 
of  Braganza.  to  the  younger  sons  of 
the  Portuguese  nobility,  whom  the  sys- 
tem of  entails  excluded  from  the  pros- 
pect of  inheritance.  These  grantees 
enlisted  adventurers,  purchased  negro 
slaves  by  thousands,  and  subjected  the 
original  inhabitants  or  drove  them 
from  their  districts,  and  ruled  their 
dominions  with  almost  unlimited  sway. 
The  missions  of  the  Jesuits  also  re- 
ceived similar  donations  from  the 
kings. 


Brazil 

On  the  invasion  of  Portugal  in  1808 
by  the  French,  the  sovereign  of  that 
kingdom,  John  VI.,  sailed  for  Brazil, 
accompanied  by  his  court  and  a  large 
body  of  emigrants.  Soon  after  arriv- 
ing there  he  began  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  country  by  placing  the  ad- 
ministration on  a  better  footing,  and 
throwing  open  its  ports  to  all  nations. 
On  the  fall  of  Bonaparte  the  king 
raised  Brazil  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Por- 
tugal, Algarve,  and  Brazil.  The  revo- 
lution which  took  place  in  Portugal  in 

1820,  compelled    the    king    to    return 
to  that  country;  he  next  year  sailed 
for   Lisbon,   leaving  Pedro,   his  eldest 
son  and  successor,  as  lieutenant   and 
regent.     But  as  the  Portuguese  Cortes 
was   not   willing   to    grant   the   entire 
equality  of  civil  and  political  relations 
demanded  by  the  Brazilians,  and  had 
expressly  declared  that  Brazil  was  to 
be  divided  into  governments,  and  ruled 
by   the  ministry  of   State  at   Lisbon, 
and  the   prince-regent   was    to   be   re- 
called to  Portugal  —  such  violent  con- 
vulsions were  excited  in  Rio  Janeiro 
and  various  parts  of  Brazil,  December, 

1821,  that  it  was  explicitly  declared  to 
the    prince-regent    that    his   departure 
would  be  the  signal  for  establishing  an 
independent      republic.     The      prince, 
therefore,  resolved  to  remain  in  Bra- 
zil, and  gave  a  public  explanation  of 
his  reasons,  Jan.  9,  1822,  to  his  father, 
to  the  Cortes  in  Portugal,  and  to  the 
people     of     Brazil.     The     Portuguese 
troops  were  removed  from  Brazil.  The 
prince-regent  assumed,  May  13,  1822, 
the    title   of    "  perpetual   defender   of 
Brazil,"  and  in  June  convened  a  Na- 
tional Assembly,  composed  of  100  dep- 
uties, to  frame  a  separate  constitution 
for  the  country.  The  National  Assem- 
bly of  Brazil  declared  the  separation 
of  that  country  from  Portugal,  Aug. 
1,  1822.  and  Oct.  12,  appointed  Dom 
Pedro  the  constitutional   Emperor   of 
Brazil.     The  new  emperor  retained,  at 
the  same  time,  the  title  of  "  perpetual 
defender  of  Brazil." 

The  king,  after  some  slight  and  in- 
effectual attempts  to  re-establish  the 
former  relations  between  Portugal  and 
Brazil,  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  latter  country  in  1825.  Some 
years  afterward  a  series  of  tumultuary 
proceedings  ended  in  the  abdication  of 
Dom  Pedro,  who  left  Brazil  on  April 


Brazilian  Grass 


Brazos 


7,  1831,  leaving  his  son,  who  was  un- 
der age,  as  his  successor.  The  rights 
of  the  latter  were  recognized  and  pro- 
tected, and  a  regency  of  three  persons 
appointed  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
to  conduct  the  government  during  his 
minority.  In  1840  the  young  emperor 
was  declared  of  age,  being  then  in  his 
15th  year,  and  was  crowned  on  July 
18,  1841.  The  new  government  had 
considerable  difficulty  in  crushing  the 
republican  and  revolutionary  party, 
which  kept  up  a  series  of  struggles  in 
several  provinces  for  some  years.  In 
1845  the  insurgents  had  all  laid  down 
their  arms,  but  in  1848  a  new  rising 
took  place,  which  was  put  down  not 
without  difficulty  in  the  following 
year.  In  1851  a  war  broke  out  with 
Rosas,  dictator  of  Buenos  Ayres,  in 
which  Brazil  was  joined  by  Paraguay, 
Uruguay,  Corrientes,  and  Entre  Rios, 
and  which  ended  in  favor  of  the  allies. 
From  this  war  Brazil  received  a  cer- 
tain impulse.  The  trade  now  in- 
creased, the  finances  of  the  country 
improved,  and  the  government  began 
to  further  the  development  of  the 
country  by  constructing  roads,  encour- 
aging immigration,  and  fostering  the 
education  of  the  people.  In  1853  the 
Bank  of  Brazil  was  founded,  and  the 
construction  of  railways  began.  In 
1859  a  minister  for  agriculture,  com- 
merce, and  public  work  was  appointed, 
and  a  large  government  loan  for  the 
construction  of  railways  was  author- 
ized. In  1863,  in  consequence  of  the 
arrest  of  three  English  naval  officers, 
a  misunderstanding  arose  with  Eng- 
land, which  led  to  the  termination  of 
diplomatic  relations  for  a  time  between 
the  two  countries.  Meanwhile  (No- 
vember, 18G4)  hostilities  had  been 
commenced  by  the  Paraguayans  under 
President  Lopez  against  Brazil,  in 
consequence  of  the  interference  of  the 
latter  in  the  affairs  of  Uruguay;  and 
in  May,  1865,  an  alliance  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  on  war  against  Par- 
aguay was  concluded  between  Brazil, 
the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  Uru- 
guay. This  war,  the  brunt  of  which 
had  to  be  borne  by  Brazil,  lasted  till 
1870,  the  Paraguayans  having  main- 
tained a  heroic  resistance,  and  having 
only  given  up  the  contest  on  the  death 
of  their  leader,  Lopez,  in  battle  against 
the  Brazilians  (March  1,  1870).  This 
struggle  was  attended  with  an  im- 


mense expenditure  of  men  and  money 
to  Brazil,  but  it  established  her  repu- 
tation as  a  great  power  and  secured 
the  freedom  of  the  navigation  of  the 
La  Plata  river  system.  For  some 
years  after  this  a  movement  toward 
greater  freedom  went  on  in  Brazil.  In 
1888  it  took  the  form  of  a  total  abol- 
ition of  slavery  without  compensation, 
and  in  1889  it  received  further  devel- 
opment in  a  revolution  which  over- 
threw the  monarchy.  On  Nov.  16  a 
provisional  government  was  formed, 
the  emperor  with  his  family  sailed  for 
Europe,  and  a  new  constitution  pro- 
claimed the  Republic  of  the  Federated 
United  States  of  Brazil.  In  1893-94 
an  insurrection,  confined  chiefly  to  the 
navy,  was  suppressed  after  some  fight- 
ing by  Pres.  Peixoto.  In  1906  the 
Third  International  Congress  of  Amer- 
ican Republics  assembled  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  the  object  being  to  improve 
in  every  way  possible  the  relations 
between  North,  Central,  and  South 
American  republics.  Mr.  Elihu  Root, 
Secretary  of  State,  headed  the  delega- 
tion from  the  U.  S.,  and  discussions 
of  the  Monroe  and  Drago  doctrines 
were  features  of  the  Congress. 

Brazilian  Grass,  an  incorrect 
popular  name  applied  to  a  substance 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  very 
cheap  kind  of  hats,  known  as  Brazil- 
ian grass  hats. 

Brazil  Nuts,  the  seeds  of  a  Bra- 
zilian tree.  The  nuts  or  seeds  are 
largely  exported  from  Para,  whence 
they  are  sometimes  called  Para  nuts. 

Brazil  Tea,  a  tree  —  the  mate, 
the  leaves  of  which  are  used  in  South 
America  as  a  substitute  for  Chinese  or 
India  tea. 

Brazil  Wood,  a  kind  of  wood 
used  for  dyeing,  and  extensively  im- 
ported from  the  West  Indies,  Brazil, 
and  other  tropical  countries. 

Brazing,  the  act  of  soldering  to- 
gether the  surfaces  of  iron,  copper, 
brass,  etc.,  with  an  alloy  composed  of 
brass  and  zinc,  sometimes  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  tin  or  silver. 

Brazos,  a  large  river  of  the  United 
States,  in  Texas,  rising  in  the  N.  W. 
part  of  the  State,  and  flowing  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  after  a  course  of  900 
miles,  40  miles  W.  S.  W.  of  Galves- 
ton.  During  the  rainy  season,  from 
February  to  May  inclusive,  it  is  navi- 


Breach 


Breakwater 


gable    by    steamboats    for   about   300 
miles. 

Breach,    the   aperture   or   passage 
made  in  the  wall  of  any  fortified  place 
by  the  ordnance  of  the  besiegers   for  ! 
the  purpose  of  entering  the  fortress,  j 

Breach,  in  law,  any  violation  of  a ' 
law,  or  the  non-performance  of  a  duty 
imposed  by  law. 

Bread.  In  the  earliest  antiquity 
we  find  the  flour  or  meal  of  grain  used 
as  food.  Bread,  as  is  well  known,  is 
made  from  the  flour  or  meal  of  the 
cereals,  Indian  corn,  millet,  and  rice 
being  principally  used  for  the  purpose 
in  the  more  S.  countries,  rye,  barley,  ! 
and  oats  in  the  more  N.,  and  wheat  in 
the  intermediate  and  temperate  re- 
gions ;  but  other  vegetable  products, 
such  as  beans,  peas,  lentils,  turnips, 
carrots,  potatoes,  and  even  the  bark  of 
trees,  are  also  sometimes  employed  < 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  the  flour 
of  the  cereals 

Breadfruit.     The  breadfruit  is  ai 
large,  globular   fruit  of  a  pale-green 


BEEADFBTJTT. 

color,  about  the  size  of  a  child's  head, 
marked  on  the  surface  with  irregular 
Bix-sided  depressions,  and  containing  a 
white  and  somewhat  fibrous  pulp, 
which  when  ripe  becomes  juicy  and 
yellow.  The  tree  that  produces  Jt 
grows  wild  in  Tahiti  and  other  is- 
lands of  the  South  Seas.  It  is  about 
40  feet  high,  with  large  and  spreading 
branches,  and  has  large  bright  green  ; 

E. 


leaves,  deeply  divided  into  seven  or 
nine  spear-shaped  lobes.  The  eatable 
part  of  this  fruit  lies  between  the  skin 
and  the  core,  and  it  is  as  white  as 
snow  and  somewhat  of  the  consistence 
of  new  bread.  When  gathered  it  is 
generally  used  immediately ;  if  it  be 
kept  more  than  24  hours,  it  becomes 
hard  and  choky.  The  inhabitants  of 
the  South  Sea  Islands  prepare  it  as 
food  by  dividing  the  fruit  into  three 
or  four  parts  and  roasting  it  in  hot 
embers.  Its  taste  is  insipid,  with  a 
slight  tartness. 

As  the  climate  of  the  South  Sea  Is- 
lands is  not  very  different  from  that 
of  the  West  Indies,  it  was  thought  de- 
sirable that  some  of  the  trees  should 
be  transferred  in  a  growing  state  to 
the  British  islands  there ;  and  it  was 
for  this  purpose  that  the  "  Bounty  " 
sailed  in  1787  to  the  South  Seas,  un- 
der the  command  of  the  well-known 
Bligh.  This  expedition  being  unsuc- 
cessful, a  second,  also  under  Bligh, 
was  fitted  out  in  1791.  He  arrived  in 
safety  at  Tahiti,  and  after  an  ab- 
sence from  England  of  about  18 
months,  landed  in  Jamaica  with  352 
breadfruit  trees  in  a  living  state,  hav- 
ing left  many  others  at  different  places 
in  his  passage  thither.  From  Jamaica 
these  trees  were  transferred  to  other 
islands;  but  the  negroes,  having  a 
general  and  long-established  predilec- 
tion for  the  plantain,  the  breadfruit 
is  not  much  relished  by  them.  Where, 
however,  it  has  not  been  generally 
introduced  as  an  article  of  food,  it  is 
used  as  a  delicacy;  and  whether  em- 
ployed as  bread  or  in  the  form  of  pud- 
ding, it  is  considered  highly  palatable 
by  the  white  inhabitants. 

Breakwater,  a  pier,  wall,  mole, 
sunken  hulk,  or  anything  similar, 
placed  at  the  entrance  of  a  harbor,  at 
the  exposed  part  of  an  anchorage,  or 
in  any  such  situation,  with  the  view 
of  deadening  the  force  of  the  waves 
which  roll  in  from  the  ocean.  There 
are  several  notable  breakwaters  in  this 
country  —  one  of  the  longest  and  most 
notable  being  that  in  Lake  Michigan, 
protecting  the  harbor  of  the  city  of 
Chicago.  It  is  peculiar  in  its  con- 
struction, being  built  perpendicalarly 
and  encased  with  wooden  beams.  The 
Delaware  breakwater,  in  Delaware 
Bay,  is  built  with  sloping  sides,  being 
much  broader  at  its  base  than  on  top. 


Bream 


Breech 


Bream,  the  carp  bream.  It  is  of  a 
yellowish  white  color,  which  changes, 
through  age,  to  a  yellowish  brown. 
The  sides  are  golden,  the  cheeks  and 
gill  covers  silver  white,  the  fins,  light 
colored,  tinged,  the  ventral  one  with 
red  and  others  with  brown.  It  is 
found  in  deep  waters  and  lakes.  It 
is  sought  after  by  anglers,  who,  how- 
ever, consider  the  flesh  insipid. 

Breastwork,  in  fortification,  a 
hastily  constructed  parapet  made  of 
material  at  hand,  such  as  earth,  logs, 
rails,  timber,  and  designed  to  protect 
troops  from  the  fire  of  an  enemy.  In 
architecture,  the  parapet  of  a  build- 
ing. In  shipbuilding,  a  railing  or  bal- 
ustrade standing  athwartships  across 
a  deck,  as  on  the  forward  end  of  the 
quarter  deck  or  roundhouse.  The 
beam  supporting  it  is  a  breastbeam. 

Breckinridge,  Clifton  B,.,  an 
American  legislator  and  diplomatist, 
born  in  Lexington,  Ky.,  Nov.  25,  1846 ; 
received  a  public  school  education  and 
served  in  the  Confederate  army  and 
navy.  After  the  war  he  attended 
Washington  College  (now  Washing- 
ton and  Lee  University)  for  three 
years,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  busi- 
ness in  Pine  Bluff,  Ark.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1882  as  Repre- 
sentative-at-large.  On  July  19,  1894, 
he  was  appointed  United  States  Min- 
ister to  Russia,  serving  until  1897. 

Breckinridge,  or  Breckenriclge, 
John,  an  American  statesman,  born 
in  1760.  In  1795  he  was  made  Attor- 
ney-General of  the  new  _State  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  he  served  in  its  Legislature 
from  1797  to  1800.  He  entered  the 
United  States  Senate,  in  1801,  becom- 
ing four  years  later  Attorney-General 
in  Jefferson's  cabinet,  in  which  office 
he  died  in  180& 

Breckinridge,  John  Cahell, 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States, 
born  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Jan.  21, 
1821 ;  practiced  law  in  Lexington  un- 
til 1847,  when  he  was  chosen  major  of 
a  volunteer  regiment  for  the  Mexican 
War.  He  sat  in  Congress  in  1851- 
1855,  and  in  1856  was  elected  Vice- 
President,  with  James  Buchanan  as 
President.  In  1860  he  was  the  pro- 
slavery  candidate  for  the  presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  Abraham  Lin- 
coln. A  United  States  Senator  from 
March  to  December,  1861,  he  then  en- 


tered the  Confederate  army,  was  ap^ 
pointed  a  Major-General,  in  1862,  and 
held  some  important  commands  during 
the  Civil  War.  He  was  Secretary  of 
War  in  Jefferson  Davis'  cabinet  at  the 
close  of  the  struggle,  and  escaped  to 
Europe,  whence  he  returned  in  1868. 
He  died  in  Lexington,  May  17,  1875. 

Breckinridge,  Joseph  Cahell, 
an  American  military  officer,  born  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  Jan.  14,  1842;  a 
cousin  of  Gen.  John  C.  Breckenridge 
of  the  Confederate  army.  He  prac- 
ticed law  in  Danville,  Ky.,  till  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War,  when  he 
joined  the  Union  army.  He  was  made 
a  First  Lieutenant  in  the  Regular 
army  Aug.  1,  1863,  a  Captain  in  1874, 
Brigadier  and  Inspector-General  in 
1889,  and  Major-General  of  Volun- 
teersj  May  4,  1898.  He  served  in  the 
Santiago  campaign  and  had  a  horse 
shot  under  him. 

Breckinridge,  Robert  Jeffer- 
son, a  Presbyterian  clergyman  and 
theological  writer,  born  at  CabelPs 
Dale,  Ky.,  March  8,  1800.  He  was 
originally  a  lawyer.  He  was  Presi- 
dent of  Jefferson  College  in  1845- 
1847;  from  1847  he  was  pastor  at 
Lexington,  Ky.  He  was  a  leader  in 
the  division  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  1837  into  Old  and  New  Schools. 
He  died  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Dec.  27, 
1871. 

Breda,  a  town  in  Holland,  Pro- 
vince of  North  Brabant,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Merk  and  the  Aa.  Breda 
was  once  a  strong  fortress  and  of 
fereat  military  importance  as  a  strat- 
egical position.  From  the  16th  to  the 
end  of  the  18th  century  Breda  has  an 
interesting  military  history  of  sieges, 
assaults  and  captures,  with  which  the 
names  of  the  most  famous  generals  of 
their  time,  the  Duke  of  Parma,  Mau- 
rice of  Orange,  the  Marquis  Spinola, 
Dumouriez,  and  Pichegru,  etc.,  are 
connected.  It  was  the  residence  for  a 
time  of  the  exi^  Charles  II.  of  Eng- 
land, and  it  was  in  the  Declaration  of 
Breda  that  he  promised  liberty  of 
conscience,  a  general  amnesty,  etc., 
on  his  restoration. 

Breech,  in  firearms  and  ordnance, 
the  rear  portion  of  a  gun ;  the  portion 
behind  the  chamber;  in  shipbuilding, 
the  outer  angle  of  a  knee  timber;  t*ie 
inner  angle  is  the  throat. 


Breeches    Bible 


Breeches  Bible,  a  name  given  to 
a  Bible  printed  in  1579 ;  and  so  called 
from  the  reading  of  Gen.  iii:  7: 
"  They  sowed  figge  tree  leaves  together 
and  made  themselves  breeches." 

Breech     Loader,     a     firearm     in 
which  the  charge  is  introduced  at  the ' 
rear  instead  of  at  the  muzzle. 

Breech.   Pin,   in   firearms,   a  plug  • 
screwed  into  the  rear  end  of  a  barrel,  { 
forming    the    bottom    of    the    charge 
chamber.     Otherwise   called   a   breech 
plug  or  breech  screw. 

Breech  Screw,  in  firearms,  the 
plug  which  closes  the  rear  end  of  the 
bore  of  a  firearm  barrel.  The  parts 
are  known  as  the  plug,  the  face,  the 
tenon,  the  tang,  and  the  tangscrew  I 
hole. 

Breech  Sight,  the  hinder  sight  of 
a  gun.  In  conjunction  with  the  front  i 
sight,  it  serves  to  aim  the  gun  at  an 
object 

Breeding,  the  art  of  improving 
races  or  breeds  of  domestic  animals,  | 
or  modifying  them  in  certain  direc- 
tions, by  continuous  attention  to  their 
pairing,  in  conjunction  with  a  similar 
attention  to  their  feeding  and  general 
treatment. 

No  sooner  had  the  Revolutionary 
War  closed  than  importations  of  im- 
proved stock  began.  This  was  kept 
up  till  the  War  of  1812  temporarily 
checked  it 

Mr.  Rommel  says  that  the  year  1817 
•will  always  be  memorable  in  American 
cattle  history.  In  that  year,  follow- 
ing the  short-horn  importations  of 
1812,  came  the  beginning  of  the  Devon 
and  Hereford  importations,  together 
with  still  another  arrival  of  short- 
horns. Growth  was  slow  up  to  1827, 
when  there  came  renewed  activity,  es- 
pecially in  short-horns.  Companies 
were  formed  and  the  improvement  of 
cattle  was  marked.  In  point  of  num- 
bers the  shorthorn  breed  rapidly  as- 
sumed the  foremost  position,  and  till 
about  the  year  3880  was  the  only  beef 
of  prominence. 

The  expansion  of  the  cattle  business 
was  rapid.  Up  to  the  opening  of  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad  it  was  mainly 
carried  on  in  the  part  of  the  country 
E.  of  the  Missouri  river.  Then  came 
the  discovery  of  the  great  opportuni- 
ties offered  by  the  far  Western  plains  i 
for  grazing.  The  grrowth  in  tie  cat- , 


tie  raising  industry  was  then  abnor- 
mal. "  In  the  early  eighties,"  says 
Mr.  Rommel,  "  pure-bred  cattle  by  the 
thousands  were  brought  from  England 
to  supplement  the  American  herds  in 
breeding  bulls  for  the  range,  and  the 
nearest  that  the  Hereford  and  Angus 
breeds  ever  came  to  having  a  boom  in 
this  country  was  at  this  time.  After 
the  collapse,  which  was  bound  to  fol- 
low, the  cattle  business  is  now  on 
what  is  thought  to  be  a  substantial 
and  healthy  foundation. 

Breed's  Hill,  a  slight  elevation  in 
the  Charlestown  district  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  about  700  yards  from  Bunker 
Hill.  Although  the  famous  engage- 
ment of  June  17,  1775,  is  known  as 
the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  most  of  the 
fighting  was  done  on  Breed's  Hill. 
Here  was  located  the  American  re- 
doubt, against  which  the  British  made 
their  three  historical  charges,  and  here 
Warren  fell.  The  Bunker  Hill  monu- 
ment stands  on  Breed's  Hill. 

Breitenf  eld,  a  village  of  Saxony, 
5  miles  N.  of  Leipsic,  remarkable  for 
three  battles  fought  in  its  neighbor- 
hood. In  the  first,  fought  on  Sept  17 
(old  style,  7th),  1631,  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  upon 
the  imperialists  under  Tilly,  who,  as 
well  as  his  generals,  Pappenheim  and 
Furstenberg,  was  wounded.  The  sec- 
ond battle  was  also  a  victory  of  the 
Swedes  under  Torstenson  over  the  im- 
perial forces  under  the  Archduke  Leo- 
pold and  Piccolomini,  Nov.  2  (old 
style,  Oct  23),  1642.  The  third  bat- 
tle was  one  act  of  the  great  "  Battle 
of  the  Nations"  at  Leipsic,  Oct  16, 
1813. 

Bremen,  a  free  city  of  Germany, 
an  independent  member  of  the  Empire, 
one  of  the  three  Hanse  towns,  on  the 
Weser,  about  50  miles  from  its  mouth, 
in  its  own  small  territory  of  99  square 
miles,  besides  which  it  possesses  the 
port  of  Bremerhayen,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river.  The  city  is  partly  on  the 
right,  partly  on  the  left,  bank  of  the 
Weser,  the  larger  portion  being  on  the 
former.  Its  situation  renders  Bremen 
the  emporium  for  Hanover,  Bruns- 
wick, Hesse,  and  other  countries  tra- 
versed by  the  Weser,  and  next  to  Ham- 
burg it  is  the  principal  seat  of  the  ex- 
port and  import  and  emigration  trade 
of  Germany.  Only  small  vessels  can 
pass  up  to  the  city  itself;  the  great 


Bremer 

bulk  of  the  shipping  trade  centers  in 
Bremerhaven  and  in  Geestemunde. 
Bremerhaven  is  now  a  place  of  (1910) 
24,275  inhabitants,  has  docks  capable 
of  receiving  the  largest  vessels,  and  is 
connected  by  railway  with  Bremen, 
where  the  chief  merchants  and  brokers 
have  their  offices.  The  chief  imports 
are  tobacco,  raw  cotton  and  cotton 
goods,  wool  and  woolen  goods,  rice, 
coffee,  grain,  petroleum,  etc.,  which 
are  chiefly  re-exported  to  other  parts 
of  Germany  and  the  Continent.  Ag- 
gregate value  of  imports  1913,  $622,- 
825,000;  of  exports,  $598,500,000. 
Population  of  city  (1910)  299,526. 

Bremer,  Fredrika,  a  Swedish 
novelist,  was  born  at  Tuorla,  Finland, 
Aug.  17,  1801 ;  was  brought  up  at 
Arsta,  about  20  miles  from  Stockholm. 
She  varied  her  literary  labor  by  long 
journeys  in  Italy,  England,  the  United 
States,  Greece,  Palestine.  She  died  in 
Arsta,  Dec.  31,  1865. 

Brennns,  the  name  of  two  individ- 
uals known  in  history.  (1)  The  first 
was  the  hero  of  an  early  Roman  leg- 
end which  relates  to  the  migration  of 
the  Gauls  into  Italy  and  their  march 
to  Clusium  and  Rome.  In  the  account 
given  by  Livy,  he  figures  as  the  Regu- 
lus  Gallorum,  or  chieftain  of  the 
Gauls.  When  he'  arrived  at  Clusium, 
the  inhabitants  called  on  the  Romans 
for  aid.  He  engaged  with  and  de- 
feated the  Romans  on  the  banks  of  the 
Allia,  the  name  of  which  river  they 
ever  after  held  in  detestation.  The 
whole  city  was  afterward  plundered 
and  burned,  and  the  capitol  would 
have  been  taken  but  for  the  bravery 
of  Manlius.  At  last,  induced  by  fam- 
ine and  pestilence,  the  Romans  agreed 
that  the  Gauls  should  receive  1,000 
pounds  of  gold,  on  the  condition  that 
they  would  quit  Rome  and  its  terri- 
tory altogether;  the  barbarian 
brought  false  weights,  but  his  fraud 
•was  detected.  The  tribune  Sulpicius 
exclaimed  against  the  injustice  of 
Brennus,  who  immediately  laid  his 
sword  and  belt  on  the  scale,  and  said, 
"  Woe  to  the  vanquished."  The  dicta- 
tor, Camillus,  arrived  with  his  forces 
at  this  critical  time,  annulled  the  ca- 
pitulation, and  ordered  him  to  prepare 
tor  battle.  The  Gauls  were  defeated ; 
there  was  a  total  slaughter,  and  not 
a  man  survived  to  carry  home  the 
news  of  the  defeat.  (2)  A  king  of 


Breslan 

the  Gauls,  who,  B.  c.  279,  made  an  ir- 
ruption into  Macedonia  with  a  force 
of  150,000  men  and  10,000  horses.  Pro- 
ceeding into  Greece,  he  attempted  to 
plunder  the  temple  at  Delphi.  He 
engaged  in  many  battles,  lost  many 
thousand  men,  and  himself  received 
many  wounds. 

Brent,  Charles  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican clergyman ;  born  in  Newcastle, 
Ontario,  Canada,  in  1862 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege in  1884 ;  ordained  deacon  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1886, 
priest  in  1887 ;  consecrated  the  first 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  for  the  Philippine  Islands  in 
December,  1901 ;  declined  the  bishop- 
ric of  Washington,  1908,  and  of  New 
Jersey,  1914. 

Brent  Goose,  a  wild  goose,  smaller 
than  the  common  barnacle  goose  and 
of  much  darker  plumage,  remarkable 
for  length  of  wing  and  extent  of  mi- 
gratory power,  being  a  winter  bird  of 
passage  in  the  United  States,  Can- 
ada, etc.  It  breeds  in  high  northern 
latitudes ;  it  feeds  on  drifting  seaweeds 
and  saline  plants,  and  is  considered 
the  most  delicate  for  the  table  of  all 
the  goose  tribe. 

Brescia,  a  city  of  Lombardy,  North 
Italy.  Brescia  is  a  place  of  consider- 
able trade  and  manufacturing  indus- 
try. Near  it  are  large  iron-works, 
and  its  firearms  are  esteemed  the  best 
that  are  made  in  Italy.  It  has  also 
silk,  linen,  and  paper  factories,  tan- 
yards,  and  oil  mills,  and  is  an  impor- 
tant mart  for  raw  silk.  But_  it  de- 
rives its  greatest  interest  from  its  fine 
Roman  remains,  having  been  at  one 
time  the  seat  of  a  Roman  colony.  In 
1796  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  and 
was  assigned  to  Austria  by  the  general 
treaty  signed  at  Vienna  on  June  9,. 
1815.  In  1849  it  was  involved  in  the 
commotions  of  Continental  Europe; 
its  streets  were  barricaded ;  but  the 
city  was  eventually  captured  by  the 
Austrians  under  General  Haynau.  It 
was  ceded  to  Sardinia  by  the  treaty 
of  Zurich  in  1859.  Pop.  (1915)  89,- 
622. 

Breslan,  a  large  city  of  the  Ger- 
man empire,  and  the  second  in  the 
Prussian  dominions,  being  excelled  in 
population  only  by  the  capital,  Ber- 
lin ;  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Silesia.  It  is  situated  in  a  spacioui 


Brest 

plain  at  the  confluence '  of  the  Qhlau 
and  the  Oder,  the  latter  dividing  it 
into  two  main  portions,  which,  with 
islands  in  the  river,  are  connected  by 
a  large  number  of  bridges.  There  are 
electric  and  other  tramways.  The 
public  squares  and  buildings  are  hand- 
some. The  fortifications  which  sur- 
rounded the  old  or  inner  city  have  been 
converted  into  promenades,  and  the 
ditch  into  an  ornamental  sheet  of 
water.  Pop.  (1910)  512,105. 

Brest,  a  seaport  in  the  N.  W.  of 
France,  Department  of  Finistere.  It 
has  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  France, 
and  is  the  chief  station  of  the  French 
marine,  having  safe  roads  capable  of 
containing  500  men-of-war  in  from  8 
to  15  fathoms  at  low  water.  The  en- 
trance is  narrow  and  rocky,  and  the 
coast  on  both  sides  is  well  fortified. 
The  design  to  make  it  a  naval  arsenal 
originated  with  Richelieu,  and  was 
carried  out  by  Duquesne  and  Vauban 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  with  the 
result  that  the  town  was  made  almost 
impregnable.  Brest  stands  on  the 
summit  and  sides  of  a  projecting  ridge, 
many  of  the  streets  being  exceedingly 
steep.  Several  of  the  docks  have  been 
cut  in  the  solid  rock,  and  a  break- 
water extends  far  into  the  roadstead. 
Pop.  (1911)  90,540. 

Bretagne  or  Brittany,  one  of  the 
Provinces  into  which  France  was  di- 
vided. It  now  forms  the  Departments 
of  Finistere,  Cotes-du-Nord,  Morbihan, 
and  Loire-Inferieure.  In  ancient 
times,  under  the  name  of  Armorica,  it 
was  the  central  seat  of  the  confeder- 
ated Armorican  tribes,  who  were  of 
Celtic  and  Kymric  origin.  Traces  of 
them  still  remain  in  the  old  Kymric 
dialect  of  the  three  most  westerly  De- 
partments, and  in  the  numerous  so- 
called  Druidical  monuments.  The 
Breton  has  generally  a  tinge  of  melan- 
choly in  his  disposition ;  but  often 
conceals,  under  a  dull  and  indifferent 
exterior,  lively  imagination  and  strong 
feelings.  The  greater  number  of  the 
people  are  found  to  be  ignorant  and 
coarse  in  their  manners,  and  their  ag- 
riculture is  of  a  very  rude  character, 
by  no  means  calculated  to  develop  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country. 

The  Duchy  of  Bretagne  was  incor- 
porated with  France  in  1532,  by  Fran- 
cis I.,  to  whom  it  had  come  by  mar- 
riage, and  subsequently  shared  in  the 


Brewer 

general  fortunes  of  the  kingdom,  but 
retained  a  local  parliament  until  the 
outbreak   of   the   Revolution.     During 
the  Revolution  Bretagne,   which  was 
intensely  loyal,  was  the  arena  of  san- 
|  guinary  conflicts,  and  especially  of  the 
movements   of   the   Chouans,   who   re- 
appeared   as    recently    as    1832.     The 
Bretons    are    also    intensely    Roman 
Catholic,   and   have  made  violent  re- 
j  sistance  in  1903  to  the  enforcement  of 
i  the  law  closing  unauthorized  religious 
establishments. 

Breton,  Jules  Adolplie,  a  French 
!  painter,  born  in  Courrieres  in   1827 ; 
I  was  educated    at    St.    Omer  and  at 
Douai,  and  trained  as  a  painter  under 
Felix  Deyigne  at  Ghent,  and  in  Droll- 
ing's  atelier  at  Paris.     The  subjects  of 
I  his  earlier  pictures  are  taken  from  the 
i  French  revolutionary  period ;   but  he 
i  soon  turned  to  the  scenes  from  peasant 
life  which  he  has  treated  in  a  most 
poetic  and  suggestive  manner,  with  an 
admirable    union   of  style   with    real- 
ism.   Breton  was  also  known  as  a  poet 
and   author.      Many    of    his    pictures 
are  in  this  country.     He  died  July  6, 
1906. 

Brets,  Brettys,  or  Brits,  Britons, 
the  name  given  to  the  Welsh,  or  an- 
cient Britons,  in  general ;  also,  to 
those  of  Strathclyde,  as  distinguished 
from  the  Scots  and  Picts. 

Bretten,  a  town  of  Baden,  Ger- 
many, the  birthplace  of  Melanchthon, 
16  miles  E.  N.  B.  of  Karlsruhe  by 
rail.  The  house  in  which  the  Reform- 
er was  born  belongs  now  to  a  founda- 
tion bearing  his  name  for  the  support 
of  poor  students,  established  in  1861. 
A  monument  was  erected  in  1867. 

Breughel,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Dutch  family  of  painters,  the  first  of 
whom  adopted  this  name  from  a  vil- 
lage not  far  from  Breda. 

Breve,  in  music,  a  note  or  charac- 
ter of  time,  equal  to  two  semibrevea 
or  whole  notes.  It  was  formerly 
square  in  shape,  but  is  now  oval.  It 
is  the  longest  note  in  music. 

Brewer,  David  Josiah,  an  Ameri- 
can jurist,  born  in  Smyrna,  Asia  Mi- 
nor, June  20,  1837 ;  graduated  at  Yale 
College,  1856.  He  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  his  uncle,  David  Dudley 
Field,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
New  York  city  in  1858.  Removing  to 
Kansas,  he  became  prominent  in  his 


Brewer 

profession.  He  was  judge  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Kansas,  1870-1881, 
and  was  appointed  United  States 
Judge  for  the  8th  Circuit  in  1884.  He 
rendered  a  memorable  decision  on  the 
Kansas  Prohibition  Law,  affirming  the 
right  of  liquor  manufacturers  to  com- 
pensation, for  which  he  was  severely 
criticised  by  the  Prohibitionists.  Pres- 
ident Harrison  elevated  him  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
in  1889.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Venezuelan  Commission  by  Presi- 
dent Cleveland  in  1896,  and  its  chair- 
man. He  died  March  28,  1910. 

Brewer,  Thomas  Mayo,  an 
American  ornithologist,  born  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  Nov.  21,  1814;  died  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  23,  1880. 

Brewer,  William  Henry,  an 
American  scientist,  born  in  Poughkeep- 
sie,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1828.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  Scientific  School  in 
1852.  He  made  important  government 
surveys,  and  after  1864  was  Professor 
of  Agriculture  at  Sheffield  Scientific 
School  (Yale).  He  died  Nov.  2,  1910. 

Brewing,  the  operation  by  which 
beer  is  made,  including  under  this  term 
all  kinds  of  liquors  produced  from 
gram  by  fermentation.  The  name 
beer,  may  be  given  to  any  drink  pro- 
duced by  the  fermentation  of  a  fluid 
consisting  of  water  sweetened  with 
honey,  sugar,  or  molasses;  but,  strict- 
ly speaking,  the  term  should  only  be 
applied  to  beverages  prepared,  either 
wholly  or  partially,  from  malted  grain 
by  fermentation. 

Brewster,  Benjamin  Harris,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Salem  Co., 
N.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1816.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  in  1834,  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Philadelphia  bar  in  1838, 
and  in  1881  became  Attorney-General 
of  the  United  States  in  President  Ar- 
thur's cabinet,  in  which  capacity  he 
prosecuted  the  Star  Route  cases.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  4, 
1888. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  a  Scotch 
natural  philosopher,  born  in  Jedburgh 
in  1781.  His  discoveries  in  reference 
to  the  properties  of  light  have  led  to 
great  improvements  in  the  illumina- 
tion of  lighthouses.  He  died  in  Mon- 
trose,  Scotland,  Feb.  2,  1868. 

Brewster,  William,  one  of  the 
Massachusetts  Pilgrims,  born  in 


Brice 

Scrooby,  England,  in  1560.  He  came 
of  a  well  known  family ;  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and 
was  for  a  time  postmaster  at  Scrooby. 
He  accepted  the  Separatist  doctrines 
taught  by  Hooker  and  others,  and,  in 
consequence,  had  to  flee  to  Holland, 
where  he  supported  himself  by  print- 
ing. He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
those  who  sailed  for  the  New  World 
in  the  "  Mayflower,"  and,  as  elder  of 
the  church,  encouraged  his  fellow 
colonists  at  Plymouth  both  by  his 
preaching  and  his  example.  He  died 
in  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  10,  1644. 

Brian  (surnamed  BOROIMHE), 
King  of  Ireland,  for  many  years 
ruled  his  dominions  with  vigor  and 
prosperity;  but  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Clontarf,  on  Good  Friday,  1014. 

Briand,  Aristide,  French  states* 
man; born  at  Nantes,  March  281862; 
became  a  lawyer  and  Socialist  deputy; 
Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Wor- 
ship in  the  Clemenceau  Cabinet;  ac- 
quired high  reputation  for  statesman- 
ship and  parliamentary  ability  by  his 
conduct  on  the  debate  on  separation 
of  Church  and  State ;  handled  with 
firmness  the  railroad  strike  of  1910; 
was  several  times  premier. 

Briarens,  a  famous  giant,  son  of 
Coelus  and  Terra,  who  had  100  hands 
and  50  heads,  and  was  called  by  men 
^Egeon,  and  only  by  the  gods  Briareus. 

Bribery,  in  the  United  States,  the 
word  applied  to  an  attempt  to  cor- 
ruptly influence,  by  means  of  offers  of 
reward,  the  course  of  legislation,  the 
result  of  an  election,  the  verdict  of  a 
jury,  the  decision  of  a  magistrate,  etc. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  constitute  an  in- 
dictable offence  that  the  bribe  be  ac- 
cepted. The  tender  of  the  bribe  is  the 
essence  of  the  crime.  If  a  bribe  be 
offered  a  witness  to  swear  falsely  the 
crime  is  not  bribery,  but  is  merged 
into  subordination  of  perjury.  The 
penalty  for  bribery  is  fine  or  imprison- 
ment, or  both. 

Brice,  Calvin  Stewart,  an  Amer- 
ican capitalist,  born  in  Denmark,  O., 
Sept.  17,  1845;  attended  Miami  Uni- 
versity, and  while  there  enlisted  in  a 
university  company  in  1861.  In  1862 
he  resumed  his  studies  and  graduated 
in  1863.  He  practiced  law  in  Cincin- 
nati from  1866  to  1880,  when  he  be- 
came interested  in  railroad  and  various 


Brick 

other  financial  undertakings.  He  was 
presidential  elector  on  the  Tilden  tick- 
et in  1876  and  the  Cleveland  ticket  in 
1884,  and  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
National  Committee  in  1888.  In  1890 
he  was  elected  United  States  Senator 
from  Ohio,  and  served  on  the  Appro- 
priations, Pensions,  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  Public  Buildings  and  Grounds 
Committees.  Shortly  before  his  death, 
in  New  York  city,  Dec.  15,  1898,  he 
formed  a  syndicate  which  secured  vast 
railroad  and  mining  concessions  in 
China. 

Brick,  a  kind  of  artificial  stone, 
made  of  clay,  molded  in  prismatic 
form,  dried  in  the  sun  and  baked  in  a 
kiln.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the 
block  in  its  previous  condition  as  a 
molded  plastic  mass,  and  as  a  dried 
block  in  which  the  water  hygrometri- 
cally  combined  with  the  clay  is  driven 
off.  When  this  condition  is  accepted 
as  a  finality,  the  block  so  dried  is  an 
adobe.  Bricks  were  made  at  a  re- 
mote period  of  antiquity  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, the  Babylonians,  the  Assyrians, 
and  some  of  them,  being  inscribed  with 
written  characters,  have  been  of  price- 
less value  in  conveying  historic  facts 
to  the  present  age. 

In  the  United  States  every  State 
and  Territory,  excepting  Alaska,  now 
produces  bricks  and  tiles,  and  the 
value  of  the  combined  output  in  1909 
was  $92,777,000.  The  trade  classifica- 
tion is  common  or  building,  vitrified 
paving  or  block,  front,  enameled,  fancy 
and  ornamental,  and  fire. 

Bridge,  the  short  name  of  a  com- 
paratively recent  and  increasingly 
popular  form  of  the  card  game  of 
whist.  Its  rules  and  points  are  too 
numerous  to  be  given  here,  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  special  works. 

Bridge,  a  structure  consisting  of 
an  arch  or  series  of  arches  support- 
ing a  roadway  above  it,  designed  to 
unite  two  banks  of  a  river  or  the 
two  sides  of  an  open  space. 

The  Brooklyn  Suspension  bridge, 
across  the  East  river,  between  New 
York  and  Brooklyn,  opened  in  1883,  is 
built  of  steel.  It  has  a  central  span 
of  1,595  V£  feet,  and  two  land  spans  of 
930  feet  each ;  making,  with  ap- 
proaches, a  total  length  of  5,989  feet, 
or  about  one  mile  and  one  furlong. 
The  anchorage  at  each  end  is  a  solid 
cubical  structure  of  stone,  measuring 


Bridge 

119  feet  one  way,  by  132  feet  the 
other,  rising  to  a  height  of  90  feet 
above  high  water  mark,  weighing  60,- 
000  tons  each.  The  towers  are  278 
feet  high.  The  weight  of  the  whole 
structure  suspended  between  the  tow- 
ers is  nearly  7,000  tons.  The  stress  of 
suspension  is  borne  by  four  cables  of 
5,296  steel  wires  each,  15%  inches  in 
diameter.  The  foundations  of  the 
towers  were  laid  by  means  of  caissons 
and  compressed  air,  at  a  level  of  about 
80  feet  below  high  water  mark.  The 
roadway  presents  five  parallel  avenues 
of  an  average  width  of  16  feet  each. 
The  two  outmost  avenues,  19  feet 
wide,  are  devoted  to  vehicles ;  the  cen- 
tral avenue,  15%  feet  wide,  for  foot 
passengers ;  and  on  the  two  intermedi- 
ate avenues  are  laid  railways  for  car 
traffic. 

Cantilever  Bridges. —  A  cantilever 
is  a  bracket.  It  is  a  structure  over- 
hung from  a  fixed  base.  The  bridge 
across  the  river  Forth  on  the  North 
British  railway  system  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  magnificent  bridges 
in  the  world.  The  site  of  the  bridge 
is  at  Queensferry.  At  this  place,  the 
estuary  of  the  Forth  is  divided  by  the 
Island  of  Inchgarvie  into  two  chan-. 
nels,  whose  depth,  as  much  as  200 
feet,  precluded  the  construction  of  in- 
termediate piers.  Hence,  two  large 
spans  of  1,700  feet  each  were  adopted. 
Between  these,  the  central  pier  is 
founded  on  the  island  midway  across, 
and  is  known  as  Inchgarvie  pier. 
There  are  two  other  main  piers,  shore 
piers,  known  respectively  as  the  Fife 
pier  and  the  Queensferry  pier.  Of 
these  three  piers  respectively  three 
double  lattice  work  cantilevers  like 
scalebeams,  1,360  feet,  or  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  in  length,  are  poised  in  line, 
reaching  toward  each  other,  and  con- 
nected at  their  extremities  by  ordi- 
nary girders  350  feet  long,  by  which 
the  two  main  spans  are  completed. 
The  bridge  consists  of  two  main  spans 
of  1,700  feet,  or  nearly  one-third  of  a 
mile  each ;  two  of  675  feet  each,  being 
the  shore  ends  of  the  outer  cantilev- 
ers; and  15  spans  of  168  feet  each. 
The  total  length  of  the  viaduct,  in- 
cluding piers,  is  8,296  feet  or  a  little 
over  1%  miles,  of  which  almost  exact- 
ly one  mile  is  covered  by  the  great 
cantilevers.  The  clear  headway  under 
the  center  of  the  bridge  is  152  feet  at 


Bridge 

high  water,  and  the  highest  part  of  the 
bridge  is  361  feet  above  the  same  level. 

There  are  several  of  these  bridges 
in  the  United  States,  the  first  of  any 
size    being    the    Niagara    cantilever, 
built  in  1883.     Its  total  length  is  910 
feet,  and  it  is  295  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  river,  with  steel  towers  130 
feet  high.     The  Hudson  river  bridge  j 
at  Poughkeepsie,  built  in  1889,  has  a  j 
length  of  6,767  feet  and  is  built  in  five ! 
spans ;  the  first,  third  and  fifth  being  j 
true  cantilever  spans  with  fixed  con-  j 
tinuous  spans  connecting  them. 

The  new  East  River  bridge  is  also 
a    late    example    of    the    suspension 
bridge.     The  new  Blackwell's   Island 
bridge  is  an  example  of  the  cantilever. ! 
There  are  four  channel  piers,  85  by  45 
feet  at  the  base,  and  135  feet  above  j 
high  tide.     These  piers  contain  810,- 
000  cubic  feet  of  granite.    The  bridge 
is  2  miles  in  length,  with  two  channel 
spans  of  846  feet  each,  and  a  span ; 
across  Blackwell's  Island  of  613  feet.  ! 
The   distance   from    the    floor   of   the 
bridge  to  the  top  of  the  girders  form- 
ing the  span  is  100  feet,  making  the 
top  of  the  structure   235   feet  above 
high    tide.      Other   notable   cantilever 
bridges  are  those  across  the  Colorado 
river  at  Red  Rock,  Cal.,  and  across 
the    Mississippi    river    at    Memphis, 
Tenn. 

Bridges  in  the  shape  of  arches  are 
often  built  in  places  where  a  more 
artistic  structure  than  a  truss  is  de^ 
sired.  The  High  Bridge  and  Washing- 
ton Bridge  across  the  Harlem  river  in 
New  York  city  are  examples  of  this 
style  of  bridge.  The  High  Bridge  was 
built  to  carry  the  Croton  Aqueduct 
across  the  Harlem  river.  It  consists 
of  13  granite  arches,  the  highest  one 
being  116  feet  above  the  river.  The 
bridge,  crossing  the  river  and  valley, 
is  1,460  feet  long.  The  Washington 
Bridge  is  situated  a  short  distance  N. 
of  the  High  Bridge  and  consists  of 
nine  arches,  three  of  granite  on  the  E. 
side,  four  of  granite  on  the  W.  and 
two  central  steel  spans  connecting 
them.  The  entire  length  of  the  bridge 
is  2300  feet,  and  width,  80  feet;  the 
central  spans  being  each  510  feet  long 
and  135  feet  above  high  water.  An- 
other noted  bridge  built  1906-07  is 
the  suspension  span,  230  ft.  long, 
across  the  Grand  CaQon  Gorge,  2,627 
ft.  above  the  Arkansas  River  between 


Bridgeton 

Florence  and  Canon  City,  Col.  The 
floor  is  glass  set  in  steel,  to  allow  the 
view  beneath. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  Amer- 
ican long-span  iron-bridge  construc- 
tion is  the  bridge  across  the  Kentucky 
river  on  the  Cincinnati  Southern  rail- 
road, noteworthy  for  its  economical 
design  and  comparatively  light  weight. 
The  iron  work  of  the  bridge  is  1,138 
feet  hi  length,  and  it  consists  of  three 
spans  of  375  feet  each.  It  crosses  a 
limestone  canon  at  a  height  of  280 
feet  above  the  bed  of  the  stream.  The 
piers  are  of  stone  to  a  height  of  60 
feet,  to  clear  the  highest  recorded 
floods ;  and  they  are  about  34  feet 
thick  at  the  flood  level.  Above  the 
stonework  the  piers  are  of  iron. 

The  iron  lattice  bridge,  so  called 
from  having  sides  constructed  with 
cross  bars,  like  lattice  work,  is  the 
natural  outcome  of  the  tubular  bridge 
for  long  spans,  developing  equal 
strength  with  considerable  economy  of 
material  and  labor.  Lattice  girders 
are  now  almost  universally  adopted 
for  iron  bridges  for  long  spans. 

Of  the  rock  formations  called  nat- 
ural bridges,  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  natural  bridge  over  Cedar  Creek, 
in  Virginia,  125  miles  W.  of  Rich- 
mond. The  mass  of  siliceous  lime- 
stone through  which  the  little  river 
passes  is  presumably  all  that  remains 
of  a  once  extensive  stratum.  The 
cavern  or  arch  is  200  feet  high  and  60 
feet  wide.  The  solid  rock  walls  are 
nearly  perpendicular,  and  the  crown 
of  the  arch  is  40  feet  thick. 

Bridge,  Sir  Frederick,  an  Eng- 
lish organist  and  composer,  born  in 
Oldbury,  Worcestershire,  Dec.  5,  1844; 
was  organist  of  Trinity  Church,  Wind- 
sor, Manchester  Cathedral,  and,  since 
1875,  full  organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Bridgeport,  Conn.,  a  city  and  port 
of  entry,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pequon- 
nock,  on  an  inlet  of  Long  Island 
Sound,  58  miles  N.  E.  of  New  York. 
It  has  fine  buildings,  and  statues  to 
Elias  Howe  and  P.  T.  Barnum,  prom- 
inent citizens.  Its  main  importance 
is  due  to  its  large  sewing  machine, 
cartridge,  and  other  factories.  A 
large  coasting  trade  also  is  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1910)  102,054. 

Bridgeton,  a  city,  pprt  of  entry, 
summer  resort,  and  capital  of  Cum- 


Bridgewater 

berland  .county,  N.  J.;  on  the  navi- 
gable Cohansey  creek  and  several 
railroad,  38  miles  S.  of  Philadelphia. 
It  is  the  trade  center  of  an  extensive 
farming  section,  has  large  fruit  and 
vegetable  canning  interests,  and 
manufactures  foundry  and  rolling- 
mill  products,  glass,  nails,  woolen 
goods,  machinery,  and  carriages. 
Pop.  (1910)  14,209. 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Egerton, 
third  Duke  of,  the  "  Father  of  In- 
land Navigation  in  Great  Britain," 
born  in  1736.  For  the  purpose  of  con- 
necting the  cities  of  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  he  completed  a  navigable 
canal,  with  the  assistance  of  the  cele- 
brated engineer,  Brindley,  in  1761. 
He  afterward  promoted  the  Grand 
Trunk  Canal  navigation.  He  became 
ultimately  the  possessor  of  immense 
wealth,  realized  from  the  results  of 
his  life's  labors.  He  died  in  London, 
March  3,  1803. 

Bridgnian.  Frederic  Arthur,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Tuskegee, 
Ala.,  Nov.  10,  1847.  He  studied  at 
the  Brooklyn  Art  School  and  National 
Academy  of  Design,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  J.  L.  Gerome,  and  at  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux  Arts.  He  has  since  1871  had 
a  studio  in  Paris.  He  is  noted  for 
figure  pieces  and  Oriental  and  archaeo- 
logical pictures. 

Bridgnian,  Laura,  an  American 
blind  mute,  born  in  Hanover,  N.  H., 
Dec.  21,  1829.  At  two  years  of  age 
both  sight  and  hearing  were  entirely 
destroyed  by  fever.  In  1839  Dr.  Howe, 
of  Boston,  undertook  her  care  and  edu- 
cation at  the  deaf  and  dumb  school. 
The  first  attempt  was  to  give  her  a 
knowledge  of  arbitrary  signs,  by  which 
she  could  interchange  thoughts  with 
others.  Then  she  learned  to  read  em- 
bossed letters  by  touch ;  next,  em- 
bossed wprds  were  attached  to  differ- 
ent articles,  and  she  learned  to  asso- 
ciate each  word  with  its  corresponding 
object.  Her  touch  grew  in  accuracy 
as  its  power  increased ;  she  learned  to. 
know  people  almost  instantly  by  the 
touch  alone.  In  a  year  or  two  more 
she  was  able  to  receive  lessons  in 
geography,  algebra,  and  history.  She 
learned  to  write  a  fair,  legible,  square 
hand,  and  to  read  with  great  dexter- 
ity, and  at  last  even  to  think  deeply, 
and  to  reason  with  good  sense  and 
discrimination.  She  died  May  4,  1889. 


Brig 

Bridle  Bit,  a  bit  connected  with  a 
bridle.  Such  bits  are  seen  in  Assyr- 
ian and  Egyptian  paintings  and  sculp- 
tures, and  are  subsequently  mentioned 
by  Xenophon. 

Brief,  from  the  Latin  brevis,  short, 
a  brief  or  short  statement  or  summary, 
particularly  the  summary  of  a  client's 
case  which  the  solicitor  draws  up  for 
the  instruction  of  counsel. 

Briel,  or  Brielle,  sometimes  The 
Brill,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of 
South  Holland,  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Island  of  Voorne,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Maas.  It  contains  a  government 
arsenal  and  military  magazines,  and 
possesses  a  good  harbor.  The  tower  of 
St.  Peter's  Church  serves  as  a  light- 
house. Pop.  5,000,  chiefly  engaged  as 
pilots  and  fishermen.  Briel  may  be 
considered  as  the  nucleus  of  the  Dutch 
republic,  having  been  taken  from  the 
Spaniards  by  William  de  la  Marck  in 
1572.  This  event  was  the  first  act  of 
open  hostility  to  Philip  II.,  and  paved 
the  way  to  the  complete  liberation  of 
the  country  from  a  foreign  yoke. 

Brienne,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
Department  of  Aube ;  15  miles  N.  W. 
of  Bar-sur-Aube.  It  is  remarkable  as 
formerly  possessing  a  military  college 
where  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  re- 
ceived the  first  rudiments  of  his  edu- 
cation. Here  also  he  attacked  Blu- 
cher,  Jan.  29,  1814,  forcing  him  from 
the  town,  which  was  reduced  to  ashes, 
and  compelling  him,  on  the  following 
day,  to  retreat  to  Trannes. 


BBIG. 

Brig,  (contracted  from  brigantine), 
a  vessel  with  two  masts,  square-rigged 
on  both. 


Brigade 


Brindisi 


Brigade,  a  portion  of  an  army, 
whether  infantry,  cavalry,  or  artil- 
lery, consisting  of  two  or  more  regi- 
ments, under  the  command  of  a  briga- 
dier-general. A  division  consists  of 
two  or  more  brigades  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  major-general,  and  an  army 
corps,  the  largest  division  of  our 
army,  consists  of  two  or  more  divi- 
sions, and  is  commanded  by  a  major- 
general. 

Brigade  Major,  a  staff  officer  at- 
tached to  the  brigade  to  assist  the  offi- 
cer by  whom  it  is  commanded. 

Brigadier,  an  abbreviation  of  brig- 
adier-general. It  is  in  common  use  in 
the  armies  of  modern  civilized  na- 
tions, the  forces  being  divided  into 
brigades  in  charge  of  brigadiers. 

Brigadier-General,  a  military 
officer  of  intermediate  rank  between 
a  major-general  and  a  colonel. 

Brigands,  a  name  originally  given 
to  the  mercenaries  who  held  Paris 
during  King  John's  imprisonment 
(1358),  and  who  made  themselves  no- 
torious for  their  ill  behavior.  It  was 
applied  by  Froissart  to  a  kind  of  ir- 
regular foot  soldiery,  and  from  them 
was  transferred  to  simple  robbers ;  it 
is  now  used  especially  of  such  of  these 
as  live  in  bands  in  secret  mountain  or 
forest  retreats. 

Brigantine,  a  sailing  vessel  with 
two  masts,  the  foremast  rigged  like  a 
brig's,  the  main  mast  rigged  like 
a  schooner's. 

Briggs,  Charles  Augustus,  an 
American  clergymen  and  religious 
writer,  born  in  New  York  city,  Jan. 
15,  1841.  In  1874  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Hebrew  in  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  New  York  city. 
He  was  tried  for  heresy  in  1892,  but 
was  aquitted.  In  1899  he  formally 
severed  his  connection  with  the  New 
York  Presbytery  and  was  ordained  a 
clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  He  died  June  8,  1913. 

Briggs,  Henry,  an  English  mathe- 
matician, born  near  Halifax,  York- 
shire, in  1561 ;  died  in  Oxford,  Jan. 
26,  1631. 

Bright,  John,  an  English  states- 
man, son  of  Jacob  Bright,  a  Quaker 
cotton  spinner  and  manufacturer  at 
Rochdale,  Lancashire,  born  in  Lan- 
cashire, Nov.  16,  1811.  When  the 
Anti-Corn  Law  League  was  formed  in 


1839  he  was  one  of  its  leading  mem- 
bers, and,  with  Mr.  Cobden,  engaged 
in  an  extensive  free-trade  agitation 
throughout  the  kingdom.  He  was  in- 
cessant, both  at  public  meetings  and 
in  Parliament,  in  his  opposition  to  the 
Corn  Laws.  In  1845  he  obtained  the 
appointment  of  a  select  committee  of 
the  House  on  the  Game  Laws,  and 
also  one  on  the  subject  of  cotton  cul- 
tivation in  India.  Elected  in  1857 
for  Birmingham,  he  seconded  the  mo- 
tion against  the  second  reading  of  the 
Conspiracy  Bill  which  led  to  the  over- 
throw of  Lord  Palmerston's  govern- 
ment. Though  he  only  once  held  office 
in  the  administrations  of  his  time  —  as 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
in  1868  and  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  —  he  is  credited  with 
having  exercised  a  greater  influence 
upon  the  conduct  of  public  affairs  in 
England  and  abroad  than,  perhaps, 
any  other  man.  Died  March  27,  1889. 
Brighton,  a  borough  and  chief 
seaside  resort  of  England;  on  th<J 
English  channel;  47  miles  S.  of  Lon- 
don; has  a  notable  sea-wall  drive  and 
promenade,  a  grand  "  Royal  Pavil- 
ion," a  college  for  noblemen's  sons, 
and  a  statue  of  Queen  Victoria. 
Top.  (1911)  131,237. 

Bright's  Disease,  a  granular  dis- 
ease of  the  cortical  portion  of  the  kid- 
neys,  so   called   because   it   was   first 
diagnostically  described  by  Dr.  Rich- 
ard Bright,  an  English  physician.     It 
|  is  first  emphasized  by  the  secretion  of 
j  urine  containing  a  large  amount  of  al- 
|  bumen,  and  this  symptom  is  followed 
by    other    complications,    usually    in 
rapid  sequence.     The  most  commonly 
observed  pathological  effects  are  drop- 
sy, uraemia,  and,  in  some  cases,  petri- 
fication  of  the  kidneys  and  ureters. 

Brindaban,  or  Brindrahan,  a 
town  of  the  Northwest  Provinces, 
British  India ;  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna,  6  miles  N.  of  Muttra.  It 
is  one  of  the  holiest  cities  of  the  Hin- 
dus, and  crowds  of  pilgrims  go  there 
from  all  parts  of  India. 

Brindisi,  (ancient  BRUNDUSIUM), 
a  seaport  and  fortified  town,  Province 
of  Lecce,  Southern  Italy,  on  the  Adri- 
atic. In  ancient  times  Brundusium 
was  an  important  city,  and  with  its 
excellent  port  became  a  considerable 
naval  station  of  the  Romans.  Its  im- 


Brindley 

portance  as  a  seaport  declined  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  but  it  has  recently  be- 
come an  important  torpedo  station. 

Brindley,  James,  an  English  civil 
engineer,  born  in  1716.  After  distin- 
guishing himself  by  the  contrivance  of 
water  engines  and  other  mechanical 
apparatus,  he  became  known  to  the 
Duke  of  Bridgewater,  then  planning 
his  great  scheme  of  inland  navigation 
for  connecting  Liverpool  and  Manches- 
ter by  means  of  a  canal,  and  after  al- 
most insuperable  difficulties,  the  suc- 
cess of  this  bold  attempt  was  triumph- 
antly established.  In  1766  Brindley 
commenced  the  formation  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  Canal,  uniting  the  rivers  Trent 
and  Mersey ;  which  undertaking  was 
completed  after  his  death  (1772),  in 
1777. 

Brine,  water  saturated  with  com- 
mon salt.  It  is  naturally  produced  in 
many  places  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  is  also  made  artificially,  for 
preserving  meat,  a  little  saltpetre 
being  generally  added  to  the  solution. 

Brine  Shrimp,  the  only  animal, 
except  a  species  of  fly,  which  lives  in 
the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah.  It  is  a 
phyllopod  crustacean,  with  stalked 
eyes,  a  delicate,  slender  body,  which  is 
provided  with  11  pairs  of  broad,  pad- 
dle-like or  leaf-like  feet.  It  is  about 
%  of  an  inch  long.  Similar  forms 
live  in  brine  vats  in  various  parts  of 
the  world. 

Brinton,  Daniel  Garrison,  an 
American  surgeon,  archaeologist  and 
ethnologist,  born  at  Thornbury,  Pa., 
May  13,  1837.  During  the  Civil  War 
he  was  a  surgeon  in  the  Union  army. 
From  1867  to  1887  he  was  editor  of 
the  "  Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter." 
He  was  a  high  authority  on  all  Amer- 
ican archaeological  topics.  He  died  in 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  July  31,  1899. 

Briquette,  the  name,  originally 
French  ("small  brick"),  given  to  a 
comparatively  new  form  of  fuel,  made 
mostly  from  waste  coal  dust,  and  used, 
not  merely  for  household  purposes,  but 
in  various  industries.  A  briquette  is 
simply  an  admixture  of  coal  dust  with 
pitch,  molded  under  pressure  and  heat, 
the  pitch  or  some  similar  substance 
being  introduced  to  form  the  cement- 
ing material. 

Brisbane,  the  capital,  a  seaport 
and  chief  seat  of  trade  of  Queensland, 


Bristol 

Australia,  situated  about  500  miles  N. 
of  Sydney,  in  Moreton  District.  It 
stands  about  25  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  a  river  of  its  own  name,  which  falls 
into  Moreton  Bay,  and  it  is  divided 
into  the  four  divisions  of  North  Bris- 
bane, South  Brisbane,  Kangaroo  Point, 
and  Fortitude  Valley.  Pop.  of  por- 
tions within  a  10-mile  radius  (1914) 
154,011. 

Brisson,  Eugene  Henri,  a  French 
politician  and  journalist,  born  in 
Bourges,  July  31,  1835.  He  entered 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  1871,  and 
won  much  attention  by  urging  am- 
nesty, for  the  Communists  and  other 
political  offenders.  Afterward  he  was 
one  of  the  foremost  members  of  the 
Radical  Party.  He  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber,  in  1881,  and  re- 
tained that  office  until  the  overthrow  of 
the  Ferry  ministry  in  1885,  when  he 
accepted  the  Premiership.  He  was  re- 
elected  to  the  Presidency  of  the  Cham- 
ber in  1894,  and,  in  1895,  retired  and 
was  a  conspicuous  candidate  for  the 
Presidency  of  France.  He  died  April 
14  1912 

Brissbt  de  Warville,  Jean 
Pierre,  a  French  political  writer; 
born  in  1754.  Embracing  the  Revolu- 
tion, he  was  elected  to  the  National 
Assembly  for  Paris  and  to  the  Con- 
vention for  the  Department  of  the 
Eure  et  Loir.  As  leader  of  the  Giron- 
dist party,  his  history  belongs  hence- 
forward to  the  history  of  France.  He 
voted,  out  of  policy,  for  the  death  of 
Louis  XVI.,  subject  to  confirmation 
by  the  vote  of  the  people ;  and  he 
caused  war  to  be  declared  against 
Holland  and  England  in  February, 
1793.  This  was  his  last  political  act. 
He  was  executed  in  Paris,  Oct.  30, 
1793. 

Bristles,  the  strong  hairs  growing 
on  the  back  of  the  hog  and  wild  boar, 
and  extensively  used  in  the  manufao 
ture  of  brushes,  and  also  by  shoemak- 
ers and  saddlers. 

Bristol,  a  cathedral  city  of  En- 
gland, a  municipal  and  a  parliamentary 
borough,  situated  partly  in  Gloucester- 
shire, partly  in  Somersetshire,  but 
forming  a  county  in  itself.  It  stands 
at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Avon 
and  Frome,  which  unite  within  the 
city,  whence  the  combined  stream  (the 
Avon)  pursues  a  course  of  nearly  7 
miles  to  the  Bristol  Channel.  Th« 


Bristol  Bay 


British  Empire 


Avon  is  a  navigable  river,  and  the 
tides  rise  in  it  to  a  great  height.  Se- 
bastian Cabot,  Chatterton,  and  Sou- 
they  were  natives  of  Bristol.  Pop. 
(1911)  357,048. 

Bristol  Bay,  an  arm  of  Bering 
Sea  immediately  N.  of  Alaska. 

Bristol  Channel,  an  arm  of  the 
Atlantic,  extending  between  the  S. 
shores  of  Wales  and  the  S.  W.  penin- 
sula of  England,  and  forming  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  estuary  of  the  Severn. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  high  tides. 

Bristow,  Benjamin  Helm,  an 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Elkton,  Ky., 
June  20,  1832.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  Kentucky  in  1853.  He 
served  with  distinction  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  at  its  close  was  appointed 
United  States  District  Attorney  of 
Kentucky.  In  1874  he  became  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury,  and  made  his 
name  memorable  by  the  exposure  and 
prosecution  of  a  notorious  whiskey 
ring.  He  died  in  New  York  city,  June 
22,  1896. 

Bristow  Station  (old  form,  now 
Bristoe),  a  village  in  Prince  William 
Co.,  Va. ;  4  miles  S.  W.  of  Manassas 
Junction.  On  Aug.  27,  1862,  a  drawn 
battle  took  place  here  between  the 
Federal  army  under  General  Hooker, 
and  a  Confederate  one  under  General 
Early,  and  on  Oct.  14,  1863,  the  Fed- 
eral troops  under  General  Warren  re- 
pulsed with  severe  loss  a  Confederate 
attack  under  Gen.  A.  P.  Hill. 

Brittannia,  the  name  applied  by 
Caesar  and  other  Roman  writers  to  the 
island  of  Great  Britain. 

Britannia  Metal,  an  alloy  of 
brass,  tin,  antimony,  and  bismuth,  used 
to  make  cheap  spoons,  teapots,  etc. 

Brittany.     See  BEETAGNE. 

British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  a  society 
first  organized  in  1831,  mainly  through 
the  exertions  of  Sir  David  Brewster, 
whose  object  is  to  assist  the  progress 
of  discovery,  and  to  disseminate  the 
latest  results  of  scientific  research,  by 
bringing  together  men  eminent  in  all 
the  several  departments  of  science. 

British  Central  Africa  Protec- 
torate, The,  former  name  (since  1907 
the  Nyassaland  Protectorate)  of  the 
part  of  British  Central  Africa  border- 
ing the  shores  of  Lake  Nyassa.  It  in- 
cludes all  British  Nyassaland,  as  well 


as  the  Shire  Highlands,  and  the  great* 
er  part  of  the  basin  of  the  river  Shire. 
Thp  area  of  the  Protectorate  is  about 
39,315  square  miles ;  the  European  in- 
habitants number  about  831,  and  the 
native  inhabitants  are  about  1,088,000. 

British  Columbia,  a  Province 
(including  Vancouver  Island)  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  60th  parallel  of  lat. ;  E.  by 
the  Rocky  Mountains ;  S.  by  the 
United  States ;  and  W.  by  Alaska,  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  Queen  Charlotte's 
Sound ;  area,  355,855  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1911)  392,480 ;  capital,  Victoria. 

It  is  to  its  mineral  wealth  that 
British  Columbia  owes  its  present  im- 
portance. Gold  was  discovered  in 
1857,  and  was  the  cause  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  separate  colony.  In 
1897  the  disclosing  of  the  phenomenal 
gold  field  in  the  Klondike  region  led 
to  great  excitement  throughput  both 
Canada  and  the  U.  S.,  and  since  gold 
mines  have  been  worked  extensively 
at  Rossland.  Branch  lines  of  the  Can- 
adian Pacific  and  the  U.  S.  Great 
Northern  railroads  have  opened  up 
rich  mineral,  farming,  and  fruit-grow- 
ing districts. 

This  Province  has  probably  the 
richest  fisheries  in  the  world,  the  only 
obstacle  to  their  rapid  development 
being  their  remoteness  from  the  con- 
sumers. Salmon  is  the  principal 
catch,  and  is  famous  all  over  the 
world.  British  Columbia  was  origin- 
ally a  portion  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Ter- 
ritory, and  known  as  New  Caledonia* 
In  1858  it  was  created  a  colony ;  in 
1866  the  colony  of  Vancouver  Island 
was  united  to  it ;  and  in  1871  the 
united  colony  was  admitted  to  the 
Dominion  of  Canada. 

British  East  Africa,  a  territory 
of  East  Africa,  between  former  Ger- 
man East  Africa  and  the  Italian  pro- 
tectorate of  Somalila-nd.  In  1916,  it 
comprised  the  protectorates  of  Nyns- 
aland  (39,573  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,139.900, 
capital,  Zomba)  ;  East  Africa  (248,- 
000  sq.  m.,  pop.  est.  4,000.000,  capi- 
tal, Mombasa)  ;  Uganda  (109,119  sq. 
m.,  pop.  2,927,494,  capital,  Entebbe)  ; 
Zanzibar  (1,020  sq.  m.,  pop.  197.199, 
capital,  Zanzibar)  ;  and  Somaliland 
(68,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  300,000,  capital, 
B.erbera). 

British  Empire,  The.  Britain, 
or  rather  Britannica,  was  the  name 


British  Empire 


British  Empire 


which  was  given  by  the  Romans  to 
modern  England  and  Scotland.  The 
name  Great  Britain  was  applied  to 
England  and  Scotland  after  James  I. 
ascended  the  English  throne  in  1603. 

Extent  of  Empire. —  The  European 
dominions  of  the  British  empire  com- 
prise —  in  addition  to  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  the 
Channel  Islands  —  the  rocky  promon- 
tory of  Gibraltar,  captured  from  Spain 
in  1704;  and  Malta,  Gozo,  and  ad- 
jacent islets,  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
in  1800.  The  most  important  of  the 
Asiatic  possessions  of  Great  Britain 
is  India,  acquired  gradually  since  the 
incorporation  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany in  1600,  and  especially  during  the 
great  struggle  with  France  in  the  18th 
century.  Great  Britain  also  possesses 
Ceylon,  acquired  by  conquest  from  the 
Dutch  and  from  native  rulers  in  1796- 
1815;  the  Straits  Settlements  of  Sin- 
gapore (ceded  in  1824),  Penang 
(1786),  Wellesley  Province  (1800), 
and  Malacca  (1824),  on  which  are  de- 
pendent various  native  States  of  the 
Malay  peninsula ;  the  island  of  Hong- 
Kong  (taken  in  1841)  and  territory 
on  the  adjacent  mainland ;  portions  of 
the  islands  of  Borneo,  namely  British 
North  Borneo  (company  chartered  in 
1881),  to  which  is  attached  the  island 
of  Labuan  (ceded  1846),  the  sultan- 
ate of  Brunei,  and  Sarawak  (practi- 
cally British  since  1842)  ;  Aden 
(1839),  the  island  of  Perim,  the  Koo- 
ria  Mooria  Islands,  and  the  Bahrein 
Islands.  Cyprus,  though  belonging  to 
Turkey,  has  since  1878  been  adminis- 
tered by  Great  Britain.  In  Africa 
Great  Britain  owns  Cape  Colony, 
gradually  developed  since  its  final  ac- 
quirement in  1806,  and  including  Wal- 
fisch  bay;  Basutoland  (British  since 
1868)  ;  the  Bechuanaland  Protector- 
ate (acquired  in  1884)  ;  Natal  (pro- 
claimed British  in  1843),  to  which  are 
now  annexed  Zululand,  and  Tonga- 
land  (acquired  in  1887)  ;  Rhodesia, 
including  Matabeleland,  Mashonaland, 
Barotseland,  etc.,  recently  begun  to  be 
developed  by  the  British  South  Africa 
Company;  the  Central  Africa  Protec- 
torate (acquired  in  1889-1890,  and 
proclaimed  a  protectorate  in  1891)  ; 
the  West  African  Colonies;  namely, 
Gambia  (recognized  as  British  in 
1783),  the  Gold  Coast  (partly  ac- 
quired in  the  17th  century),  Sierra 


Leone  (ceded  1787 )?  and  Lagos,  with 
dependencies  (occupied  in  1861)  ;  Ni- 
geria, including  the  Niger  Coast  Pro-- 
tectorate  (1884)  and  the  territories! 
formerly  administered  by  the  Royal 
Niger  Company  (chartered  in  1886)  ; 
the  East  Africa  Protectorate,  pro- 
claimed in  1895  over  territories  pre- 
viously under  the  Imperial  British 
East  Africa  Company  (chartered 
1888)  ;  the  Uganda  Protectorate,  now 
including  also  Unyoro,  Usoga,  etc. 
(proclaimed  in  1894)  ;  the  Zanzibar 
Protectorate,  consisting  of  the  islands 
of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  (under  the 
protection  of  Great  Britain  since 
1890)  ;  the  Somali  Coast  Protectorate 
(acquired  in  1884)  ;  the  islands  of 
Mauritius  (taken  from  France  in 
1810),  with  its  dependencies  the  Sey- 
chelles, etc. ;  the  island  of  Socotra 
(1886)  ;  and  the  Atlantic  islands,  St. 
Helena  (1651),  Ascension  (1815), 
and  Tristan  d'Acunha  (1816).  Be- 
sides Great  Britain  virtually  rules 
Egypt  and  the  reconquered  Egyptian 
Sudan  (1898),  though  the  former  is 
nominally  part  of  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire ;  and,  since  the  South  African 
War,  the  former  territories  of  the 
Orange  Free  State,  and  the  Transvaal. 
Her  possessions  in  the  New  World 
comprise  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
most  of  which  was  obtained  from 
France  by  conquest  and  treaty  be- 
tween 1713  and  1763;  the  island  of 
Newfoundland,  the  oldest  English  col- 
ony (discovered  by  John  Cabot  in 
1497),  with  its  dependency  Labrador; 
British  Honduras  (1783)  ;  the  Bermu- 
das Islands  (1609)  ;  the  West  Indian 
Islands,  namely,  Jamaica  (1655),  the 
Bahamas  (1629),  several  of  the  Lee- 
ward Islands  (Antigua,  St.  Christo- 
pher, Dominica,  etc.),  the  Windward 
Islands  (Barbados,  St.  Lucia,  St. 
Vincent,  Grenada,  the  Grenadines,  To- 
bago, etc.),  and  Trinidad  (1797); 
British  Guiana  (1814)  ;  and  the 
Falkland  Islands  (organized  1833) 
and  South  Georgia.  The  British  em- 
pire in  Australasia  includes  Australia 
(explored  and  settled  from  the  latter 
part  of  the  18th  century  onward)  ; 
Tasmania  (settled  by  Englishmen  in 
1803)  ;  New  Zealand  (begun  to  be 
colonized  in  1839)  ;  a  portion  of  New 
Guinea  (1884)  ;  the  Fiji  Islands 
(1874)  ;  and  many  small  islands  U) 
the  PacifiCt 


British  Museum 


Brocoob 


Early  results  of  the  World  War  ac- 
cruing to  Great  Britain  include  the 
establishment  of  a  protectorate  over 
Egypt,  Dec.  19,  1914,  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  German  Togoland,  Aug.  27, 
1914 ;  German  Samoa,  Aug.  29,  1914 ; 
German  New  Guinea,  Sept.  11,  1914 ; 
German  Southwest  Africa,  July  8, 
1915 ;  and  the  German  Kamerun  col- 
ony, in  February,  1916. 

British  Museum,  the  great  na- 
tional museum  in  London,  owes  its 
foundation  to  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  who, 
in  1753,  bequeathed  his  various  collec- 
tions, including  50,000  books  and 
MSS.,  to  the  nation,  on  condition 
of  $100,000  being  paid  to  his  heirs. 
The  British  Museum  is  under  the 
management  of  48  trustees,  among  the 
chief  being  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, the  Lord-Chancellor,  and  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  museum  is  open  daily,  free  of 
charge.  Admission  to  the  reading- 
room  as  a  regular  reader  is  by  ticket, 
procurable  on  application  to  the  chief 
librarian,  there  being  certain  simple 
-conditions  attached.  The  institution 
contains  something  like  2,000,000 
volumes  in  the  department  of  printed 
books.  A  copy  of  every  book,  pam- 
phlet, newspaper,  piece  of  music,  etc., 
published  anywhere  in  British  terri- 
tory, must  be  conveyed  free  of  charge 
to  the  museum. 

British  South  Africa  Com- 
pany, a  corporation  founded  in  1889, 
with  a  royal  charter,  by  Cecil  Rhodes 
and  others,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trolling, settling,  administering  and 
opening  up  by  railways  and  telegraphs, 
etc.,  certain  territories  in  Central 
South  Africa.  Mashonaland  was  first 
settled,  and,  in  1893,  Matabeleland 
was  annexed  and  settled  after  the  de- 
feat of  King  Lobengula.  In  1895, 
North  Zambezia,  in  British  Central 
Africa,  was  added,  as  well  as  a  strip 
of  territory  in  the  Bechuanaland  Pro- 
tectorate. This  territory  is  now 
known  as  Rhodesia  (q.  v.),  has  an 
area  of  438,575  square  miles  and  a 
pop.  est.  at  1,570,559,  and  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  the  Zambesi  river, 
Northern  and  Southern  Rhodesia. 
Rhodes  resigned  from  the  company  in 
1896,  and  a  joint  administrator  of  the 
territory  was  appointed. 

Britton,  Nathaniel  Lord,  an 
American  botanist ;  born  on  Staten 


Island,  N.  ¥.,  Jan.  15,  1858.  He  was 
Professor  of  Botany  in  Columbia 
School  of  Mines  in  1888-1896,  and 
later  Director  of  the  New  York  Bo- 
tanical Garden. 

Broad  Arrow,  the  mark  cut  or 
stamped  on  all  English  government 
property  and  stores.  It  was  the  cog- 
nizance of  Henry,  Viscount  Sydney, 
Earl  of  Romney,  Master-General  of 
the  Ordnance,  1693-1702,  and  was  at 
first  placed  only  on  military  stores. 
It  is  also  the  mark  used  in  the  Brit- 
ish Ordnance  Survey  to  denote  points 
from  which  measurements  have  been 
made. 

Broad  Bill,  a  species  of  wild  duck, 
the  shoveler ;  also  the  spoon  bill. 

Brpadhead,  Garland  Car,  an 
American  geologist ;  born  in  Albemarle 
Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  30,  1827.  He  studied  at 
the  University  of  Missouri  and  was 
long  the  State  Expert  in  Geology. 
From  1887  to  1897  he  was  Professor 
of  Geology  at  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri. He  died  in  1912. 

Broad  Mountain,  a  mountain 
ridge  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Carbon  and 
Schuylkill  counties,  about  50  miles 
long. 

Broad  River,  a  river  of  North 
Carolina,  rising  in  the  Blue  Ridge 
mountains,  and  making  a  junction 
with  the  Saluda  at  Columbia  to  form 
the  Congaree ;  about  200  miles  long. 

Broad  Top  Mountain,  a  moun- 
tain in  Bedford  and  Huntington  coun- 
ties, Pennsylvania ;  extensively  mined 
for  anthracite  coaL  Height  about 
2,500  feet 

Broadway,  the  great  business 
street  of  New  York.  Starting  from 
Bowling  Green,  at  the  lower  extremity 
of  the  island,  it  runs  northward  in  a 
somewhat  diagonal  direction,  separat- 
ing the  city  into  substantially  equal 
eastern  and  western  parts.  It  was 
formerly  the  Boulevard  above  59th 
street,  but  the  whole  length  of  the 
thoroughfare  is  now  known  as  Broad- 
way. It  is  part  of  a  continuous  road 
from  New  York  to  Albany.  A  portion 
of  the  rapid  transit  subway  has  been 
built  under  Broadway,  and  an  under- 
ground trolley  line  is  on  the  surface 
in  New  York  city. 

Broccoli,  a  late  variety  of  the 
cauliflower,  hardier  and  with  more 
color  in  the  lower  leaves.  The  part 


Brock 

of  the  plant  used  is  the  succulent 
flower  stalks.  Although  broccoli  is 
inferior  in  flavor  to  cauliflower  it 
serves  as  a  fair  substitute. 

Brock,  Sir  Isaac,  a  British  mili- 
tary commander,  born  in  Guernsey, 
Oct.  6,  1709 ;  suppressed  a  threatened 
mutiny  in  Canada  in  1802 ;  made  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor of  Upper  Canada  in 
1810 ;  took  Detroit  from  the  Ameri- 
cans under  General  Hull  in  1812 ;  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Queens- 
town,  Oct.  13,  1812.  A  monument  to 
his  memory  stands  on  the  W.  bank  of 
the  Niagara  river. 

Brocken,  the  culminating  point  of 
the  Hartz  Mountains,  in  North  Ger- 
many, Kingdom  of  Saxony,  cultivated 
nearly  to  its  summit,  which  is  3,740 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
phenomenon  called  the  "  Specter  of 
the  Brocken  "  is  here  occasionally  seen 
at  sunset  and  sunrise.  It  is  caused  by 
the  rising  of  the  mists  from  the  val- 
ley opposite  to  the  sun. 

Brockton,  a  city  in  Plymouth 
county,  Mass.;  on  the  New  York, 
New  Havea  &  Hartford  railroad;  20 
miles  S.  of  Boston;  is  one  of  the 
largest  boot  and  shoe  manufacturing 
places  in  the  country,  with  also  a  a 
extensive  output  of  shoe  machinery, 
rubber  goods,  and  sewing  machines, 
and  has  a  property  valuation  exceed- 
ing $40,000,000.  Pop.  (1910)  56,878. 

Brockville,  a  port  of  entry  and 
capital  of  Leeds  county,  Ontario, 
Canada;  ou  the  St.  Lawrence  river 
and  the  Grand  Trunk  and  other  rail- 
roads, 125  miles  S.  W.  of  Montreal. 
Pop.  (1911)  9,374. 

Broderick,  David  Colbretli,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  Feb.  4,  1820;  was  defeated 
for  Congress  in  New  York  in  1846; 
went  to  California,  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1849 ;  served  as  Speaker  of  ^the 
Senate ;  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1856,  where  he  ac- 
tively opposed  the  admission  of  Kan- 
sas. He  was  killed  in  a  duel  by  Judge 
David  S.  Terry,  Sept.  16,  1859. 

Brodhead,  John  Romeyn,  an 
American  historian,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Jan.  2,  1814;  graduated  at  Rut- 
gers College  in  1831 ;  made  a  valuable 
collection  of  documents  in  Europe 
bearing  upon  American  history  that 


Broker 

was  published  by  the  State  of  New 
York ;  author  of  a  "  History  of  the 
State  of  New  York."  He  died  in  New 
York  city,  May  6,  1873. 

Brody,  a  town  of  Galicia,  Austria, 
62  miles  E.  of  Lemberg  by  rail  and 
9  miles  from  the  Russian  frontier ; 
long  noted  for  its  extensive  commer- 
cial interests,  especially  with  Russia. 
Pop.  about  19,000,  of  which  two-thirds 
are  Hebrews.  The  town  was  conspic- 
uous in  the  great  Galicia  campaign  of 
1916-17.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War, 

Broglie,  a  prominent  French  fam- 
ily, of  Piedmontese  origin.  JACQUES 
VICTOB  ALBEBT,  Due  de  Broglie,  born 
June  13,  1821,  early  entered  the  field 
of  literature,  and  was  elected  an  Acad- 
emician in  1862.  Returned  as  a  dep- 
uty in  1871,  he  was,  till  May,  1872, 
Ambassador  at  London ;  he  then  be- 
came leader  of  the  Conservative  Right 
Center,  and  with  a  view  to  force  a 
monarchial  government  on  France, 
he  brought  about  the  resignation  of 
Thiers,  and  the  election  of  MacMa- 
hon,  in  1873.  He  was  twice  Premier, 
resignation  being  on  both  occasions 
forced  by  Gambetta's  exposures.  He 
died  Jan.  19,  1901. 

Broiling:,  the  cooking  of  meat  or 
fish  on  a  gridiron  above  a  fire,  or  by 
laying  it  directly  on  the  coals,  a  very 
wholesome  method  of  cookery. 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere, 
a  British  admiral,  born  near  Ipswich, 
Sept  9,  1776;  distinguished  himself 
particularly  in  1813,  as  commander  of 
the  "  Shannon,"  in  the  memorable  ac- 
tion which  that  vessel  fought  with  the 
United  States  vessel  "  Chesapeake " 
off  the  American  coast,  and  in  which 
the  latter  was  captured.  He  died  in 
London,  Jan.  2,  1841. 

Broken  Wind,  a  disease  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  in  horses,  com- 
monly produced  by  the  rupture  of  the 
lung  cellular  tissue. 

Broker,  an  agent  employed  to 
make  bargains  and  contracts  between 
other  persons,  in  matters  of  commerce, 
for  a  compensation  commonly  called 
brokerage.  A  broker  usually  confines 
his  attention  to  one  particular  mar- 
ket, as  wool,  sugar,  or  iron,  and  the 
special  knowledge  he  thus  acquires 
renders  his  services  useful  to  the  gen- 
eral merchant,  who  has  no  such  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  the  trade. 


Bromide 


Jtironte 


The  broker  is  strictly  a  middleman,  or 
intermediate  negotiator  between  the 
parties,  finding  buyers  or  sellers  as  re- 
quired. He  does  not  act  in  his  own 
name,  nor  has  he  generally  the  custody 
of  the  goods  in  which  he  deals,  thus 
differing  from  a  factor,  and  he  cannot 
cell  publicly  like  an  auctioneer.  He  is 
treated  as  the  agent  of  both  parties, 
though  primarily  he  is  deemed  the 
agent  of  the  party  by  whom  he  is 
originally  employed.  Besides  ordinary 
commercial  brokers,  there  are  several 
ether  sorts,  such  as  stock-brokers, 
ehare-brokers,  ship-brokers,  insurance- 
brokers,  bill-brokers,  etc. 

Bromide,  a  combination  of  bromine 
with  a  metal  or  a  radical.  Bromides 
are  soluble  in  water,  except  silver  and 
mercurpus  bromides;  lead  bromide  is 
very  slightly  soluble. 

Bromine,  a  non-metallic  element. 
Bromine  has  been  applied  externally 
as  a  caustic,  but  rarely.  Its  chief 
officinal  preparations  are  bromide  of 
ammonium,  useful  in  whooping  cough, 
infantile,  convulsions,  and  nervous 
diseases  generally ;  and  bromide  of  po- 
tassium, now  very  extensively  used, 
especially  in  epilepsy,  hysteria,  deli- 
rium tremens,  diseases  of  the  throat 
and  larynx,  bronchocele,  enlarged 
spleen,  hypertrophy  of  liver,  fibroid 
tumors,  etc.  Also,  as  an  antaphro- 
disiac,  for  sleeplessness,  glandular 
ewellings,  and  skin  diseases.  Its  al- 
terative powers  are  similar  to  but  less 
than  those  of  the  iodides.  It  has  a 
pungent  saline  taste,  no  odor,  and  oc- 
curs in  colorless  cubic  crystals,  close- 
ly resembling  the  iodide.  As  a  hypnot- 
ic its  usefulness  is  much  increased  by 
combining  it  with  morphia  or  chloral 
hydrate. 

Bronchi,  the  two  branches  into 
which  the  trachea  or  windpipe  divides 
in  the  chest,  one  going  to  the  right 
lung,  the  other  to  the  left,  and  rami- 
fying into  innumerable  smaller  tubes 
—  the  bronchial  tubes. 

Bronchitis,  inflammation  of  the 
air  tubes  leading  to  the  pulmonary 
vesicles,  accompanied  by  hoarseness, 
cough,  increase  of  temperature,  and 
soreness  of  the  chest  anteriorly.  The 
uneasy  sensations  begin  about  the  re- 
gion of  the  frontal  sinuses,  passing 
from  the  nasal  mucous  passages,  tra- 
chea, and  windpipe  to_ the  chest,  with 


hoarseness,  cough,  and  expectoration; 
but  in  capillary  bronchities  the  cough 
is  dry  and  without  expectoration.  In 
acute  cases  the  sputum  is  first  thin, 
then  opaque  and  tenacious,  lastly  pu- 
rulent ;  the  breathing  is  hurried  and 
laborious,  the  pulse  quickened,  and  the 
skin  dry.  The  danger  increases  in 
proportion  as  the  finer  bronchial 
tubes  become  involved,  and,  instead  of 
the  healthy  respiratory  sound  we  have 
sharp,  chirping,  whistling  notes,  vary- 
ing from  sonorous  to  sibilant.  The 
sharp  sound  is  most  to  be  feared,  as 
arising  in  the  smaller  tubes;  the 
grave,  sonorous  notes  originate  in  the 
larger  tubes.  Spitting  of  blood  some- 
times occurs,  and  hi  severe  cases  per- 
sons actually  die  suffocated  from  the 
immense  quantity  of  mucus  thrown 
out,  obstructing  the  tubes  and  causing 
collapse  of  the  vesicular  structure  of 
the  lungs.  The  ratio  of  the  respira- 
tion to  the  pulse  is  high,  going  up  to 
GO  or  even  70  in  the  minute,  with  a 
pulse  rate  of  120  or  130.  Chronic 
bronchitis,  or  bronchial  catarrh,  is  ex- 
tensively prevalent,  especially  among 
the  aged,  recurring  once  or  twice  a 
year  in  spring  or  autumn,  or  both,  till 
it  becomes  more  or  less  constant  all 
the  year  round. 

Bronchocele,  an  indolent  tumor 
on  the  forepart  of  the  neck  caused  by 
enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland,  and 
attended  by  protrusion  of  the  eyeballs, 
an&mia,  and  palpitation. 

Brongniart,  Alexander,  a 
French  geologist  and  mineralogist, 
born  in  Paris,  Feb.  5,  1770;  died  in 
Paris,  Oct.  7, 1847.  His  son,  ADOLPHB 
THEODORE  BBONGNIART,  born  in  1801, 
died  in  1876,  became  Professor  of  Bo- 
tany at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  Paris, 
1833,  and  was  the  author  of  several 
botanical  works  held  in  high  esteem. 

Bronte,  a  town  of  Sicily,  at  the 
W.  base  of  Alt.  Etna,  33  miles  N.  W. 
of  Catania.  The  lava  streams  of  1651 
and  1843  lie  on  either  side,  but  the 
district  around  is  fertile,  and  produces 
wine.  Lord  Nelson  was  created  Duke 
of  Bronte  by  the  Neapolitan  Govern- 
ment in  1799.  Pop.  (1901)  20,366. 

Bronte,  Anne,  an  English  novelist 
and  poetess,  born  in  Haworth,  York- 
shire, March  24,  1820 ;  sister  of  CHAB- 
LOTTE  BRONTE.  She  died  in  Scarbor- 
ough, May  28,  1849. 


SJronte 

Bronte,  Charlotte,  (afterward 
Mrs.  Nicholls),  an  English  novelist, 
born  in  Thornton,  Yorkshire,  April 
21,  1816;  was  the  third  daughter  of 
the  Rev.  Patrick  Broate,  rector  of 
Thornton,  from  which  he  removed  in 
1820  on  becoming  incumbent  of  Ha- 
worth,  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, about  4  miles  from  Keighley. 
Her  mother  died  soon  after  this  re- 
moval, and  her  father,  an  able  though 
eccentric  man,  brought  up  Charlotte 
and  her  sisters  in  quite  a  Spartan 
fashion,  inuring  them  to  every  kind  of 
industry  and  fatigue.  After  an  edu- 
cation received  partly  at  home  and 
partly  at  neighboring  schools,  Char- 
lotte became  a  teacher,  and  then  a 
governess  in  a  family.  In  1844  ar- 
rangements were  entered  into  by  the 
three  sisters  to  open  a  school  at  Ha- 
worth,  but  from  the  want  of  success 
in  obtaining  pupils  no  progress  was 
ever  made  with  their  scheme.  They 
resolved  now  to  turn  their  attention 
to  literary  composition ;  and,  in  1846, 
a  volume  of  poems  by  the  three  sis- 
ters was  published,  under  the  names  of 
CXJRRER,  ELLIS  and  ACTON  BELL.  It 
was  issued  at  their^  own  risk,  and  at- 
tracted little  attention,  so  they  quitted 
poetry  for  prose  fiction,  and  produced 
each  a  novel.  Charlotte  (CuBREB 
BELL)  entitled  her  production  "The 
Professor,"  but  it  was  everywhere  re- 
fused by  the  publishing  trade,  and 
was  not  given  to  the  world  till  after 
her  death.  Emily  ( ELLIS  BELL)  with 
her  tale  of  "  Wuthering  Heights," 
end  Anne  ( ACTON  BELL)  with  "Ag- 
nes Grey,"  were  more  successful.  I 
Charlotte's  failure,  however,  did  not 
discourage  her,  and  she  composed  the  I 
novel  of  "  Jane  Eyre,"  which  was  pub-  j 
lished  in  October,  1847.  Its  success 
was  immediate  and  decided.  Her  sec- 
ond novel  of  "  Shirley  "  appeared,  in 
1849.  Previous  to  this  she  had  lost 
her  two  sisters,  Emily  dying  on  Dec. 
19,  1848,  and  Anne  May  28,  18491 
(after  publishing  a  second  novel,  the 
"  Tenant  of  Wildfell  Hall  ").  In  the 
autumn  of  1852  appeared  Charlotte's 
third  novel,  "  Villette."  Shortly  af- 
ter, she  married  her  father's  curate, 
the  Rev.  Arthur  Bell  Nicholls,  but  in 
nine  months  died  of  consumption, 
March  31,  1855.  Her  originally  re- 
jected tale  of  "  The  Professor "  was 
published  after  her  death  in  1857,  and 

E.  24. 


Bronze! 

the  same  year  a  biography  of  her  ap- 
peared from  the  pen  of  Mrs.  Gaskell. 

Brontosaurus  Excelsus,  a  species 
of  herbivorous  dinosaur  of  the  Trias- 
sic  and  Jurassic  periods.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  hippopotamus- 
like  animal,  and  to  have  lived  on  vege- 
tation in  the  waters.  It  was  about  60 
feet  long,  and  15  feet  high  at  the 
middle  of  the  body,  and,  although  its 
body  was  of  this  great  size,  it  had  one 
of  the  smallest  heads  known  among 
vertebrates. 

Brontotherinm,  or  Titanother- 
ium,  a  genus  of  the  extinct  mammals 
first  found  in  the  Bad  Lands  of  South 
Dakota,  and  later  in  Nebraska  and 
Colorado.  The  brontotherium  was 
about  the  size  of  the  elephant.  The 
nose  was  evidently  flexible,  but  there 
was  no  true  proboscis. 

Bronx,  The,  a  borough  of  Greater 
New  York,  lying  N.  and  E.  of  the 
borough  or  Manhattan,  between  the 
Hudson  river,  East  river,  and  Long 
Island  Sound,  including  City,  Riker's, 
Hunter's,  Twin,  Hart,  High  and  sev- 
eral adjacent  islands;  area,  25,270 
acres;  pop.  (1916)  575,877.  It  con- 
tains an  extensive  public  park,  with  a 
botanical  garden  of  250  acres,  and  is 
the  site  of  the  newly  established  New 
York  Zoological  Gardens.  The  statis- 
tics of  this  borough  are  included  with 
those  of  Manhattan  borough.  See 
NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Bronze,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
It  was  usejd  by  the  ancient  Assyrians 
and  Egyptians.  Layard  brought  many 
ornaments  and  other  articles  of  this 
metal  from  Assyria.  Bronze  is  more 
fusible,  as  well  as  harder  than  copper. 
It  is  also  a  fine-grained  metal,  taking 
a  smooth  and  polished  surface;  hence 
its  universal  use,  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  in  making  casts  of  all 
kinds,  medals,  bas-reliefs,  statues,  etc. 
Its  color  is  a  reddish-yellow,  and  is 
darkened  by  exposure  to  the  atmos- 
phere. Its  composition  varie^  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be 
employed,  and  other  constituents  be- 
sides copper  and  tin  frequently  enter 
into  it.  Whatever  alloy  is  principally 
formed  of  these  metals,  however,  is 
called  bronze. 

Bronzes,  in  archaeology,  works  of 
art  cast  in  bronze.  Bronze  was  con- 
sidered by  men  of  ancient  times  as 


Bronzing 

sacred  to  the  gods ;  and  the  Roman 
emperors  who  struck  gold  and  silver 
coins  could  not  strike  them  of  bronze 
without  the  permission  of  the  senate ; 
hence  the  inscription  S.  C.  (Senatus 
consulto). 

Bronzing:,  the  process  of  giving  a 
bronze-like  or  antique  metallic  ap- 
pearance to  the  surface  of  metals  or 
plaster  casts. 

Brooch,  a  kind  of  ornament  worn 
on  the  dress,  to  which  it  is  attached 
by  a  pin  stuck  through  the  fabric. 

Brooke,  Henry,  an  Irish  novelist 
and  dramatist;  born  in  Rantavan, 
County  Cavan,  Ireland,  about  1703 ; 
died  in  Dublin,  Oct.  10,  1783. 

Brooke,  Sir  James,  Rajah  of  Sar- 
awak, was  born  in  Benares,  India, 
April  29,  1803.  In  1838,  having  gone 
to  Borneo,  he  assisted  the  Sultan  of 
Brunei  (the  nominal  ruler  of  the 
island)  in  suppressing  a  revolt  For 
his  services  he  was  made  Rajah  and 
Governor  of  Sarawak,  a  district  on 
the  N.  W.  coast  of  the  island,  and, 
being  established  in  the  Government, 
he  endeavored  to  induce  the  Dyak  na- 
tives to  abandon  their  irregular  and 
piratical  mode  of  life  and  to  turn 
themselves  to  agriculture  and  com- 
merce ;  and  his  efforts  to  introduce 
civilization  were  crowned  with  won- 
derful success.  He  was  made  a  K.  C. 
B.  in  1847,  and  was  appointed  Gover- 
nor of  Labuan.  He  died  in  Devon- 
shire, England,  June  11,  1868. 

Brooke,  John  Rutter,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  Pottsville, 
Pa.,  July  21,  1838.  He  entered  the 
army  as  captain  in  a  volunteer  regi- 
ment on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Civil 
War  in  1861,  and  resigned  in  Febru- 
ary, 1866,  with  the  rank  of  Brevet 
Major-General.  In  July  of  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  of  the  37th  United  States  In- 
fantry. He  was  promoted  to  Colonel 
in  March,  1879;  Brigadier-General, 
April  6,  1888,  and  Major-General, 
May  22,  1897.  After  the  declaration 
of  war  against  Spain,  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  First  Provisional 
Army  Corps,  and  subsequently  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  campaign  in 
Porto  Rico,  and  was  made  a  member 
of  the  joint  military  commission  to 
arrange  the  cession  of  the  island  to 
the  United  States.  On  Dec.  13,  1898, 


Brooklyn 

he  was  appointed  Military  and  Civil 
Governor  of  Cuba,  a  post  which  he 
held  tilJ  April,  1900,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  Gen.  Leonard  Wood.  On 
May  10,  following,  he  succeeded  Ma- 
jor-General Wesley  Merritt  as  com- 
mander of  the  Military  Department  of 
the  East,  with  headquarters  in  New 
York.  Retired  in  1902. 

Brooke,  Stopford  Augustus,  an 
English  Unitarian  preacher,  born  in 
Dublin  in  1832.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  He  has  held 
important  curacies  in  London,  and  in 
1872  was  appointed  Chaplain  in  Or- 
dinary to  the  Queen.  He  subsequently 
became  a  Unitarian. 

Brook  Farm  Association,  a 
community  which  originated  in  1841, 
with  William  Henry  Channing,  George 
Ripley,  and  Sophia,  his  wife,  with 
whom  were  united  from  time  to  time 
George  William  Curtis,  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,  Theodore  Parker,  Charles 
Anderson  Dana,  John  Sullivan  Dwight, 
Margaret  Fuller,  and  other  personages 
ol  a  philosophic  turn  of  mind.  The 
scheme  of  the  association  contemplat- 
ed utilizing  the  labor  —  physically 
and  intellectually  —  of  each  of  its 
members,  at  a  certain  fixed  rate,  the 
intention  being  to  dispose  of  the  re- 
sults of  such  labor  to  the  outside  pub- 
lic, and  with  such  profit  that  all  the 
delights  and  adornments  of  life  were 
to  be  procurable  therefrom,  and  were 
to  be  held  in  common  by  the  mem- 
bers. The  whole  undertaking  came 
to  an  end  in  1846. 

Brookline,  a  town  in  Norfolk 
county,  Mass. ;  on  the  Charles  river 
and  the  Boston  &  Maine  railroad ;  3 
miles  W.  of  Boston ;  manufactures 
electrical  and  philosophical  appli- 
ances ;  is  best  known  as  one  of  the 
wealthiest  and  most  beautiful  resi- 
dential sections  in  the  country ;  has 
a  property  valuation  exceeding  $150,- 
000,000.  Pop.  (1915)  33,490. 

Brooklyn,  a  former  city,  and  the 
fourth  in  population  in  the  United 
States,  according  to  the  Federal  cen- 
sus of  1890;  since  Jan.  1,  1898,  one 
of  the  five  boroughs  of  the  city  of 
Greater  New  York ;  situated  on  the 
W.  extremity  of  Long  Island,  on  New 
York  Bay  and  the  East  river,  which 
separates  it  from  New  York  and  con- 
nects Long  Island  Sound  with  New 
York  Bay.  Brooklyn  is  connected 


Brooklyn 

with  New  York  by  several  bridges, 
tunnels,  and  numerous  ferries.  It  com- 
prises Brooklyn  proper,  Williamsburg, 
Gravesend,  Flatbush,  Flat  Lands,  New 
Lots,  New  Utrecht  and  several  smaller 
suburban  towns  that  were  united  with 
it  prior  to  its  consolidation  with  New 
York.  It  now  extends  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  at  Coney  Island  to  the 
East  river  and  New  York  harbor,  and 
occupies  the  whole  of  Kings  county  ; 
area  66.39  square  miles ;  pop.  (1900) 
1,166,582;  (1916)  1,928,432. 

There  are  30  parks  in  Brooklyn, 
with  an  area  of  1,126  acres.  Prospect 
Park  is  the  largest,  with  526  acres, 
including  77  acres  of  lakes  and  water- 
ways, 70  acres  of  meadows,  110  acres 
of  woodland,  and  259  of  plantations. 
It  is  situated  on  an  elevated  ridge  and 
commands  a  magnificent  view  of  the 
ocean,  the  Sound,  Long  Island,  New 
Jersey,  and  New  York  city.  It  has 
been  left  to  a  great  extent  in  its  origi- 
nal wooded  condition,  making  it  one 
of  the  most  picturesque  parks  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  8  miles  of 
drives,  11  miles  of  walks,  and  4  of 
bridle  paths.  The  Flatbush  avenue 
entrance,  or  the  Plaza,  is  paved  with 
stone  and  surrounded  by  grass.  There 
is  a  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Memorial 
Arch  and  a  statue  of  President  Lin- 
coln at  this  entrance.  Of  the  other 
parks,  Washington  Park,  the  site  of 
Revolutionary  fortifications,  of  which 
Fort  Green  is  the  principal  one,  is  the 
largest.  A  memorial  to  Lafayette  was 
dedicated  by  Marshal  Joffre,  of  the 
French  War  Mission,  in  1917. 

The  most  notable  and  important 
navy  yard  in  the  United  States  is  lo- 
acted  here,  and  is  always  a  place  of 
large  patriotic  interest,  because  of  its 
buildings,  its  relics,  and  the  old  and 
new  types  of  warships  that  are  gen- 
erally to  be  seen  here. 

Brooklyn  has  been  widely  known  as 
the  City  of  Churches.  There  are  now 
about  650  of  such  edifices  and  chapels. 
The  Roman  Catholic,  with  113  church- 
es, is  the  strongest  denomination. 
Then  follow  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
(54)  ;  Protestant  Episcopal  (86)  ; 
Baptist  (52)  ;  Lutheran  (64)  ;  Pres- 
byterian (49)  ;  Congregational  (38)  ; 
Reformed  (40)  ;  synagogues^  (40)  ; 
and  others  of  various  denominations 
(about  100).  In  1912  there  were  603,- 
475  church  members ;  138,136  Sunday 


Brook* 

School  scholars,  and,  in  the  same  year, 
the  churches  owned  property,  church- 
es, chapels,  parsonages,  etc.,  valued  at 
$42,500,000. 

The  most  important  hospitals  in 
Brooklyn  are  the  Long  Island  College, 
Brooklyn,  Brooklyn  Homoeopathic, 
General,  St.  Mary's  Methodist,  St. 
John's,  and  St.  Peter's.  The  city  has 
24  dispensaries,  5  training-schools  for 
nurses,  25  orphan  asylums  and  indus- 
trial schools,  11  homes  for  the  aged, 
and  6  nurseries.  The  public  institu- 
tions are  mostly  at  Flatbush,  and  con- 
sist of  the  Insane  Asylum,  Hospital, 
and  Almshouse.  There  is  an  Inebri- 
ates' Home  in  Bay  Ridge. 

The  borough  is  noted  for  the  number 
and  standing  of  its  educational  insti- 
tutions, public  and  private.  The 
Packer  Institute  for  girls,  the  Poly- 
technic Institute  for  boys,  Adelphi  Col- 
lege, and  the  Pratt  Institute  have  na- 
tional renown.  The  Brooklyn  Insti- 
tute of  Arts  and  Sciences,  an  out- 
growth from  an  association  founded  in 
1823,  is  another  noted  institution.  It 
includes  25  departments  with  lectures, 
so  that  its  teaching  methods  resemble 
those  of  a  large  university. 

Brooklyn  was  settled  by  the  Dutch 
in  1636  at  New  Utrecht.  In  1646  five 
small  towns  consolidated  under  the 
name  of  Breuckelen,  from  the  Dutch 
town  whence  most  of  the  settlers 
came.  In  1666  the  first  Dutch  church 
was  built  in  Breukelen.  About  this 
time  the  English  came  into  possession 
of  New  York  and  Long  Island,  and 
Breuckelen  became  a  part  of  West 
Riding.  On  Aug.  27,  1776,  the  battle 
of  Long  Island  was  fought  in  Brook- 
lyn, and  the  village  was  held  by  the 
British  till  1783.  Brooklyn  was  in- 
corporated as  a  village  in  1816 ;  and 
in  1834  it  became  a  city.  Several  ad- 
joining towns  were  annexed  from  time 
to  time,  and  in  1896  Brooklyn  com- 
prised all  of  Kings  county.  On  Jan. 
1,  1898,  Brooklyn  was  consolidated 
with  Greater  New  York,  under  the 
name  of  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn. 

Brooks,  Eldredge   Streeter,   an 

American  author;  born  in  Lowell, 
Mass.,  in  1846 ;  died  in  Somerville, 
Mass.,  Jan.  7,  1902. 

Brooks,  Maria  Gowan,  an  Amer- 
ican poet,  pseudonym  MARIA  DEL  Oc- 
CIDENTE,  born  in  Medford,  Mass., 


Brooks 

about  1795 ;  spent  her  youth  in 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  and  the  rest  of 
her  life  in  London,  New  York  and 
Cuba.  She  died  in  Matanzas,  Cuba, 
Nov.  11,  1845. 

Brook*,  Noah,  an  American  jour- 
nalist and  author,  born  in  Castine, 
Me.,  Oct.  30, 1830.  Died  Aug.  16, 1903. 
.  Brooks,  Phillips,  an  American 
clergyman  of  the  Episcopal  Church, 
born  in  Boston,  Dec.  13,  1835.  He 
was  rector  of  Protestant  Episcopal 
churches  successively  in  Philadelphia 
and  in  Boston,  and  was  made  Bishop 
of  Massachusetts  in  1891.  He  was  an 
impressive  pulpit  orator,  had  great 
spiritual  force,  and  published  many 
volumes  of  sermons  and  lectures.  He 
died  in  Boston,  Jan.  23,  1893. 

Brooks,  Preston  Smith,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  Edgefield, 
S.  C.,  Aug.  14,  1819.  He  served  in 
the  Mexican  War ;  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress in  1853,  and  on  May  22,  1856, 
he  assaulted  Senator  Charles  Sumner 
in  the  Senate  Chamber,  beating  him 
into  insensibility  with  a  cane.  He 
afterward  resigned,  but  was  immedi- 
ately returned  to  the  House  by  his 
District  He  died  in  Washington,  D. 
G,  Jan.  27,  1857. 

Brooks,  William  Keith,  natu- 
ralist, born  in  Cleveland,  O.,  March 
25,  1848,  graduated  LL.  D.  from  Will- 
iams College  (1870)  ;  Ph.  D.  Harvard 
(1874).  From  1876  assistant-profes- 
sor, and  after  188?,  professor  of  zool- 
ogy in  Johns  Hopkins  University.  His 
works  include  "  Invertebrate  Zoology." 
He  died  Nov.  12,  1908. 

Brother  Jonathan,  a  phrase  ap- 
plied to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  as  "  John  Bull "  is  to  the  peo- 
ple of  England.  Washington,  on  as- 
suming command  of  the  New  England 
Revolutionary  forces,  was  in  great 
straits  for  arms  and  war  material. 
The  governor  of  Connecticut,  Jona- 
than Trumbull,  was  a  man  of  excellent 
judgment  and  an  esteemed  friend  of 
Washington.  In  the  emergency  Wash- 
ington said,  "  We  must  consult  Broth- 
er Jonathan."  This  expression  was 
repeated  on  other  difficult  occasions, 
and  became  a  convenient  name  for  the 
whole  people. 

Brotherhoods,  Religions,  were 
societies  instituted  for  pious  and  ben- , 


Brougham 

evolent  purposes,  and  were  numerous 
in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Brotherhood  of  Andrew  and 
Phillip,  founded  in  1888  by  Rev. 
Rufus  W.  Miller  of  the  Second  Re- 
formed Church,  Reading,  Pa.,  has 
grown  into  a  religious  and  social  order 
among  15  Protestant  denominations ; 
with  1,402  chapters  and  18,000  mem- 
bers in  the  United  States,  and  chap- 
ters also  in  Canada,  Japan,  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

Brotherhood    of    St.    Andrew, 

of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
founded  in  Chicago  in  1883  by  the 
Rev.  W.  H.  Vibbert  and  James  Hough- 
teling  for  "  the  spread  of  Christ's 
Kingdom  among  young  men ;"  has  1,- 
200  active  chapters,  and  about  13,000 
members. 

Brotherhood  of  St.  Paul,  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  founded 
1895  by  the  Rev.  F.  D.  Leete,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  comprises  the  Orders  of 
Jerusalem,  Damascus,  and  Rome,  for 
various  grades  of  membership. 

Brougham,  Henry  Peter,  Lord 
Brougham  and  Vanx,  a  British 
statesman,  orator,  and  author,  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Sept.  19,  1778;  entered 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1792. 
In  1802  he  helped  to  found  the  "  Ed- 
inburgh Review,"  contributing  to  the 
first  four  numbers  21  articles,  and  to 
the  first  20  numbers  80  articles.  The 
article  on  Byron's  "  Hours  of  Idle- 
ness "  provoked  the  poet  to  write  his 
"  English  Bards  and  Scotch  Review- 
ers." In  1810  Brougham  entered 
Parliament,  where  his  remarkable  elo- 
quence gave  him  at  once  a  command- 
ing place.  He  was  counsel  for  Queen 
Caroline  in  George  IV. 's  suit  against 
her  (1820),  winning  a  decisive  vic- 
tory, which  raised  him  to  the  height 
of  fame  and  popularity.  He  became 
Lord  Chancellor  in  1830,  and  was  at 
the  same  time  created  a  baron ;  he  re- 
signed on  the  defeat  of  the  Whigs  in 
1834,  and  never  again  held  public 
office,  though  still  taking  effective  part 
in  the  business  and  debates  of  the 
House  of  Lords.  He  died  in  Cannes, 
France,  May  7,  1868. 

Brongham,  John,  an  American 
actor  and  playwright,  born  in  Dublin, 
Ireland,  May  9,  1810;  made  his  debut 
as  an  actor  in  England  in  1830.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1842, 


Bremgliton 


Broi 


and,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  re- 
turn trip  to  England  in  1800,  re- 
mained here  until  bis  death.  He  was 
the  author  of  over  100  comedies, 
farces,  and  burlesques.  He  died  in 
New  York,  June  7,  1880. 

Bronghton,  Rhoda,  an  English 
novelist,  daughter  of  a  clergyman, 
born  in  Wales,  1840.  Among  her  works 
are  "Alas !"  ;  "Scylla  or  Charybdis"  ; 
"Dear  Faustina" ;  "Foes  in  Law",  etc. 

Broussa,  Brussa,  or  Boursa,  the 
ancient  Prusa,  where  the  Kings  of 
Bithynia  usually  resided,  situated  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olympus,  in  Asia  Minor,  13  miles  S. 
of  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  Broussa  is 
pleasantly  situated,  facing  a  beautiful 
and  luxuriant  plain.  The  water  sup- 
ply is  good,  and  water  flows  down  the 
center  of  some  of  the  streets,  which 
are  clean,  but  for  most  part  narrow 
and  dark,  and  the  bazaars  very  good. 
It  contains  about  200  mosques,  some 
of  which  are  very  fine  buildings,  also 
three  Greek  churches,  an  Armenian 
and  several  synagogues.  The  vilayet 
of  Broussa  has  an  area  of  25,400 
square  miles  and  pop.  of  1,626,800. 

Broussais.  Francois  Joseph 
Victor,  a  French  physician,  born  in 
St  Malp,  Dec.  17,  1772.  Professor  at 
the  Military  Hospital  of  Val  de  Grace 
in  1820,  he  became  Professor  of  Gen- 
eral Pathology  in  the  Faculty  of  Med- 
icine, in  Paris,  1832,  and  afterward 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Institute. 
The  influence  of  Broussais  in  his  gen- 
eration was  unbounded,  and  his  so- 
called  "  Physiological  Doctrine  "  rap- 
idly acquired  a  great  sway,  the  traces 
of  which  are  visible  even  now,  though 
a  more  exact  knowledge  of  physiology 
has  demonstrated  that  the  views  of 
Broussais  were  one-sided  and  exag- 
gerated. The  basis  of  Broussais'  doc- 
trine was  the  assumption  that  the  ani- 
mal tissues  are  endowed  with  a  prop- 
erty called  irritability,  a  property 
which  is  called"  into  play  by  the  action 
of  stimuli  of  various  kinds,  and  by  the 
operations  of  which  all  vital  phenom- 
ena are  produced.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Nov.  17,  1838. 

Brown,  the  color  produced  when 
certain  substances  —  wood  or  paper, 
for  example  —  are  scorched  or  par- 
tially burned.  Brown  is  not  one  of 
the  primary  colors  in  a  spectrum.  It 


is  composed  of  red  and  yellow,  with 
black,  the  negation  of  color.  It  is 
also  the  name  of  a  genus  of  colors,  of 
which  the  typical  species  is  ordinary 
brown,  tinged  with  grayish  or  black- 
ish. The  other  species  are  chestnut 
brown,  deep  brown,  bright  brown, 
rusty,  cinnamon,  red  brown,  rufous, 
glandaceous,  liver  colored,  sooty,  and 
lurid. 

Brown,  Benjamin  Gratz,  an 
American  politician,  born  in  Lexing- 
1  ton,  Ky.,  May  28,  182G ;  graduated  at 
Yale  in  1847.  He  practiced  law  in 
!  Missouri,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature  in  1852-1858.  In 
the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the  Union 
army,  recruiting  a  regiment,  and  be- 
coming a  Brigadier-General  of  volun- 
teers. In  1863-1867  he  was  United 
States  Senator  from  Missouri,  and  in 
1871  was  elected  governor  of  his  State. 
He  was  the  candidate  for  the  Vice- 
Presidency  of  the  United  States  on 
the  ticket  with  Horace  Greeley  in 
1872.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  Dec.  13, 
1885. 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  an 
American  novelist,  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, Jan.  17,  1771,  was  of  a  highly 
respectable  family,  of  Quaker  descent. 
He  studied  law,  but  took  a  disgust  to 
the  practice  of  the  profession,  and 
abandoned  it  for  literature.  In  1798 
he  established  himself  in  New  York, 
and  when  the  yellow  fever  broke  out 
there  he  refused  to  forsake  his  friends 
and  neighbors ;  and,  after  performing 
the  last  offices  of  affection  for  one  of 
them,  a  young  physician,  was  himself 
attacked  by  the  pestilence.  Between 
1803  and  1809  he  published  three  po- 
litical pamphlets,  which  excited  gen- 
eral attention.  He  died  Feb.  22,  1810. 

Brown,  Charles  Ruf us,  an 
American  clergyman  and  Hebrew 
scholar,  born  in  East  Kingston,  N.  H., 
Feb.  22,  1849.  He  was  ordained  a 
Baptist  minister  in  1881,  and  became 
Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Newton  The- 
ological Institution  1886.  He  died 
Feb.  2,  1914. 

Brown,  Elmer  Ellsworth,  an 
American  educator,  born  in  Kiantone, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  28,  1861;  was  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education  in 
1906-11;  then  became  Chancellor  of 
the  University  of  New  York. 

Brown,  Emma  Elizabeth,  ("B. 
E.  E."),  an  American  author  and 


Brown 

artist,  born  in  Concord,  N.  H.,  Oct. 
18,  1847. 

Brown,  Sir  George,  an  English 
military  officer,  born  near  Elgin  in 
1790 ;  served  in  the  Peninsular  War, 
and  in  the  American  campaign  of 
1814.  He  became  lieutenant-general 
in  1851 ;  and  distinguished  himself  in 
the  Crimean  War  at  Alma,  Inker- 
mann,  and  Sebastopol.  He  was  made 
K.  C.  B.  in  1855,  and  died  in  1865. 

Brown.,  Goold,  an  American  gram- 
marian, born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
March  7,  1791 ;  died  in  Lynn,  Mass., 
March  31,  1857. 

Brown,  Harvey,  an  American 
army  officer,  born  in  Rahway,  N.  J., 
in  1795 ;  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1818.  He  was  in  constant  service  for 
more  than  45  years.  In  the  Black 
Hawk  expedition,  the  Seminole  In- 
dian campaigns,  in  the  Army  of  Occu- 
pation in  Mexico,  and  to  the  time  of 
the  Civil  War,  he  did  gallant  duty, 
for  which  he  received  several  brevets. 
In  18G2  he  was  brevetted  a  Brigadier- 
General  in  the  Regular  army  and  pro- 
moted Colonel,  and  in  1863  was  pro- 
moted to  Major-General,  U.  S.  A.,  and 
retired.  He  died  in  Clifton,  Staten 
Island,  N.  Y.,  March  31,  1874. 

Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  an  Ameri- 
can sculptor,  born  in,  Leyden,  Mass., 
Feb.  24,  1814.  He  made  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  Washington  in  Union 
Square,  New  York,  the  altar  piece  for 
the  Church  of  the  Annunciation  in 
the  same  city,  portrait  busts  of  Wil- 
liam Cullen  Bryant,  Dr.  Willard 
Parker,  Erastus  Corning  and  other 
New  York  men,  and  the  statue  of  De 
W7itt  Clinton  in  Greenwood  cemetery. 
The  last  named  was  the  first  bronze 
statue  cast  in  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Brown  brought  skilled  workmen  from 
Europe  and  did  the  firct  work  in 
bronze  casting  attempted  in  this  coun* 
try.  Some  of  his  other  well  known 
works  are  a  statue  of  Lincoln  in  Pro  > 
pect  Park,  Brooklyn,  and  equestrian 
statues  of  Gen.  Scott  and  Nathanael 
Greene  for  the  National  Government, 
etc.  He  died  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  July 
10,  1886. 

Brown,  Jacob,  an  American  army 
officer,  born  in  Bucks  county,  Pa.,  May 
9,  1775.  He  was  a  commander  on  the 
Canadian  frontier  in  the  War  of  1812. 
In  the  engagements  at  Fort  Erie  he 


Brown 

so  distinguished  himself  as  to  receive 
the  thanks  of  Congress,  Nov.  13,  1814. 
The  city  of  New  York  also  voted  him 
its  freedom.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  was  in  command  of  the  Northern 
Division  of  the  army,  and,  in  March, 
1821,  became  general-in-chief  of  the 
United  States  army.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb.  24,  1828. 
Brown,  John,  an  American  oppo- 

i  nent  of  slavery,  born  in  Torrington, 
Conn.,  May  9,  1800.  He  early  con- 

!  ceived  a  hatred  for  slavery,  and,  hay- 
ing removed  to  Osawatomie,  Kan.,  in 

I  1855,  he  took  an  active  part  against 
the  pro-slavery  party,  the  slavery 

j  question  there  having   given   rise   al- 

i  most  to  a  civil  war.  In  the  summer 
of  1859  he  rented  a  farmhouse  about 
6  miles  from  Harper's  Ferry,  and  or- 
ganized a  plot  to  liberate  the  slaves  of 
Virginia.  On  Oct.  16,  he,  with  the 
aid  of  about  20  friends,  surprised  and 
captured  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Fer- 
ry, but  was  wounded  and  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Virginia  militia  next  day ; 
and  was  tried  and  executed  at  Charles- 
town,  Dec.  2,  1859.  His  fate  aroused 
much  sympathy  in  the  North,  and  un- 
doubtedly hastened  the  great  anti- 
slavery  conflict.  "  John  Brown's  body 
lies  moldering  in  the  grave,  But  his 
soul  is  marching  on,"  was  a  favorite 
marching  song  of  the  Union  troops  in 
the  Civil  War. 

Brown,  John  George,  an  Anglo- 
American  painter,  born  in  Durham, 
England,  Nov.  11,  1831;  was  edu- 
cated in  the  common  schools  in  New- 
castle-on-Tyne,  and  came  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  1853.  He  studied  in  the 
schools  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design ;  was  elected  an  Academician 
in  1863 ;  received  honorable  mention 
at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1899;  and 
in  1900  was  president  of  the  American 
Water  Color  Society.  Died,  1913. 

Brown,  John  Hamilton,  an 
American  inventor,  born  in  Liber- 
ty, Me.,  July  28,  1837.  At  the  age  of  18 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  gunsmith  and 
in  1857  he  entered  business  in  Haver- 

Jiill,  Mass.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
War  as  a  sharpshooter,  and  in  1882 
was  a  member  of  the  American  Rifle 
Team  at  Wimbledon.  He  began  in 
1883  to  perfect  the  invention  of  a 
weapon  for  military  use  later  known 
as  the  Brown  segmental  wire-wxmnd 


Brown 

gun,  which,  after  numerous  Govern- 
ment tests,  was  pronounced  a  success. 
Brown,  John  Howard,  an  Amer- 
ican editor,  born  in  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y., 
Nov.  8,  1840.  After  studying  law  in 
New  York  city  and  engaging  in  jour- 
nalism in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  Au- 
gusta, Ga.,  he  became  a  publisher  in 
New  York  city.  He.  was  a  member  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science ;  the  Society  of 
American  Authors,  and  the  American 
Social  Science  Association.  D.  1917. 

Brown,  Joseph  Emerson,  an 
American  statesman,  born  in  Pickens 
county,  S.  C.,  April  15,  1821;  edu- 
cated at  Calhoun  Academy,  and  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1846.  He  settled  in 
Canton,  Ga. ;  served  in  the  State  Leg- 
islature, and  was  elected  governor  in 
1857 ;  serving  three  terms.  As  war 
governor  he  opposed  Jefferson  Davis 
in  the  matter  of  the  conscription  laws 
and  raised  10,000  recruits  to  oppose 
Sherman's  march  to  the  sea ;  but 
would  not  allow  them  to  leave  the 
State.  After  the  war  he  gave  hearty 
support  to  the  reconstruction  meas- 
ures, and  supported  Gen.  Grant  for 
the  Presidency.  He  was  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  Georgia  in  1868,  and  United 
States  Senator  in  1880-1891.  He 
died  hi  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Nov.  30,  1894. 

Brown,  Nicholas,  an  American 
merchant,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
April  4,  1769 ;  best  known  as  the  chief 
patron  of  Brown  University.  In  hon- 
or of  his  gifts,  which  exceeded  $100,- 
000,  the  name  of  the  institution  was 
changed,  in  1804,  from  Rhode  Island 
College  to  Brown  University.  He 
gave  also  magnificent  sums  to  other 
public  institutions  of  Providence.  He 
died  Oct.  27,  1841. 

Brown  (or  Browne),  Robert, 
founder  of  an  English  religious  sect 
first  called  Brownists,  and  afterward 
Independents,  was  born  about  1540, 
and  studied  at  Cambridge,  where,  in 
1580,  he  began  openly  to  attack  the 
government  and  liturgy  of  the  Church 
of  England  as  anti-Christian. 

Brown,  Robert,  a  Scotch  botan- 
ist, born  in  Montrose,  Dec.  21,  1773. 
In  1800  he  was  appointed  naturalist 
to  Flinders'  surveying  expedition  to 
Australia.  He  returned  with  nearly 
4,000  species  of  plants.  He  died  in 
London,  June  10,  1858.  As  a  natural- 


Browning 

ist  Brown  occupied  the  very  highest 
rank  among  men  of  science. 

Browne,     Charles     Farrar,     an 

American  humorist,  best  known  as 
ABTEMUS  WARD,  born  at  Waterford, 
Me.,  April  26,  1834.  Originally  a 
printer,  he  became  editor  of  papers  in 
Ohio,  where  his  humorous  letters  be- 
came very  popular.  He  subsequently 
lectured  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  England,  where  he  contributed  to 
"  Punch."  He  died  in  Southampton, 
England,  March  6,  1867. 

Browne,  William,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  Tavistock,  Devonshire, 
in  1591;  died  in  Ottery  St.  Mary 
about  1643. 

Brownell,  Franklin  P.,  a  Cana- 
dian artist,  born  in  New  Bedford, 
Mass.  His  specialties  are  portrait  and 
figure  painting.  He  has  for  some 
years  been  principal  of  the  Ottawa 
Art  School. 

Brownell,  Henry  Howard,  an 
American  poet  and  historian,  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.,  Feb.  6,  1820.  His 
first  poetic  venture  was  a  spirited  ver- 
sification of  Farragut's  "  General  Or« 
ders  "  to  the  fleet  below  New  Orleans. 
Afterward  he  was  appointed  to  an  hon- 
orary place  on  the  "  Hartford,"  flag- 
ship, and  had  opportunity  to  observe 
actual  naval  warfare.  In  "  The  Bay 
Fight "  he  describes,  with  truth  and 
force,  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay.  He 
died  at  East  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct  31, 
1872. 

Brownell,  William  Crary,  an 
American  essayist  and  critic,  born  in 
New  York  city,  Aug.  30,  1851.  He 
graduated  from  Amherst,  and  devoted 
himself  to  critical  and  editorial  work 
in  New  York. 

Brownie,  an  imaginary  being  to 
whom  evil  properties  were  attributed; 
a  domestic  spirit  or  goblin,  meager, 
shaggy,  and  wild,  supposed  to  haunt 
many  old  houses,  especially  those  at- 
tached to  farms. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  a 
distinguished  English  poet,  regarded 
by  some  as  the  greatest  which  England 
has  ever  produced ;  born  in  London, 
March  6,  1809.  In  1846  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Robert  Browning,  and  died  at 
Florence,  Italy,  June  29,  1861. 

Browning,  Robert,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Victorian  poets ;  born 
in  Gamberwell,  England,  May  7,  1812. 


Brownlow 


Bruce 


His  father,  who  was  a  clerk  in  a  bank, 
iad  the  boy  educated  in  a  school  at 
Peckham,  after  which  he  attended  lec- 
tures at  University  College.  At  the 
age  of  20  he  traveled  on  the  Conti- 
nent and  resided  for  some  time  in 
Italy,  where  he  made  diligent  study 
of  its  mediaeval  history.  In  1846  he 
married  Elizabeth  Barrett,  and  settled 
with  her  in  Florence,  where  they  re- 
mained for  nearly  15  years.  Recog- 
nition of  his  literary  fame,  which 
came  slowly,  was  made  in  1867,  when 
he  was  elected  an  honorary  fellow  of 
Baliol,  an  M.  A.  of  Oxford,  and  later 
an  LL.  D.  of  Cambridge.  He  died  in 
Venice,  Dec.  12,  1889.  His  body  was 
taken  from  Venice  to  England,  where, 
in  national  recognition  of  his  genius, 
it  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey 
between  Cowley  and  Chaucer. 

Bro willow,  William  Gannaway 
("PABSON  BBOWNXOW"),  an  Ameri- 
can politician,  journalist,  and  author, 
born  in  Wythe  county,  Va.,  Aug.  29, 
1805.  During  his  early  career  he 
was  an  itinerant  preacher,  editor,  and 
lecturer.  He  was  a  Union  champion 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  was  ban- 
ished from  the  Confederate  lines  on 
that  ground.  In  1865  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  Tennessee,  and  was  re- 
elected  in  1867.  He  was  United 
States  Senator  from  1869  to  1875. 
He  died  in  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  April 
29,  1877. 

Brown-Sequard,  Charles  Edon- 
ard,  Franco-American  physiologist  and 
physician,  was  born  in  Mauritius  in 
1818,  his  father  being  a  sea  captain 
from  Philadelphia,  who  married  on  the 
island  a  lady  named  Sequard.  The 
son  studied  in  Paris,  and  graduated 
M.  D.  in  1846.  He  devoted  himself 
mainly  to  physiological  research,  and 
received  numerous  prizes,  French  and 
British,  for  the  results  of  valuable  ex- 
periments on  blood,  muscular  irrita- 
bility, animal  heat,  the  spinal  cord, 
and  the  nervous  system.  In  1864  he 
became  Professor  of  Physiology  at 
Harvard,  but  in  1869  returned  to 
Paris  as  Professor  of  Pathology  in  the 
School  of  Medicine.  In  1873  he  be- 
came a  medical  practitioner  in  New 
York,  treating  especially  diseases  of 
the  nervous  system ;  and  in  1878  he 
succeeded  Claude  Bernard  as  Profes- 
sor of  Experimental  Medicine  at  the 


College  de  France.     He  died  in  Paris, 
April  1,  1894. 

Browason,  Orestes  Augustus, 
an  American  author ;  born  in  Stock- 
bridge,  Vt.,  Sept.  16,  1803;  died  in 
Detroit,  Mich.,  April  17,  1876. 

Brownsville,  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Cameron  Co.,  Tex. ; 
on  the  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio 
Grande  railroad,  opposite  Matamoras, 
Mexico.  In  the  suburbs  is  Fort 
Brown,  a  garrisoned  United  States 
post.  In  May,  1840,  Brownsville  was 
occupied  and  fortified  by  a  small  body 
of  United  States  troops,  who  main- 
tained their  position  in  the  face  of  a 
heavy  bombardment  that  lasted  for  160 
hours;  and  in  November,  1863,  it  was 
taken  from  the  Confederates  by  a- 
Federal  army  under  General  Banks. 
Pop.  (1910)  10,517. 

Brown  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  in  Providence,  R.  I. ; 
organized  in  Warren  in  1764  as  Rhode 
Island  College ;  removed  to  Providence 
in  1770,  and  renamed  in  honor  of 
Nicholas  Brown  in  1804.  It  has  al- 
ways been  affiliated  with  the  Baptist 
Church,  but  its  management  is  non- 
sectarian. 

Brozik,  Vacslav,  a  Bohemian  ar- 
tist, born  in  Pilsen  in  1852.  His  pic- 
ture, "  Columbus  at  the  Court  of  Isa- 
bella," was  presented  to  the  city  of 
New  York  by  Morris  K.  Jesup,  and  is 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum.  He  is 
a  pupil  of  Pilaty  and  Munkacsy,  and 
is  considered  the  foremost  historical 
painter  living. 

Brace,  Catherine  Wolfe,  an 
American  patron  of  science,  born  in 
New  York  city.  She  was  a  cousin  of 
Catherine  Lorillard  Wolfe,  from  whom 
she  inherited  a  fortune,  which  she 
used  in  furthering  astronomical  study 
at  Harvard.  She  gave  $50,000  to  the 
Harvard  Observatory  In  1888.  The 
Bruce  Memorial  Telescope  at  Are- 
quipa,  Peru,  was  her  gift.  In  1897 
she  established  a  gold  medal  fund  for 
the  Astronomical  Society  of  the  Pa- 
cific. She  died  in  New  York,  March 
13,  1900. 

Bruce,  Edward,  a  brother  of 
Robert  I.,  who,  after  distinguishing 
himself  in  the  Scottish  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, crossed  in  1315  to  Ireland 
to  aid  the  native  septs  against  the 
English.  After  many  successes  he 


Bruce 

was  crowned  King  of  Ireland  at  Car- 
rickfergus,  but  fell  in  battle  near  Dun- 
dalk  in  1318. 

Bruce,  James,  an  African  trav- 
eler, born  in  Stirling,  Dec.  14,  1730. 
In  1768  he  set  out  for  Cairo,  navigated 
the  Nile  to  Syene.  crossed  the  desert 
to  the  Red  Sea,  passed  some  months 
in  Arabia  Felix,  and  reached  Gondar, 
the  capital  of  Abyssinia,  in  1770.  In 
that  country  he  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  sovereign  and  other  influen- 
tial persons,  and  in  the  same  year  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  the  sources  of  the 
Aba'i,  then  considered  the  main  stream 
of  the  Nile.  Bruce  lost  his  life  by  an 
accident,  April  27,  1894. 

Bruce,  Robert,  the  greatest  of  the 
Kings  of  Scotland,  born  in  1274.  In 
1296,  as  Earl  of  Carrick,  he  swore 
fealty  to  Edward  I.,  and  in  1297 
fought  on  the  English  side  against 
Wallace.  He  then  joined  the  Scot- 
tish army,  but  in  the  same  year  re- 
turned to  his  allegiance  to  Edward 
until  1298,  when  he  again  joined  the 
National  party,  and  became  in  1299 
one  of  the  four  regents  of  the  king- 
dom. In  the  three  final  campaigns, 
however,  he  resumed  fidelity  to  Ed- 
ward, and  resided  for,  some  time  at 
his  court ;  but,  learning  that  the  King 
meditated  putting  him  to  death  on  in- 
formation given  by  the  traitor  Comyn, 
he  fled,  in  February,  1306,  to  Scot- 
land, stabbed  Comyn  in  a  quarrel  at 
Dumfries,  assembled  his  vassals  at 
Lochmaben  Castle,  and  claimed  the 
crown,  which  he  received  at  Scone, 
March  27.  Being  twice  defeated,  he 
dismissed  bis  troops,  retired  to  Rath- 
lin  Island,  and  was  supposed  to  be  j 
dead,  when,  in  the  spring  of  1307,  he  j 
landed  on  the  Carrick  coast,  defeated 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke  at  Loudon  Hill, 
and  in  two  years  had  wrested  nearly 
the  whole  country  from  the  English. 
He  then  in  successive  years  advanced 
into  England,  laying  waste  the  coun- 
try, and  on  June  24,  1314,  defeated  at 
Bannockburn  the  English  forces  ad- 
vancing under  Edward  II.  to  the  re- 
lief of  the  garrison  at  Stirling.  In 
1316  he  went  to  Ireland  to  the  aid  of 
his  brother  Edward,  and,  on  his  re- 
turn in  1318,  in  retaliation  for  inroads 
made  during  his  absence,  he  took  Ber- 
wick and  harried  Northumberland  and 
Yorkshire.  Hostilities  continued  un- 
til the  defeat  of  Edward  near  Byland 


Bruise 

Abbey  in  1323,  and  though  in  that  year 
a  truce  was  concluded  for  13  years, 
it  was  speedily  broken.  Not  until 
March  4,  1328,  was  the  treaty  con- 
cluded by  which  the  independence  of 
Scotland  was  fully  recognized.  Bruce 
did  not  long  survive  the  completion  of 
his  work,  dying  at  Cardross  Castle  on 
June  7,  1329. 

Bruce,  Wallace,  an  American 
poet,  born  in  Hillsdale,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
10,  1844;  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1867 ;  and  was  United  States  Con- 
sul at  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  in  1889- 
1893. 

Bruges,  a  city  of  Belgium,  capital 
of  West  Flanders,  at  the  junction  of 
the  canals  from  Ghent,  Ostend,  and 
L'Ecluse,  7  miles  from  the  North  Sea, 
and  60  miles  N.  W.  of  Brussels.  The 
city  has  a  circumference  of  nearly  4*£ 
miles,  and  is  entered  by  six  gates. 
Many  large  and  noble  ancient  man- 
sions and  spacious  public  edifices  pre- 
sent their  pointed  gables  to  the  streets, 
and  afford  interesting  specimens  of 
the  ornamental  Gothic  architecture  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Among  the  most  re- 
markable public  edifices  are  the  Ca- 
thedral of  Notre  Dame  (Onser 
Vrouw),  the  old  Gothic  Hospital  of 
St.  John,  and  the  elegant  church  of 
St.  Saviour.  In  the  great  square  is  a 
lofty  Gothic  tower  or  belfry,  the  most 
beautiful  in  Europe,  and  its  chimes 
are  harmonious.  In  this  tower  there 
are  48  bells,  some  weighing  six  tons; 
they  are  played  upon  every  quarter  of 
an  hour  by  means  of  an  immense  cop- 
per cylinder  communicating  with  the 
clock,  and  weighing  about  nine  tons. 
Pop.  (1912)  53,635.  The  city  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  Germans  and  greatly 
damaged  by  shell-fire  on  their  violation 
of  Belgian  sovereignty  on  Oct.  15, 
1914.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Bruhns,  Carl  Christian,  a  re- 
markable self-taught  astronomer,  born 
in  Plon,  Holstein,  Nov.  22,  1830,  the 
son  of  a  locksmith ;  died  in  Leipsic, 
July  25,  1881. 

Bruise,  or  Contusion,  signifies  an 
injury  inflicted  by  a  blow  or  sudden 
pressure,  in  which  the  skin  is  not 
wounded,  and  no  bone  is  broken  ot 
dislocated.  Both  terms,  and  especial- 
ly the  latter,  are  employed  in  surgery 
to  include  all  such  injuries  in  their 
widest  range,  from  a  black  eye  to  a 


Brnmaire 


Brunn 


thoroughly    crushed    mass    of    muscle.  j 
In  the  slighter  forms  of  this  injury, 
as  in  ordinary  simple  bruises,  there  is 
no  tearing,  but  only  a  concussion  of  I 
the  textures,  the  utmost  damage  done  i 
being  the  rupture  of  a  few  small  blood  j 
vessels,  which  occasions  the  discolora- 
tion that  is  always  observed  in  these 
cases. 

Brnmaire,    the    second    month    of 
the  year  in  the  French  Revolutionary 
calendar.     It  commenced   on  the  23d  i 
of  October,  and  ended  on  the  21st  of  i 
November,    thus  comprising  30   days,  i 
It  received  its  name  from  the  fogs  that 
usually  prevail  about  this  time.     The 
18th  of  Brumaire,   VIII.  year    (Nov.  j 
9,  1799),  is  celebrated   for  the  over- 1 
throw  of  the  Directory  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  sway  of  Napoleon. 

Brumniel,  George  Bryan,  (the 
sometime  famous  BEAU  BBUMMEL)  , 
born  in  London,  June  7,  1778.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  and  there 
formed  intimacies  with  the  younger 
nobility  of  the  day.  On  his  father's 
death,  inheriting  a  fortune  of  about 
$150,000,  he  began  his  career  as  a 
man  of  fashion,  and  became  the  inti- ; 
mate  associate  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  '' 
(afterward  George  IV.).  He  it  was 
who  inaugurated  the  reign  of  dandy- 
ism, and  for  a  period  of  20  years  exer- 
cised almost  despotic  sway  over  Eng- 1 
lish  society  in  the  matter  of  dress. ! 
His  fortune  being  soon  swallowed  up, 
he  maintained  his  position  in  society 
by  bis  success  at  play,  and  the  inde- 
scribable charm  of  his  manner  and 
conversation.  After  a  rupture  with 
the  Prince,  his  influence  gradually  de- 
clined ;  and  oppressed  by  debt,  and  the 
falling  off  of  former  friends,  he  re- 
tired to  Calais,  and  afterward  to  Caen, 
where  he  was  appointed  British  con- 
sul, and  where  he  died,  March  30, 
1840. 

Brunei,  a  State  in  the  northern  or 
British  part  of  the  Island  of  Borneo, 
lying  N.  E.  of  Sarawak;  area  4,000  j 
square  miles ;  pop.  estimated  at  30,- 
000.  It  was  formerly  an  independent 
Mohammedan  territory,  whose  sultan  i 
was  the  overlord  of  the  entire  island. 
Both  Brunei  and  Sarawak  were  placed 
under  British  protection  in  1888,  and 
the  sultan  surrendered  the  adminis- 
tration to  the  British  in  1906. 
Capital.  Brunei ;  pop.  about  12,000. 


Brunei,   Sir  Marc  Isambard,  a 

French  civil  engineer,  born  in  Hao 
queville,  near  Rouen,  April  25,  1769. 
He  entered  the  mercantile  marine, 
made  several  voyages  to  the  West  In- 
dies, and,  when  the  French  Revolution 
of  1793  drove  him  from  his  country, 
he  went  to  New  York,  with  the  reso- 
lution of  endeavoring  to  turn  his  en- 
gineering skill  to  some  account.  Ac- 
cordingly, he,  conjointly  with  another, 
surveyed  the  ground  for  the  canal 
which  now  connects  the  Hudson  river 
at  Albany  with  Lake  Champlain.  In 
1825  he  began  excavating  for  the 
Thames  tunnel.  This  extraordinary 
work  was  opened  to  the  public  in 
1843;  but  previously,  in  1841,  the 
honor  of  knighthood  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him.  He  died  in  London, 
Dec.  12,  1849. 

Brnnel,  Isambard  Kingdom, 
son  of  the  above,  born  in  Portsmouth, 
England,  April  9,  1806;  was  educated 
at  the  College  of  Henri  IV.,  at  Caen, 
France,  and  began  the  study  of  civil 
engineering  under  his  father.  He  was 
the  resident  engineer  of  the  Thames 
tunnel,  and  the  designer  and  civil  en- 
gineer of  the  "  Great  Western,"  the 
first  steamship  built  to  cross  the  At- 
lantic. He  was  also  the  constructor 
of  the  magnificent  iron  steamship,  the 
"  Great  Eastern,"  which  was  built  at 
Millwall.  He  died  in  Westminster, 
Sept.  15,  1859. 

Bruneticre,  Ferdinand,  a 
French  critic ;  born  in  Toulon,  July 
19.  1849.  He  was  critic  of  the  "  Re- 
vue des  Deux  Mondes " ;  became  an 
Academician  1893;  and  1897  lectured 
in  the  U.  S.  He  inclined  to  the  ideal- 
ist as  opposed  to  the  naturalist  school, 
and  denounced  literary  fads.  He  died 
Dec.  9,  1906. 

Brunn,  Heinrich,  a  German  ar- 
chaeologist; born  in  Worlitz,  Anhalt, 
Jan.  23,  1822;  became  Professor  of 
Archfeology  at  Munich ;  and  published 
seveial  works  of  high  repute  among 
scholars.  He  died  in  Munich,  July 
23,  1894. 

Brnnn,  an  Austrian  city,  capital  of 
Moravia,  on  the  railway  from  Vienna 
to  Prague,  nearly  encircled  by  the 
rivers  Schwarzawa  and  Zwittawa.  It 
is  the  center  of  Moravian  commerce,  a 
great  part  of  which  is  carried  on  by 
fairs.  Near  it  is  the  fortress  of  Spiel- 


Bruno 


Brunswick 


berg,  in  which  Trenck  and  Silvio  Pel- 
lico  were  confined.  Pop.  (1891) 
95,  342;  (1911)  125,737. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  an  Italian  phil- 
osopher, one  of  the  boldest  and  most 
original  thinkers  of  his  age,  born  in  j 
Kola,  about  1550.  He  became  a  Dom- 
inican monk,  but  his  religious  doubts, 
and  his  censures  of  the  monastic  or-  , 
ders,  compelled  him  to  quit  his  mon- 
astery and  Italy.  He  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  Calvin  at  Geneva,  but 
doubt  and  free  discussion  not  being  in 
favor  there,  he  went,  after  two  years' 
stay,  to  Paris.  He  gave  lectures  on 
philosophy  there,  and,  by  his  avowed 
opposition  to  the  scholastic  system, ' 
made  himself  many  bitter  enemies.  He 
next  spent  two  years  in  England,  and 
became  the  friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney. In  1585  he  went  again  to  Paris 
and  renewed  his  public  lectures.  Af- 
ter visiting  and  teaching  in  various 
towns  in  Germany,  he  returned,  in 
1592,  to  Padua,  and  went  afterward 
to  Venice,  where  he  was,  in  1598,  ar- 
rested by  the  Inquisition  and  sent  to 
Rome.  He  lay  in  prison  two  years, 
and  on  Feb.  17,  1600,  was  burned  as  a 
heretic. 

Brnno  the  Great,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  men  of  his  time,  born  about 
925,  the  third  son  of  Henry  the  Fowl- 
er. He  became  archbishop  of  Cologne, 
and  chancellor  of  the  Empire  under 
his  brother,  Otto  I.,  and  afterward,  as 
a  reward  for  his  services,  Duke  of 
Lorraine.  He  strove  to  reform  the 
monasteries  and  advance  the  love  of 
learning  among  the  clergy.  He  died  in 
Rheims,  Oct.  11,  965. 

Brunswick,  Duchy  of,  in  Ger- 
many, consists  of  five  detached  por- 
tions of  territory  on  the  rivers  Weser, 
Seine,  Ocker  and  'Aller.  It  occupies 
part  of  the  vast  plain  which  stretches 
from  the  foot  of  the  Ha'rtz  Mountains 
and  their  continuations  (the  Soiling) 
to  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Baltic, 
with  a  portion  of  the  rise  of  those 
chains  on  the  N.  side.  The  largest 
portion  contains  the  districts  of 
Wolfenbuttel  and  Schoningen,  in 
which  the  cities  of  Brunswick  and 
Wolfenbuttel,  and  the  towns  of  Kon- 
igsbutter  and  Helmstadt,  are  situated. 
Two  small  detached  portions  of  terri- 
tory, viz.,  the  circles  of  Theding- 
hausen  on  the  Weser,  and  that  of 


Badenburg,  are  inclosed  by  the  Han- 
overian territory,  and  form  part,  the 
former  of  the  Weser  district,  the  lat- 
ter of  the  Seine  district.  Finally,  the 
detached  circle  of  Kalvorde,  inclosed 
within  the  Prussian  Province  of  Sax- 
ony, belongs  to  the  district  of  Schon- 
ingen. The  duchy  has  an  area  of  1,526 
square  miles.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  engaged  in  agricultural  and 
mining  pursuits.  Iron  is  the  chief 
produce  of  the  mines  worked  in  the 
three  districts  of  the  Hartz,  Weser 
and  Blankenburg.  Nearly  the  whole 
of  the  inhabitants  are  members  of  the 
Lutheran  Church.  Pop.  (1910)  494,- 
339.  Brunswick,  the  capital,  is  on  the 
Ocker,  in  a  level  and  fertile  district. 
A  fine  avenue  of  linden  trees  leads  to 
the  ducal  palace,  which,  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1830  and  1865,  was  rebuilt  in 
1869.  Pop.  (1910)  143,552. 

Brunswick,  Family  of,  a  distin- 
guished family  founded  by  Albert 
Azo  II.,  Marquis  of  Reggio  and  Mo- 
dena,  a  descendant,  by  the  female  line, 
of  Charlemagne.  In  1047  he  married 
Cunigunda,  heiress  of  the  Counts  of 
Altorf,  thus  uniting  the  two  houses 
of  Este  and  Guelph.  His  son  Guelph, 
was  created  Duke  of  Bavaria  in  1071, 
and  married  Judith  of  Flanders,  a  de- 
scendant of  Alfred  of  England.  From 
Guelph  was  descended  George  Louis, 
son  of  Ernest  Augustus  and  Sophia, 
granddaughter  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land, who  succeeded  his  father  as 
Elector  of  Hanover  in  1698,  and  was 
called  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain 
in  1714  as  George  I. 

Brunswick,  Friedrich  Wil- 
helm,  Duke  of,  fourth  and  youngest 
son  of  Duke  Karl  Wilhelm  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick,  born  in  1771.  During 
the  war  against  France  in  1792  and 
subsequently,  he  fought  in  the  Prus- 
sian armies,  was  twice  wounded,  and 
once  made  prisoner  with  Blucher  at 
Lubeck.  For  the  campaign  of  1809 
he  raised  a  free  corps  in  Bohemia,  but 
was  compelled  to  embark  his  troops 
for  England,  where  he  was  received 
with  enthusiasm.  His  corps  immedi- 
ately entered  the  British  service,  and 
was  afterward  employed  in  Portugal 
and  Spain,  returning  to  his  hereditary 
dominions,  1813.  The  events  of  1815 
called  him  again  to  arms,  and  he  fell 
at  Quatre  Bras,  1815.  Caroline,  wife  of 
George  IV.,  was  a  sister  of  this  prince. 


Brush 


Brutus 


Brash,  Charles  Francis,  an 
American  scientist ;  born  in  Euclid, 
near  Cleveland,  O.,  March  17,  1849. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Michigan,  in  1869.  He  invented 
the  modern  arc  system  of  electric 
lighting  and  founded  the  Brush  Elec- 
tric Company. 

Brussels,  the  capital  of  Belgium ; 
on  the  river  Senne,  communicates  with 
Antwerp  and  the  Baltic  Sea  by  means 
of  the  Scheldt  canal,  and  railroads 
connect  it  with  Germany,  France,  and 
Holland,  as  well  as  with  all  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  Belgium.  Pop.  (1912) 
with  suburbs,  663,647. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
(July,  1914),  Germany  invaded  Bel- 
gium on  its  attempted  march  on  Paris. 
On  Aug.  20  the  Germans  occupied 
Brussels,  on  Oct.  9,  Antwerp,  and  on 
Oct.  15,  Ostend.  The  Belgian  Gov- 
ernment then  accepted  asylum  in 
Havre,  France,  and  Germany  assumed 
the  civil  government  of  the  occupied 
territory.  From  October,  1915,  to 
October,  1916,  the  Germans  levied  on 
Belgium  480,000,000  francs,  payable 
monthly.  See  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Brussiloff,  Alexei  Alexeiviteh, 
a  Russian  military  officer ;  born  in  the 
Caucasus  of  Russian  parents,  his 
father  being  a  military  officer,  in 
1848 ;  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  choosing  the  cavalry  branch  ;  was 
given  an  important  command  in 
Galicia  in  the  campaign  of  1914,  se- 
cured Russia's  early  successes  in  the 
Carpathians,  and  penetrated  the 
famous  Dukla  Pass ;  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian 
armies  in  June,  1917;  resigned  his 
command  on  the  subsequent  defection 
of  the  Russian  forces  facing  the  Ger- 
mans ;  and  later  agreed  to  resume  it. 
It  was  he  who  commande_d  the  bril- 
liant Russian  offensive  in  Galicia, 
Volhynia,  and  Bukowina  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1916.  See  APPENDIX  :  World 
War. 

Brains,  Lucius  Jnnins,  a  Roman 
hero ;  son  of  Marcus  Junius  and  the 
daughter  of  the  elder  Tarquin ;  saved 
his  life  from  the  persecutions  of  Tar- 
quin the  Proud  by  feigning  himself 
insane,  on  which  account  he  received 
the  surname  Brutus  (stupid).  Dur- 
ing a  plague  that  broke  out  at  Rome 
he  accompanied  the  son  of  Tarquin  to 
the  oracle  in  Delphi.  When  Lucretia, 


the  wife  of  Collatinus,  plunged  a  dag- 
ger into  her  bosom  that  she  mignt  not 
outlive  the  insult  which  she  had  suf- 
fered from  Sextus,  the  son  of  Tarquin, 
Brutus,  being  present,  threw  off  his 
mask.  He  drew  the  dagger,  all 
bloody,  from  the  wound,  and  swore 
vengeance  against  the  Tarquins.  The 
people  submitted  to  him,  and  he  caused 
the  inhabitants  to  be  assembled,  and 
the  body  to  be  publicly  exposed.  He 
then  urged  the  banishment  of  the  Tar- 
quins.  After  this  had  been  resolved 
on,  Brutus  proposed  to  abolish  the 
regal  dignity,  and  introduce  a  free 
government.  It  was  then  determined 
that  two  consuls  should  exercise  su- 
preme power  for  a  year,  and  Junius 
Brutus  and  Tarquinius  Collatinus 
were  chosen  for  the  first  term.  Tar- 
quin, who  had  seen  the  gates  shut 
against  him,  and  found  himself  de- 
serted by  his  army,  sent  ambassadors 
to  Rome  to  demand  a  restoration 
of  his  private  property,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  promise  that  he  would 
make  no  attempt  against  the  re- 
public. His  request  was  granted. 
The  ambassadors,  however,  set  on  foot 
a  conspiracy,  and  drew  into  it  many 
young  men,  among  whom  were  the 
two  sons  of  Brutus  and  the  nephews 
of  Collatinus.  But  a  slave  named 
Vindex  discovered  the  plot.  The  crim- 
inals were  imprisoned,  and  the  consuls 
caused  the  people  the  next  morning  to 
be  called  to  a  meeting.  All  were  deep- 
ly shocked  to  see  the  sons  of  Brutus 
among  the  prisoners,  and  their  father 
on  the  judgment  seat  to  condemn 
them.  Collatiuus  wept,  and  even  the 
stern  Valerius  sat  silent.  But  Brutus 
arose  firmly,  and,  after  the  crime  had 
been  proved  beyond  a  doubt,  ordered 
the  lictors  to  execute  the  law.  Neither 
the  entreaties  of  the  people  nor  of  his 
sons  could  alter  his  resolution.  He 
returned  to  the  Assembly  when  Col- 
latinus wished  to  save  his  guilty  neph- 
ews. The  people  condemned  them  all, 
and  chose  Valerius  consul  in  place  of 
Collatinus.  In  the  meantime,  Tar- 
quin, supported  by  Porsenna,  collected 
an  army  and  marched  against  Rome. 
The  consuls  advanced  to  meet  him. 
Brutus  led  the  cavalry,  Aruns,  son  of 
Tarquin,  commanded  the  body  opposed 
to  him.  They  pierced  each  other  with 
their  spears  at  the  same  moment,  and 
both  fell  509  B.  c.  The  Romans  came 
off  conquerors,  and  Brutus  was  bur- 


Brutus 

ied  with  great  splendor.  The  women 
lamented  him  a  whole  year,  as  the 
avenger  of  the  honor  of  their  sex. 
The  details  of  the  story  of  Brutus, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  poetical 
legend,  have  been  shown  by  Niebuhr 
to  be  irreconcilable  with  history. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  Romans  at  the 
close  of  the  republican  period ;  born 
of  a  plebeian  family  85  B.  c.  He  was 
at  first  an  enemy  of  Pompey,  who  had 
slain  his  father  in  Galatia,  but  for- 
got his  private  enmity,  and  wa»  recon- 
ciled to  him  when  he  undertook  the  de- 
fense of  freedom.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, assume  any  public  station,  and, 
after  the  unfortunate  battle  of  Phar- 
salia,  surrendered  himself  to  Caesar, 
who  received  him  generously,  allowed 
him  to  withdraw  from  the  war,  made 
him  in  the  following  year  governor  of 
Cisalpine  Gaul,  and  afterward  con- 
ferred on  him  the  government  of  Ma- 
cedonia. Notwithstanding  these  ben- 
efits, Brutus  allowed  himself  to  be 
drawn  into,  and  made  the  head  of  the 
conspiracy  against  Caesar.  He  was 
led  into  the  conspiracy  by  Cassius, 
who,  impelled1  by  hatred  against  Cae- 
sar, sought,  at  first  by  writing,  and 
then  by  means  of  his  wife,  Junia,  sis- 
ter of  Brutus,  to  gain  his  favor ;  and 
when  he  thought  him  prepared  for  the 
proposal,  disclosed  to  him  verbally  the 
plan  of  a  conspiracy  against  Caesar, 
who  had  now  made  himself  master  of 
the  supreme  power  in  the  State. 
Brutus  was  induced  to  agree  to  the  de- 
sign, and  his  influence  led  many  of 
the  most  distinguished  Romans  to  em- 
brace it  also.  Caesar  was  assassinated 
in  the  senate  house.  In  public 
speeches  Brutus  explained  the  reasons 
of  this  deed,  but  he  could  not  appease 
the  dissatisfaction  of  the  people,  and 
retired  with  his  party  to  the  capital. 
He  soon  after  took  courage,  when  the 
consul,  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella,  and 
the  praetor,  L.  Cornelius  Cinna, 
Caesar's  brother-in-law,  declared  them- 
selves in  his  favor.  But  Antony, 
whom  Brutus  had  generously  spared, 
was  reconciled  to  him  only  in  appear- 
ance, and  obtained  his  leave  to  read 
Caesar's  will  to  the  people.  By  means 
of  this  instrument  Antony  succeeded  in 
exciting  the  popular  indignation 
against  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  and 
they  were  compelled  to  flee  from  Rome. 


Bryam 

Brutus  went  to  Athens  and  endeav- 
ored to  form  a  party  there  among  the 
Roman  nobility ;  he  gained  over,  also, 
the  troops  in  Macedonia.  He  then  be- 
gan to  levy  soldiers  openly,  which 
was  the  easier  for  him,  as  the  remain- 
der of  Pompey's  troops  since  the  de- 
feat of  their  general,  had  been  roving 
about  in  Thessaly.  Hortensius,  the 
governor  of  Macedonia,  aided  him ; 
and  thus  Brutus,  master  of  all  Greece 
and  Macedonia,  in  a  short  time  stood 
at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army.  He 
went  now  to  Asia  and  joined  Cassius, 
whose  efforts  had  been  equally  suc- 
cessful. In  Rome,  on  the  contrary, 
the  triumvirs  prevailed.  All  the  con- 
spirators had  been  condemned  and  the 
people  had  taken  up  arms  against 
them. 

Brutus  and  Cassius  having  finally 
with  difficulty  subdued  the  Lycians 
and  Rhodians,  returned  to  Europe  to 
oppose  the  triumvirs.  The  army 
passed  over  the  Hellespont,  and  19 
legions  and  20,000  cavalry  were  as- 
sembled on  the  plains  of  Philippi,  in 
Macedonia,  whither  also  the  trium- 
virs, Antony  and  Octavianus  (after- 
ward the  Emperor  Augustus), 
marched  with  their  legions.  Although 
Roman  historians  do  not  agree  in  their 
accounts  of  the  battle  of  Philippi,  this 
much  at  least  seems  certain,  that  Cas- 
sius was  beaten  by  Antony ;  that  Bru- 
tus fought  with  greater  success  against 
the  division  of  the  army  commanded 
by  Octavianus;  that  20  days  atter  he 
was  induced,  by  the  ardor  of  his  sol- 
diers, to  renew  the  contest ;  and  that 
he  was  this  time  totally  defeated.  He 
escaped  with  only  a  few  friends,  passed 
the  night  in  a  cave,  and  as  he  saw 
his  cause  irretrievably  ruined,  ordered 
Strato,  one  of  his  confidants,  to  kill 
him.  Strato  refused  a  long  time  to 
perform  the  command ;  but,  seeing 
Brutus  resolved,  he  turned  away  his 
face,  and  held  his  sword,  while  Brutus 
fell  upon  it,  and  died  in  42  B.  C. 

Bryan,  William  Jennings,  an 
American  political  leader,  born  in 
Salem,  111.,  March  19,  1860.  He  was 
graduated  at  Illinois  College  in  1881, 
preparing  subsequently  for  the  bar  at 
Union  College,  Chicago.  In  1887  he 
removed  to  Lincoln,  Neb.,  and  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1890,  and  again 
in  1892.  Four  years  later  he  was 
nominated  for  the  presidency  of  the 


Bryant 

United  States  by  the  Democratic  Na- 
tional Convention  at  Chicago.  He  ad- 
vocated the  free  and  unlimited  coin- 
age of  silver  by  the  United  States  at  a 
ratio  of  16  to  1,  and  was  defeated  in 
the  presidential  campaign.  He  was 
Col.  of  a  regt.  of  volunteers  during  the 
Spanish  War.  In  1900,  he  was  again 
defeated  for  the  presidency  by  Wil- 
liam McKinley.  He  founded  "  The 
Commoner,"  a  weekly  political  peri- 
odical which  he  edits.  In  1905-1906 
he  made  a  tour  of  the  world,  and  was 
received  at  foreign  courts  with  dis- 
tinction. In  1908  he  was  defeated  a 
third  time  for  the  Presidency,  by  Wil- 
liam H.  Taft.  In  1913  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State  in  the 
Cabinet  of  President  Wilson ;  negoti- 
ated with  foreign  nations  thirty  trea- 
ties providing  for  an  initial  investiga- 
tion of  all  differences  prior  to  forceful 
action ;  resigned  June  9,  1915,  because 
of  dissatisfaction  with  the  President's 
war  policy. 

Bryant,  William  Cnllen,  an 
American  poet ;  born  Nov.  3,  1794,  in 
Cummington,  Mass.  His  father,  a 
man  of  great  literary  culture,  practiced 
as  a  physician.  He  prepared,  when 
he  was  but  14,  a  collection  of  poems, 
which  were  published  in  Boston  in 
1809.  In  that  volume  appeared  "  The 
Embargo,"  the  only  poem  dealing  with 
the  politics  of  the  day  he  ever  wrote. 
In  the  following  year  Bryant  entered 
Williams  College  as  a  student  of  law, 
but  left  without  taking  a  degree  in 
1815,  when  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  In  that  year  he  became  a  con- 
tributor to  the  "  North  American  Re- 
view," in  which  appeared  the  follow- 
ing year  his  "  Thanatopsis,"  a  poem  in 
blank  verse,  which  received  much  laud- 
atory criticism.  Six  years  later  he 
published  a  second  collection  of  poems 
which  brought  him  into  real  fame. 
He  definitely  abandoned  law  for  liter- 
ature in  1825,  and  went  to  New  York, 
where  he  founded  the  "  New  York  Re- 
view," and  a  year  after  became  the 
editor  of  the  "Evening  Post,"  an  old 
established  paper  with  which  he  was 
connected  till  his  death.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  poems  up  to  1855  was 
published  in  that  year,  and  in  1863 
appeared  a  small  volume  entitled 
"  Thirty  Poems."  His  last  works  of 
importance  are  his  translations  of  the 
"  Iliad  "  (1870)  and  the  "  Odyssey  " 


Bubalis 

(1872,  translations  which  many 
American  critics  rank  above  any  that 
had  hitherto  appeared,  in  the  English 
language.  Early  in  1878  appeared 
"  The  Flood  of  Years,"  his  last  poem 
of  any  great  length.  On  the  occasion 
of  uncovering  a  statue  to  Mazzini 
(May  30,  1878)  he  had  to  stand  un- 
covered for  about  an  hour  under  a 
burning  sun.  On  his  way  home  he 
met  with  an  accident  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  concussion  of  the  brain,  and 
on  June  12  he  expired. 

Bryce,  James,  a  British  diplomat, 
born  in  Belfast,  May  10,  1838.  After 
graduating  at  Oxford  in  1862,  he 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  and  subsequent- 
ly practiced  law  in  London.  From 
1870  till  1893  he  was  Regius  Profes- 
sor of  Civil  Law  in  Oxford,  and  has 
had  a  distinguished  political  career. 
In  1907-13  was  British  ambassador 
to  the  United  States ;  and  in  1914  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount 
Bryce.  He  was  a  voluminous  author, 
his  most  noted  works  being  "  The 
American  Commonwealth"  (1888), 
revised  edition  (1910),  and  his  report 
on  German  atrocities  in  Belgium,  as 
chairman  of  a  distinguished  investi- 
gating commission  (1915). 

Bryn  Mawr  College,  an  educa- 
tional institution  for  women,  at  Bryn 
Mawr,  Pa. ;  founded  in  1880  by  Joseph 
Taylor.  Its  standard  of  admission  is 
very  high ;  its  system  of  undergraduate 
studies  combines  required  courses  and 
varied  elective  groups. 

Bryppnyllnnt,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  houseleeks.  Its  na- 
tive country  is  the  East  Indies,  whence 
it  has  been  carried  to  other  places.  In 
Bermuda,  where  it  is  naturalized  and 
grows  abundantly,  it  is  called  life 
plant. 

Bnbalis,  a  genus  in  the  antelope 
division  of  hollow  horned,  even  toed 
ruminants,  not  to  be  confused  with 
Buffalo.  The  species  of  bubalis  are 
among  the  more  oxlike  antelopes,  and 
one  of  them  is  supposed  to  be  the  bu- 
balus  of  the  ancients.  In  this  genus 
the  head  is  elongated,  the  snout  broad, 
the  horns  twisted  and  present  in  both 
sexes,  the  tear  pits  small,  the  back 
sloping  off  behind,  the  teats  two  in 
number.  The  bubaline  of  the  North 
African  deserts  is  a  handsome  animal 
of  a  reddish  brown  color,  standing 


Bubonic  Plague 


Buccaneer 


about  5  feet  high  at  the  shoulder,  liv- 
ing ir  herds,  and  readily  tamed.  It  is 
figured  oh  Egyptian  monuments.  The 
hartebeest  is  found  in  the  S.,  is  per- 
haps slightly  larger,  has  a  general 
gray  browti  color  (black  on  the  outside 
of  the  legs  and  on  middle  of  forehead, 
with  large  white  spots  on  haunches), 
and  is  at  home  on  the  mountains.  The 
sassaby,  the  bastard  hartebeest  of  the 
Cape  Colonists,  is  slightly  smaller,  and 
is  differently  colored.  The  bontebok 
is  a  smaller  and  more  beautifully  col- 
ored form  of  the  S.  interior,  where 
another  species,  the  violet  colored  bles- 
bok,  is  also  abundant. 

Bubonic  Plague,  a  disease  sup- 
posed to  be  identical  with  the  plague 
known  as  the  Black  Death,  which  had 
its  origin  in  China,  and  made  its  first 
appearance  in  Europe  543  A.  D.,  at 
Constantinople.  It  derives  its  mod- 
ern name  from  the  fact  that  it  attacks 
the  lymphatic  glands  in  the  neck,  arm- 
pits, groins  and  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  swollen  parts  are  extreme- 
ly sensitive  to  the  touch,  the  patient 
suffers  from  headache,  vertigo,  high 
fever,  vomiting  and  great  prostration. 
Another  feature  is  the  appearance  of 
purple  spots  and  a  mottling  of  the 
skin.  In  severe  cases  death  generally 
ensues  in  48  hours,  and,  at  best,  re- 
covery is  slow.  At  the  Hoagland 
laboratory  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  exten- 
sive experiments  have  been  made,  both 
in  the  culture  of  the  germs  and  in  an 
anti-toxin.  The  disease  has  been 
called  "  the  poor's  plague,"  from  the 
fact  that  it  first  attacks  the  half 
starved  masses  who  congregate  in  the 
slums  of  the  cities.  This  was  the  case 
in  Bombay,  where  so  fatal  were  its 
ravages  that  a  panic  ensued  and  more 
than  450,000  people,  one-half  the  pop- 
ulation, left  the  city.  The  first  au- 
thentic description  of  the  bubonic 
plague  is  contained  in  the  writings  of 
Rufus  of  Ephesus,  who  described  the 
disease  as  having  existed  in  Northern 
Africa  during  the  3d  or  4th  century 
B.  C.  lie  presented  the  testimony  of 
physicians  of  that  period  to  corrobor- 
ate his  arguments.  Since  that  time 
the  disease  has  been  variously  describ- 
ed by  writers  tinder  the  name  of  Le- 
vantine, Oriental  and  Bubonic  Plague 
and  the  black  plague,  or  black  death. 
These  designations  are  more  or  less 
open  to  criticism  and  lack  scientific 


foundation.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian, 
542  A.  D..  the  disease  appeared  in 
Egypt,  and  within  a  year  extended  to 
Constantinople,  where  it  is  said  to 
have  caused  the  death  of  10,000  per- 
sons in  one  day.  In  1352  the  plague 
spread  through  the  whole  of  Europe 
and  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  popula- 
tion died.  It  is  estimated  by  Hecker 
that  during  this  reign  of  terror,  out  of 
2,000,000  inhabitants  of  Norway,  but 
300,000  survived.  It  was  estimated 
by  Pope  Clement  VI.  that  the  mortal- 
ity from  black  death  for  the  entire 
world  was  40,000,000.  This  outbreak 
lasted  about  20  years.  During  the 
great  plague  of  London,  in  1665,  there 
were  63,596  deaths  out  of  a  popula- 
tion of  460,000.  It  was  believed  the 
infection  was  introduced  by  bales  of 
merchandise  from  the  Levant.  The 
sanitary  condition  of  London,  at  the 
time,  was  notoriously  bad.  It  is  a 
significant  fact  that  those  who  lived 
out  of  town  and  on  barges  and  ships 
on  the  Thames  did  not  contract  the 
disease.  In  1903  the  disease  was  re- 
ported in  Southern  Russia  and  other 
eastern  regions,  and  great  care  was 
exercised  to  keep  it  out  of  the  United 
States. 

Buccaneer,  an  order  of  men,  not 
quite  pirates,  yet  with  decidedly  pirat- 
ical tendencies,  who  for  nearly  200 
years  infested  the  Spanish  main  and 
the  adjacent  regions.  A  bull  of  Pope 
Alexander  VI.,  issued  in  1493,  having 
granted  to  Spain  all  lands  which  might 
be  discovered  W.  of  the  Azores,  the 
Spaniards  thought  that  they  possessed 
a  monopoly  of  all  countries  in  the  New 
World,  and  that  they  had  a  right  to 
seize,  and  even  put  to  death,  all  inter- 
lopers into  their  wide  domain.  The 
association  of  buccaneers  began  about 
1524,  and  continued  till  after  the  Eng- 
lish revolution  of  1688,  when  the 
French  attacked  the  English  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  buccaneers  of  the 
two  countries,  who  had  hitherto  been 
friends,  took  different  sides,  and  were 
separated  forever.  Thus  weakened, 
they  began  to  be  suppressed  between 
1697  and  1701,  and  soon  afterward 
ceased  to  exist,  pirates  of  the  normal 
type,  to  a  certain  extent,  taking  their 
place.  The  buccaneers  were  also 
called  "  filibusters,"  or  "  filibusters  " 
—  term  which  was  revived  in  connec- 
tion with  the  adventures  of  "  General  " 


Bucclcugli 

Walker,  who  sought  to  establish  him- 
self as  a  ruler  in  Central  America. 

Bnccleugh,  the  title  (now  a  duke- 
dom) of  one  of  the  oldest  families  in 
Scotland,  tracing  descent  from  Sir 
Richard  le  Scott  in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander III. 

Buccntanr,  a  mythical  monster, 
half  man  and  half  ox.  The  splendid 
galley  in  which  the  Doge  of  Venice  an- 
nually wedded  the  Adriatic  bore  this 
name,  doubtless  because  of  the  figure 
of  a  bucentaur  on  her  bow. 

Bucephalus,  the  celebrated  horse 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  whose  head 
resembled  that  of  a  bull,  whence  his 
name.  Alexander  was  the  only  one 
who  could  mount  him.  In  an  engage- 
ment in  Asia,  where  he  received  a 
heavy  wound,  he  immediately  hastened 
out  of  the  battle,  and  dropped  dead 
as  soon  as  he  had  set  down  the  King 
in  a  safe  place.  Alexander  built  on 
the  river  Hydaspes,  in  India,  a  city 
which  he  called  after  his  name. 

Bncer,  Martin,  a  Protestant  re« 
former;  born  in  Schlestadt,  Alsace,  in 
1491.  In  1521  he  left  the  Dominican 
Order,  and  became  a  convert  to  Lu- 
theranism.  He  was  at  first  preacher 
at  the  court  of  Frederick,  the  Elector 
of  the  Palatinate;  afterward  in  Stras- 
burg ;  and  at  the  same  time  professor 
in  the  university  there  for  20  years. 
He  died  in  Cambridge  in  1551.  In 
1557  Queen  Mary  caused  his  bones  to 
be  burned,*  to  show  her  detestation  of 
Protestantism. 

Buchanan,  Andrews  Hays,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Washing- 
ton Co.,  Ark.,  June  28,  1828;  was 
graduated  at  Cumberland  University 
in  1853 ;  and  took  a  special  course  in 
civil  engineering  and  mathematics  in 
Lincoln  University ;  taught  civil  engi- 
neering in  1854-1861 ;  was  military 
topographical  engineer  in  the  Confed- 
erate army  during  the  Civil  War;  and 
became  Professor  of  Mathematics  and 
Civil  Engineering  in  Cumberland  Uni- 
versity in  1860.  He  was  the  author 
of  "_Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonom- 
etry " ;  etc.  He  died  in  August,  1914. 

Buchanan,  James,  an  American 
statesman,  15th  President  of  the  Unit- 
ed States,  born  near  Mercersburg,  Pa., 
April  23,  1791;  graduated  at  Dickin- 
son College  in  1809,  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1812.  He  supported  the  War 


Bucharest 

of  1S12,  although  affiliated  with  the 
Federalist  Party.  In  1820  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  serving  successive 
terms  by  re-election  for  10  years, 
where  he  made  some  reputation  in  the 
advocacy  of  bills  for  reorganizing  the 
courts  and  judiciary.  In  1828  he  sup- 
ported Andrew  Jackson  for  tfie  Presi- 
dency, who,  in  turn,  appointed  him 
Minister  to  Russia,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  arranging  an  im- 
portant commercial  treaty.  In  1834, 
he  entered  the  United  States  Senate, 
serving  there  12  years,  where  he  de- 
fended the  spoils  system  instituted  by 
Jackson,  and  declared  against  the  right 
or  power  of  the  Government  to  inter- 
fere with  slavery  in  the  States.  He 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  by 
President  Polk,  after  which  service  he 
was  in  retirement  for  four  years.  Un- 
der President  Pierce  he  was  sent  in 
1853  as  Minister  to  England,  where 
his  advocacy  of  the  annexation  of 
Cuba  by  the  United  States  led  to  his 
nomination  to  the  Presidency  in  1856. 
His  cabinet  contained  men  who  sup- 
ported the  secession  of  South  Carolina, 
and  eventually  joined  the  Confeder- 
acy. He  announced  in  a  message 
(I860)  that  the  President  had  neither 
the  right  nor  the  constitutional  power 
to  prevent  a  State  from  seceding.  His 
unwillingness  to  take  decisive  action 
enabled  the  seceding  States  to  arm 
and  prepare  for  war  before  the  Gov- 
ernment did  anything  to  prevent.  Af- 
ter he  retired,  however,  he  supported 
the  Union  cause.  He  died  in  Lancas- 
ter, Pa.,  June  1,  1868. 

Buchanan,  Robert  Williams, 
English  poet,  novelist  and  playwright ; 
born  in  Warwickshire,  Aug.  18,  1841 ; 
died  in  London,  June  10,  1901. 

Bucharest,  the  capital  of  the  for- 
mer principality  of  Wallachia  and  of 
the  present  kingdom  of  Rumania, 
stands  265  feet  above  sea  level,  in  the 
fertile  but  treeless  plain  of  the  small, 
sluggish  Dambovitza.  A  strange  meet- 
ing point  of  East  and  West,  the  town 
as  a  whole  is  but  meanly  built,  but 
the  streets  are  mostly  paved  and  light- 
ed with  gas  and  electricity.  An  elab- 
orate system  of  fortification  was  un- 
dertaken in  1885.  There  are  some 
handsome  hotels;  and  the  metal 
plated  cupolas  of  the  innumerable 
Churches  gives  to  the  place  a  pictur- 
esque aspect.  Bucharest  is  the  entre- 


Bnchner 


pot  for  the  trade  between  Austria  and 
the  Balkan  Peninsula,  the  chief  arti- 
cles of  commerce  being  textile  fabrics. 
(rain,  hides,  metal,  coal,  timber,  and 
cattle.  Its  manufactures  are  unim- 
portant, and  the  workmen  are  chiefly 
Hungarians  and  Germans.  Bucharest 
has  been  several  times  besieged;  and 
between  1798  and  1812  suffered  twice 
from  earthquakes,  twice  from  inunda- 
tions. pace  from  fire,  and  twice  from 
pestilence.  Important  treaties  were. 
signed  here,  1812  and  1836.  On  Aug. 
27,  1916,  Rumania  made  its  long  de- 
bated declaration  of  war  against  the 
Central  Powers,  ami  at  once  advanced 
into  Transylvania,  but  it  soon  suffered 
a  severe  attack  by  the  Germans  on 
all  the  defences  of  its  capital  (Dee. 
4),  and  in  a  year  was  practically  con- 
quered. See  APPENDIX:  World  Wur. 
l',.p.  tii'in  345,628. 

Buchner.  Max,  a  German  traveler 
and  scientist,  born  in  Hamburg,  April 
25,  1846.  In  1878  be  bore  presents 
from  the  Emperor  to  Muatiau 
the  Kingdom  of  Lunda,  in  K»ju:itorial 
Africa.  After  several  Tain  attempts 
to  break  through  toward  the  N.,  be  re- 
turned to  the  coast  In  1884  be  ac- 
companied Nachtigal  in  founding  the 
colonies  of  Togo  and  Kamerun,  in 
West  Africa,  where  he  acted  tem- 
porarily as  representative  of  the  Ger- 
man Kmpire. 

Bnchtel  College,  a  co-educational 
institution  in  Akron.  O.  ;  founded  in 
1871,  nnder  the  auspices  of  the  Uni- 
vers.ilist  Church. 

Buck,  a  name  sometimes  distinct* 
Ively  appropriated  to  the  adult  male 
of  the  fallow  deer,  the  female  of  which 
is  a  doe.  The  term  is  often  also  ap- 
plied to  the  male  of  other  species  of 
deer,  as  of  the  roebuck,  although  never 
to  that  of  the  red  deer,  which,  when 
mature,  is  a  stag  or  a  hart. 

Back.  Dudley,  an  American  or- 
ganist, composer,  and  author,  born  in 
Hartford.  Conn..  Marrh  10,  1839t  He 
was  widely  known  through  hist  instru- 
mental and  vocal  music,  and  besides 
a  number  of  cantatas,  he  wrote  sev- 
eral  books  on  musical  ..topics.  D.  1900. 

Bnekbe&a,  the  English  name  of 
menyanthes,  a  genus  of  plants  belong- 
big  to  the  gentian  worts.  An  infusion 
of  its  leave*  is  bitter.  In  Sweden  two 
ounces  of  the  leaves  are  substituted  for 

E.  25 


a  pound  of  hops.  In  Lapland  the  roots 
are  occasionally  powdered  and  eaten. 

Buckeye,  the  American  horse 
chestnut  tree.  The  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  State  of  Ohio. 

Buckingham,  George  VUliers. 
Duke  of,  favorite  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  of  England,  bora  in  1590; 
his  father  being  George  VUliers, 
Knight  He  was  stabbed  on  Aug.  24, 
1628,  by  John  Felton,  an  ex-lieutenant 
who  had  been  disappointed  in  being 
promoted. 

Buckingham,  James  Silk,  an 
English  traveler,  writer,  and  lecturer, 
born  near  Falmouth,  Aug.  25,  1786. 
After  trying  several  professions,  and 
wandering  over  a  great  part  of  the 
world,  he  went  to  London,  where  he 
established  the  "  Athcna>um,"  well 
known  as  a  literary  journal.  Subte- 

Sently  be  made  a  tour  of  three  years 
the  United  States.  In  1S43  he  be- 
came secretary  to  the  British  and  For- 
eign Institute.  He  also  published 
volumes  on  his  Continental  tours  and 
an  autobiography.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, June  30,  1856. 

Buckingham.  William  Alfred, 
an  American  statesman,  bora  in  Leb- 
anon, Conn.,  May  28,  1804;  was  Mr 
nine  years  Governor  of  Connecticut 
(1858-1866)  ;  called  the  "  War  Gov- 
ernor" for  his  seal  in  furnishing 
troops  in  the  Civil  War;  and  was 
United  States  Senator  from  I860  till 
his  death.  He  was  active  in  the  tem- 
perance cause,  and  a  patron  of  Yale 
College.  He  died  in  Norwich,  Oomv, 
Feb.  3,  1875. 

Buckingham  Palace,  a  royal 
palace  in  London,  facing  St  James* 
Park,  and  forming  one  of  <he  resi- 
dences of  Queen  Victoria. 

Bnckland.  Cyrus,  an  American 
inventor,  bora  in  Springfield.  Mass., 
Aug.  10, 1790;  after  assisting  in  build- 
ing the  machinery  for  the  first  cotton 
mills  erected  in  Chicopee  Falls,  be- 
came, in  1828,  the  pattern  maker  hi 
the  united  States  armory,  in  Spring- 
field. He  remained  hero  for  28  years, 
becoming  master-mechanic.  He  de- 
signed machinery  and  tools  for  the 
manufacture  of  firearms;  remodeled 
old  weapons  and  designed  new  ones; 
perfected  a  lathe  for  turning  out  gun 
stocks;  invented  machines  to  bore  and 
turn  gun  barrels  and  for  rifling  mus- 


Buckland 

kets,  and  many  other  novelties  in  the 
manufacture  of  firearms  and  ordnance. 
Much  of  his  machinery  was  adopted 
by  foreign  governments.  Having  re- 
ceived nothing  for  his  labor  at  the  ar- 
mory, excepting  his  salary,  Congress 
voted  him  $10,000  when  ill-health  com- 

Selled  him  to  resign.  He  died  in 
pringfield,  Feb.  26,  1891. 

Buckland,  Francis  Trevelyan, 
an  English  naturalist ;  born  in  Oxford, 
Dec.  17,  182G.  His  preferences  were 
for  practical  science,  and,  after  retir- 
ing from  his  place  as  surgeon  to  the 
2d  Life  Guards,  he  founded  the  jour- 
nal, "  Land  and  Water,"  of  which  he 
was  editor.  He  was  an  authority  on 
fish  culture,  and  as  such  was  consulted 
by  foreign  governments.  He  was  a 
resolute  opponent  of  Darwinism.  He 
died  Dec.  19,  1880. 

Buckland,  William,  an  English 
geologist,  born  in  Tiverton,  Devon- 
shire, March  12,  1784.  In  1845  he 
was  made  Dean  of  Westminster ;  but, 
under  his  great  and  continuous  labors 
to  benefit  others,  his  mental  faculties 
gave  way  seven  years  before  his  death, 
which  took  place  Aug.  14,  1856. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish historian,  born  in  Kent,  Nov.  24, 
1822.  His  chief  work,  a  philosophic 
"  History  of  Civilization,"  of  which 
only  two  volumes  (1858  and  1861) 
were  completed,  was  characterized  by 
much  novel  and  suggestive  thought, 
and  by  the  bold  co-ordination  of  a  vast 
store  of  materials  drawn  from  the  most 
varied  sources.  He  died,  while  travel- 
ing, at  Damascus,  March  29,  1862. 

Buckles,  metal  instruments,  con- 
sisting of  a  rim  and  tongue,  used  for 
fastening  straps  or  bands  in  dress, 
harness,  etc.  They  were  formerly  used 
on  shoes,  but  are  now  supplanted  by 
strings. 

Buckley,  James  Monroe,  an 
American  religious  editor,  born  in 
Rah  way,  N.  J.,  Dec.  16,  1836.  He 
studied  theology  at  Exeter  and  joined 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Since  1881  he  has  been  editor  of  the 
New  York  "  Christian  Advocate."  He 
has  written  "  Travels  in  Three  Conti- 
nents," "  Oats,  or  Wild  Oats,"  etc. 

Bncknell  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  in  Lewisburg,  Pa. ; 
oragnized  in  1846,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Baptist  Church. 


Buckwheat 

Buckner,  Simon  Bolivar,  an 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born 
in  Kentucky  in  1823.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  in  1840,  and 
served  in  the  Mexican  War.  He  rose 
to  distinction  in  the  Confederate  army 
during  the  Civil  War,  attaining  the 
rank  of  Lieutenant-General.  He  was 
one  of  the  pall  bearers  at  Gen.  Grant's 
funeral  in  1885,  by  the  personal  selec- 
tion of  the  ex-President,  who  had  been 
warmly  attached  to  him  for  many 
years.  In  1896  he  was  nominated  for 
Vice-President  by  the  Gold  Demo- 
crats, serving  a  term  as  Governor  ot 
Kentucky.  He  died  Jan.  8,  1914. 

Buckram,  a  coarse  textile  fabric 
stiffened  with  glue  and  used  in  gar- 
ments to  give  them  or  keep  them  in 
the  form  intended. 

Buckshot,  a  kind  of  leaden  shot 
larger  than  swan-shot.  About  160  or 
170  of  them  weigh  a  pound.  They  are 
especially  designed  to  be  used  in  hunt- 
ing large  game. 

Buckskin,  a  kind  of  soft  leather, 
generally  yellow  or  grayish  in  color, 
prepared  originally  by  treating  deer- 
skins in  a  particular  way,  but  now  in 
general  made  from  sheepskins.  This 
may  be  done  by  oil,  or  by  a  second 
method,  in  which  the  skins  are  grained, 
brained  and  smoked. 

Buckthorn,  the  English  name  of 
a  genus  of  plants.  The  berries  of  the 
common  species  are  black,  nauseous, 
and,  as  the  specific  name  rhamnus  ca- 
tharticus  imports,  highly  cathartic; 
they  afford  a  yellow  dye  when  unripe, 
as  the  bark  of  the  shrub  does  a  green 
one.  They  are  sold  as  French  berries. 
The  alder  buckthorn,  again,  has  dark 
purple  purgative  berries,  which,  im 
an  unripe  state,  dye  wool  green  and 
yellow,  and  when  ripe  bluish  gray, 
blue,  and  green.  The  bark  dyes  yel- 
low, and,  with  iron,  black.  Of  the 
foreign  species,  the  berries  of  the  rock 
buckthorn  are  used  to  dye  the  Maro- 
quin,  or  Morocco  leather,  yellow,  while 
the  leaves  of  the  tea  buckthorn  are 
used  by  poor  people  in  China  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  tea.  The  species  best  kown 
to  the  pharmacopoeia  of  this  country 
is  the  cascara  sagrada. 

Bncktrheat,  or  Brank,  a  plant 
with  branched  herbaceous  stem,  some- 
what arrow-shaped  leaves  and  purplish 
white  flowers,  growing  to  the  height 


Budapest 

of  about  30  inches,  and  bearing  a 
small  triangular  grain  of  a  brownish- 
black  without  and  white  within.  The 
stalk  is  round  and  hollow,  generally 
green,  but  sometimes  tinged  with  red. 
Buckwheat  was  first  taken  to  Eu- 
rope from  Asia  by  the  Crusaders,  and 
hence  in  France  is  often  called  Sara- 
cen corn.  It  is  cultivated  in  China 
and  other  Eastern  countries  as  a  bread 
corn.  In  the  United  States  it  is  very 
extensively  used  throughout  the  win- 
ter in  cakes,  which  are  cooked  upon 
a  gridiron. 

Budapest,  the  official  name  of  the 
united  towns  of  Buda  or  Ofen  and 
Pest  or  Pesth,  the  one  on  the  right, 
the  other  on  the  left  of  the  Danube, 
forming  the  capital  of  Hungary,  the 
seat  of  the  Hungarian  Parliament  and 
supreme  courts.  Buda,  which  is  the 
smaller  of  the  two,  and  lies  on  the  W. 
bank  of  the  river  (here  flowing  S.), 
consists  of  the  fortified  Upper  Town 
on  a  hill,  the  Lower  Town  or  Water 
Town  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  sev- 
eral other  quarters,  including  Old 
Buda  farther  up  the  river. 

Budapest  contains  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  three  universities  of  Hun- 
gary, attended  by  about  4,500  stu- 
dents and  having  over  220  professors, 
lecturers,  etc.  Another  important  ed- 
ucational institution  is  the  technical 
high  schools,  with  60  teachers  and 
1,100  to  1,200  students,  and  a  library 
of  GO.OOO  volumes.  In  commerce  and 
industry  Budapest  ranks  next  to  Vien- 
na in  the  empire.  Its  chief  manufac- 
tures are  machinery,  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, and  iron  wares,  chemical,  textile 
goods,  leather,  tobacco,  etc.  A  large 
trade  is  done  in  grain,  wine,  wool, 
cattle,  etc.  At  Budapest  are  the  larg- 
est electrical  works  in  all  Europe.  En- 
gineers employed  there  have  brought 
to  perfection  the  science  of  applying 
electricity  to  motors.  They  construct- 
ed there  the  first  successful  under- 
ground trolley  lines.  Their  ideas  have 
been  adopted  in  the  construction  of 
electric  roads  all  over  the  world.  In 
1799  the  joint  population  of  the  two 
towns  was  little  more  than  50,000;  in 
1890  it  was  506,384  ;  in  1910,  880,371. 

Budaun,  a  town  of  India,  North- 
west Provinces.  There  is  a  handsome 
mosque,  American  mission,  etc.  Pop. 
33,680.  The  district  of  Budaun  has 


Buel 

an  area  of  2,000  square  miles.  Pop. 
906,451. 

Buddha,  or  The  Buddha,  (that 
is  "the  enlightened"),  the  sacrea, 
name  of  the  founder  of  Buddhism, 
who  would  appear  (according  to  the 
judgment  of  those  scholars  who  hat* 
given  most  attention  to  this  point)  to 
have  lived  in  the  5th  century  B.  c. 

Buddhism,  the  system  of  faith  in- 
troduced or  reformed  by  Buddha.  la 
its  origin  Buddhism  was  a  reaction 
against  the  caste  pretensions  of  the 
Brahmins  and  other  Aryan  invaders 
of  India,  and  was,  therefore,  eminent- 
ly fitted  to  become,  as  it  for  a  long 
time  was,  the  religion  of  the  Turan- 
ians. Buddhism  was  dominant  in  In- 
dia for  about  1,000  years  after  its 
establishment  by  Asoka.  Then,  having 
become  corrupt  and  its  vitality  hav- 
ing decayed,  reviving  Brahminism  pre- 
vailed over  it,  and  all  but  extinguished 
it  on  the  Indian  continent,  though  a 
modification  of  it,  Jainism,  still  exists 
in  Marwad  and  many  other  parts.  It 
has  all  along  held  its  own,  however,  in 
Ceylon.  On  losing  Continental  India, 
its  missionaries  transferred  their  ef- 
forts to  China,  which  they  converted, 
and  which  still  remains  Buddhist. 
The  religion  of  Gautama  flourishes 
also  in  Tibet,  Burma  and  Japan,  and 
is  the  great  Turanian  faith  of  the 
modern  as  of  the  ancient  world. 

Budding,  the  art  of  multiplying 
plants  by  causing  the  leaf  bud  of  one 
species  or  variety  to  grow  upon  the 
branch  of  another. 

Bnde  Light,  (from  Bude,  in 
Cornwall,  England,  where  Mr.  Gur- 
ney,  the  inventor  of  the  light,  lived), 
an  oil  or  gas  burner  supplied  with  a 
jet  of  oxygen  gas;  the  flame  is  very 
brilliant. 

Budget,  the  annual  statement  rel- 
ative to  the  finances  of  a  country, 
made  by  the  proper  financial  function- 
ary, in  which  is  presented  a  balance 
sheet  of  the  actual  income  and  expend- 
iture of  the  past  year,  and  an  esti- 
mate of  the  income  and  expenditure 
for  the  coming  year,  together  wuh  a 
statement  of  the  mode  of  taxation  pro- 
posed to  meet  such  expenditure. 

Buel,  Clarence  Clough,  an 
American  editor  and  author,  born  at 
Laona,  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y., 
July  29,  1850.  He  was  connected 


Buell 

with  the  New  York  "  Tribune  "  from 
1875  to  1881,  when  he  joined  the  staff 
of  the  "  Century  Magazine ;  "  and,  in 
1883,  in  conjunction  with  Robert  Un- 
derwood Johnson,  he  began  the  editing 
of  the  celebrated  "  Century  War  Arti- 
cles," which  were  afterward  expanded 
into  the  notable  "  Battles  and  Lead- 
ers of  the  Civil  War"  (1887). 

Buell,  Don  Carlos,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  near  Lowell,  O., 
March  23,  1818.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  1841,  and  served  in 
the  Mexican  War.  When  the  Civil 
War  broke  out  he  was  adjutant-gen- 
eral of  the  regular  army,  and  was 
made  a  Brigadier-General  of  Volun- 
teers and  attached  to  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  In  November,  1861,  he  suc- 
ceeded Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  in  com- 
mand of  the  Department  of  the  Ohio. 
He  resigned  from  the  volunteer  serv- 
ice on  May  23,  1864,  and  on  June  1, 
following,  also  resigned  his  commis- 
sion in  the  regular  army.  He  died 
near  Rockport,  Ky.,  Nov.  19,  1898. 

Buenaventura,  a  town  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  'the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia. It  has  a  hot,  sickly  climate, 
but  is  the  port  for  the  healthful  and 
rich  Cauca  valley.  Pop.  5,000. 

Buena  Vista,  a  village  of  Mex- 
ico, 7  miles  S.  of  Saltillo,  where  Feb. 
22-23,  1847,  5,000  U.  S.  troops,  under 
Taylor,  defeated  20,000  Mexicans 
under  Santa  Ana.  Pop.  (1910)  3,245. 

Buen-Ayre,  French  BoNAlBE,  a 
West  Indian  island,  60  miles  from  the 
coast  of  Venezuela,  and  30  E.  of  Cura- 
cao, like  which  it  belongs  to  the 
Dutch.  It  produces  timber,  cattle, 
cochineal,  and  salt.  Area,  95  square 
miles;  pop.  (1914)  6,579. 

Bnendia,  Juan,  a  Peruvian  gen- 
eral, born  in  Lima  in  1814.  He  was 
gut  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the 
outh  in  the  Chilian  War  in  1870, 
and  attacked  10,000  Chilians  on  the 
heights  of  San  Francisco  (Nov.  S), 
where  he  was  defeated  with  terrible 
loss.  He  was  court-martialed,  but 
freed  from  blame  and  afterward  served 
in  the  defense  of  Lima. 

Buenos  Aires,  a  city  of  South 
America,  capital  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, on  the  S.  W.  side  of  the  La 
Plata,  150  miles  from  its  mouth.  It 
was  founded  in  1535  by  Don  Pedro 
de  Mandoza,  and  is  built  with  great 


Buffalo 

regularity,  the  streets  uniformly  cross- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles.  It  con- 
tains the  palace  of  the  President,  the 
House  of  Representatives,  a  Town 
Hall,  a  number  of  hospitals  and  asy- 
lums, a  cathedral,  several  monasteries, 
nunneries,  and  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant churches ;  several  theaters,  a  uni- 
versity and  a  custom  house.  The  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1821,  is  attended 
by  about  800  students.  There  are 
also  a  medical  school,  normal  and 
other  schools,  besides  literary  and  sci- 
entific societies.  Since  1889  the  city 
has  undergone  notable  changes  in  the 
way  of  local  improvement.  The  most 
important  is  the  creation  of  a  new  sys- 
tem of  docks,  involving  the  construc- 
tion of  five  long  wet  docks  and  great 
basins.  The  basins  have  ample  area 
for  the  largest  ocean  steamships,  and 
along  their  walls  are  hydraulic  ele- 
vators by  which  every  hatchway  of  a 
vessel  may  be  worked  at  once.  Buenos 
Aires  is  one  of  the  leading  commercial 
centers  of  South  America,  its  exports 
and  imports  together  annually  amount- 
ing to  over  $60,000,000.  Chief  exports 
are  ox  and  horse  hides,  sheep  and 
other  skins,  wool,  tallow,  horns,  etc. 
There  are  six  railways  running  from 
the  city,  and  over  100  miles  of 
tramway  in  the  city  and  suburbs. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  inhabitants 
are  whites ;  the  rest  are  Indians,  ne- 
groes and  mixed  breeds.  Pop.  (1915) 
1,594,170.  The  province  of  Buenos 
Aires  has  an  area  of  about  118,000 
square  miles,  and  presents  nearly 
throughout  level  or  slightly  undulat- 
ing plains  (pampas),  which  afford 
pasture  to  vast  numbers  of  cattle  and 
wild  horses.  These  constitute  the  chief 
wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  Pop. 
(1915)  2,155,118. 

Buffalo,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Erie  co.,  N.  Y.,  second  city  in  popula- 
tion and  importance  in  New  York.  It 
is  built  at  the  E.  end  of  Lake  Erie,  at 
the  head  of  the  Niagara  river,  20 
miles  above  the  Falls.  It  is  the  W. 
terminus  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  has  a 
navigable  water  front  of  8  miles,  with 
numerous  piers,  breakwaters,  basins 
and  canals,  giving  it  one  of  the  finest 
harbors  on  the  lakes  and  making  it  a 
great  commercial  center.  The  city  is 
connected  by  several  steamship  lines 
with  the  chief  lake  ports,  and  by  fer- 
ries with  Victoria  and  Fort  Erie,  on 


Bmff&lo 


Buffalo 


the  Canadian  side.     The  International 
Bridge,    costing    $1,500,000,    connects 
Buffalo  with  these  towns.     Area,  42  ] 
square  miles;  population  (1900)  352,- 
218;  (1910)  423,715. 

Buffalo  is  situated  on  an  elevated 
plain,  50  feet  above  the  lake  and  600 
feet  above  sea  level.     From  this  plain  ( 
the  ground  slopes  gradually  to  the  lake. 
It  is  bordered  on  three  sides  by  water,  j 
the  Niagara  river,  Lake  Erie  and  Buf-  i 
falo  river.     Buffalo  river  is  navigable  ! 
for  2  miles,  and  two  canals  pass  be- ; 
tween  the  river  and  the  lake.   The  city 
is   noted   for  its   wide   and  beautiful  i 
streets,  and  the  abundance  of  shrub- 
bery and  trees  decorating  them.     The 
principal   streets   are   Main,   Niagara, 
Delaware,    Broadway,    and    Linwpod 
and  Elmwood  avenues,  120  feet  wide, 
and  all  over  5  miles  in  length.     Buf- 
falo  claims    to    be   the   cleanest    and 
healthiest   city   in   the  United   States 
and  to  possess  a  greater  extent  of  as- ; 
phalt  paving  than  any  other  city  of 
its  size  in  the  country. 

Buffalo  has  a  public  park  system 
consisting  of  several  parks  containing 
741*2  acres  and  connected  by  boule- 
vards and  approaches,  affording  a  con- 
tinuous drive  of  15  miles,  and  contain- 
ing an  area,  with  the  minor  parks  and 
places,  of  27G^  additional  acres.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  Fed- 
eral Building,  containing  the  Post- 
office  and  Custom-house,  a  large  build- 
ing of  freestone ;  the  State  Arsenal ; 
the  Board  of  Trade  Building;  the  Old 
and  New  Armories ;  Grosvenor  Li- 
brary ;  Normal  School ;  two  public 
high  schools ;  Erie  County  and  Buffalo 
Savings  Banks ;  the  Erie  County  Pen- 
itentiary; and  the  City  and  County 
Hall.  Besides  these,  there  is  the  Buf- 
falo Library,  in  Lafayette  Square, 
containing  a  circulating  library  of 
77,000  volumes,  and,  in  the  same 
building,  are  the  Buffalo  Historical 
Society,  the  Buffalo  Fine  Arts  Society 
i  and  School  of  Arts,  and  the  Society  of 
|  National  Sciences.  The  State  Insane 
Asylum  has  a  plot  of  203  acres  and  j 
adjoins  the  Buffalo  Park.  According  | 
to  the  United  States  census  of  1910  j 
the  city  had  1,753  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, employing  $193,041,267 
I  capital  and  61,246  persons ;  paying 
$28,727,228  for  wages  and  $136,538,- 
000  for  materials  used ;  and  yielding 
products  of  an  aggregate  value  $218,- 


804,000.  In  the  calendar  year  1916,  the 
imports  of  merchandise  aggregated  in 
value  $41,421,442 ;  and  the  exports, 
$184,618,947. 

The  site  of  Buffalo  was  first  visited 
by  the  French,  under  La  Salle,  in 
1679.  In  1687  a  settlement  was  made 
by  Baron  La  Honton  and  Fort  Sup- 
pose was  erected.  It  was  held  by  the 
British  as  Fort  Erie  during  1783- 
1784,  and  was  incorporated  as  the  vil- 
lage of  Buffalo  and  soon  afterward 
burned  by  the  British,  in  1813.  It 
was  rebuilt  in  1815 ;  but  its  progress 
was  slow  until  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  canal  in  1825.  It  became  a  city 
in  1832  and  since  then  it  has  been 
very  prosperous.  A  Pan-American  Ex- 
position was  held  here  between  May  1 
and  Nov.  2,  1901;  President  McKin- 
ley  was  fatally  wounded  while  attend- 
ing it  on  Sept.  6. 

Buffalo,  a  name  often  applied  10 
two  distinct  bovine  genera  or  sub- 
genera —  viz.,  the  Asiatic  buffalo  with 
the  Cape  buffalo ;  and  the  American 
buffalo,  better  named  bison.  The  ge- 
nus or  sub-genus  bubalus  has  the 
usual  bovine  characteristics,  and, 
whatever  be  its  exact  limits  in  strict 
zoological  classification,  remains,  for 
practical  purposes,  a  large,  clumsy  ox. 
The  horns  rise  from  the  posterior  side 
corners  of  the  skull,  are  usually  thick- 
ened out  of  proportion  at  the  base, 
and  irregularly  ridged,  though  smooth 
toward  the  points ;  the  forehead  is 
short  and  arched ;  the  covering  of  hair 
is  comparatively  sparse.  The  Asiatic 
buffalo  is  a  very  powerful  animal, 
much  more  powerful  than  the  ox,  and 
capable  of  dragging  or  carrying  a  far 
heavier  load.  The  female  yields  a 
much  greater  quantity  of  milk  than  a 
cow,  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  is 
from  buffalo  milk  that  the  ghee  or 
semi-fluid  butter  of  India  is  made. 
The  hide  is  greatly  valued  for  its 
strength  and  durability,  but  the  flesh 
is  decidedly  inferior  to  that  of  the  ox. 
The  Arnee  is  a  very  large  variety  of 
the  common  buffalo ;  a  head  has  been 
known  to  measure  13  feet  6  inches 
along  the  horns.  It  occurs  in  the  In- 
dian islands  and  in  Farther  India  in 
a  wild  state,  but  is  also  domesticated 
srnl  u<=ed  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The 
Cape  buffalo  is  generally  regarded  as 
a  distinct  species.  The  horns  are  very 
large ;  th*y  spread  horizontally  over 


Buffalo  Berry 

the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  then  bent 
down  laterally,  and  turned  upward  at 
the  point.  The  head  is  carried,  as  by 
the  common  buffalo,  with  projecting 
muzzle  and  reclining  horns,  but  the 
bases  of  the  horns  nearly  meet  on  the 
forehead,  where  they  are  from  8  to  10 
inches  broad.  The  length  of  a  full 
grown  Cape  buffalo  is  about  8  feet 
from  the  root  of  the  horns  to  the  tail, 
and  the  height  is  5  Ms  feet.  This  ani- 
mal is  regarded  as  more  formidable 
than  any  other  in  South  Africa.  The 
buffalo  is  still  found  in  large  herds 
in  the  marshy  wooded  regions  of  Cen- 
tral and  South  Africa,  but  in  Cape 
Colony,  where  it  was  once  plentiful, 
it  has  now  become  comparatively  rare. 
It  grazes  chiefly  in  the  evening,  and 
lies  in  woods  and  thickets  during  the 
day.  It  will  readily  act  on  the  ag- 
gressive, and  has  never  been  domesti- 
cated. The  flesh,  though  coarse,  is 
palatable.  The  dwarf,  wild  cow  of  the 
island  of  Celebes  is  also  related  to  the 
buffaloes.  For  the  American  buffalo, 
see  BISON. 

Buffalo  Berry,  a  shrub  of  the 
oleaster  family,  a  native,  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  with  lanceolate, 
silvery  leaves  and  close  clusters  of 
bright  red  acid  berries  about  the  size 
of  currants,  which  are  made  into  pre- 
serves and  used  in  various  ways. 

Buffalo  Grass,  a  strong  growing 
Korth  American  grass,  so  called  x  from 
forming  a  large  part  of  the  food  of 
the  buffalo,  and  said  to  have  excellent 
fattening  properties;  called  also  gama 
grass. 

Buffet,  anciently  a  little  apart- 
ment, separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
room,  for  the  disposing  of  china,  glass, 
etc.  It  is  now  a  piece  of  furniture  for 
the  dining-room,  called  a  sideboard, 
for  the  same  purpose. 

Bnffington,    Adelbert    Rinaldo, 
an  American  military  officer;  born  in 
Wheeling,   Va.,    Nov.   22,    1837;    was! 
graduated  at  the  United '  States  Mili-  j 
tary   Academy   in    1861 ;    entered   the 
Ordnance  Department ;  was  promoted  j 
Colonel  in  1889,  and  became  Chief  of  j 
Ordnance  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General,  April  ,  1899.     He  had  com- 
mand of  the  National  Armory  in  1881- 
1892 ;  is  the  inventor  of  a  magazine 
firearm,  carriages  for  light  and  heavy 
guns,   and   parts  of   models  of    1884 


Bag 

Springfield  rifles ;  introduced  gas  forg- 
ing furnaces  and  improved  methods  in 
the  Springfield  armory  ;  and  originat- 
ed the  niter  and  manganese  method  in 
use  there  for  blueing  iron  and  steel 
surfaces  of  small  arms.  Retired  1901. 

Bnffou,  George  Louis  Leclerc, 
Count  de,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
naturalists  and  authors  of  the  18th 
century ;  born  in  Montbard,  Burgun- 
dy, Sept  17,  1707.  Buffon,  in  his 
earlier  years,  was  animated  only  by 
an  undefined  love  of  learning  and 
fame,  but  his  appointment,  as  super- 
intendent of  the  Royal  Garden  (now 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes),  in  1739,  gave 
his  mind  a  decided  turn  toward  that 
science  in  which  he  immortalized  him- 
self. The  most  perfect  part  of  his 
work  is  the  "History  of  Quadrupeds" ; 
the  weakest,  the  "  History  of  Min- 
erals," in  which  his  imperfect  ac- 
quaintance with  chemistry  and  his  in- 
clination to  hypothesis  have  led  him 
into  many  errors.  After  a  long  and 
painful  illness,  he  died  in  Paris, 
April  16,  1788,  at  the  age  of  81 
years,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  per- 
ished in  the  Revolution  by  the  guillo- 
tine. 

Bnford,  John,  a  cavalry  leader  in 
the  Civil  War,  born  in  Kentucky  1826. 
He  was  graduated  at  West  Point  in 
1848,  saw  service  in  the  West,  and  in 
July  1862  was  made  Brigadier-General 
of  volunteers  and  assigned  to  a  cavalry 
brigade  in  the  Army  of  Virginia.  He 
took  a  leading  part  in  all  the  cam- 
paigns of  the  army  to  the  battle  at 
Gettysburg,  which  he  is  said  to  have 
deliberately  chosen  for  the  great  con- 
flict. He  retired  on  sick  leave  in  No- 
vember of  1863,  and  received  the  rank 
of  Major-General  on  the  day  of  his 
death,  Dec.  16,  1863. 

Bug,  a  common  name  applied  to  in- 
sects of  the  natural  order  Hemiptera. 
Most  of  these  insects  essentially  re- 
semble the  bed-bug,  except  that  they 
have  wings.  Some  suck  the  blood  of 
animals,  and  others  subsist  on  vege- 
table juices.  While  a  few  are  of 
commercial  importance,  like  the  coch- 
ineal and  lac  insects,  most  of  them  are 
harmful.  Not  a  few  species  are  beau- 
tiful, but  many  have  the  same  unpleas- 
ant smell  which  emanates  from  the 
bed-bug.  The  unattractive  form  and 
manner  of  life  of  the  bed-bug  are 


GRECIAN  GREEN    MARBLE 


COPYRIGHT,  1913.  BT  P.  B.  WEIGHT. 

POLISHED    BUILDING    STONES 


Bngenhagen 

too  well  known  to  require  description.  ; 
The  eggs,  which  are  white,  are  depos-  ; 
ited  in  the  beginning  of  summer.   They 
are  glued  to  the  crevices  of  bedsteads 
or  furniture,  or  to  the  walls  of  rooms. 
Before  houses  existed,   the  bug  prob- 
ably lived  under  the  bark  of  trees. 

Bngenhagen,  Johann,  a  Ger- 
man reformer,  friend  and  helper  of 
Luther  in  preparing  his  translation  of 
the  Bible,  born  in  1485.  He  fled  from 
his  Catholic  superiors  to  Wittenberg 
in  1521,  where  he  was  made,  in  1522, 
Professor  of  Theology.  He  effected 
the  union  of  the  Protestant  free  cities 
with  the  Saxons  and  introduced  into 
Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  Pom- 
erania,  Denmark,  and  many  other  j 
places,  the  Lutheran  service  and 
church  discipline.  He  died  in  1558. 

Bnggy,  in  the  United  States,  a 
light,  one  horse,  four  wheeled  vehicle, 
with  or  without  a  hood  or  top. 

Bugle,  a  treble  instrument  of 
brass  or  copper,  differing  from  the 
trumpet  in  having  a  shorter  and  more 
conical  tube,  with  a  less  expanded  bell. 
It  is  played  with  a  cupped  mouth- 
piece. In  the  original  form  it  is  the 
signal  horn  for  the  infantry,  as  the 
trumpet  is  for  the  cavalry. 

Buhr  Stone,  a  variety  of  quartz 
containing  many  small,  empty  cells, ! 
which  give  it  a  peculiar  roughness  of 
surface.  They  are  used  principally  as 
mill-stones.  The  best  kinds  are  creamy 
white,  with  a  granular  and  somewhat 
cellular  texture,  and  are  obtained  in 
France.  Numerous  substitutes  for  the 
French  buhr  stone  have  been  found  in 
the  United  States,  the  most  important 
being  furnished  by  the  buhr  stone  rock 
of  the  bituminous  coal  measures  of 
Northwestern  Pennsylvania  and  East- 
ern Ohio. 

Building;  Fireproof,  Iron  and 
Concrete  Construction.  Building 
combines  the  principles  of  masonry, 
carpentry,  joining,  plumbing  and  the 
methods  of  operation  in  all  allied 
trades  or  arts,  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  qualities,  strength  and  resistance 
of  materials,  and  the  science  of  archi- 
tecture. It  comprehends  the  arrange- 
ment of  a  design  for  the  greatest  pos- 
sible degree  of  convenience  on  a 
ground  plan ;  the  preparation  and 
formation  of  foundations ;  of  floors ; 
the  arrangement  and  construction,  of 


Building 

drains,  sewers,  and  vent-shafts ;  the 
varieties  of  walling  with  wood,  stone, 
or  laying  of  bricks ;  the  various  meth- 
ods of  tying  and  bracing  walls ;  the 
arrangement  of  gutters  on  roofs  with 
overflow  water  pipes  in  the  least  in- 
convenient places ;  the  location  and 
formation  of  chimneys ;  the  protection 
of  walls  from  damp,  of  timber  from 
moisture  and  stagnant  air ;  of  metals 
from  corroding  causes,  etc.,  besides  the 
multitude  of  details  which  attend  the 
completion  of  any  structure. 

In  modern  times,  attention  has  long 
been  devoted  to  devising  means  and 
providing  materials  for  building  pur- 
poses that  will  withstand  the  dangers 
and  destruction  caused  by  fire.  The 
production  of  incombustible  materials, 
rather  than  the  rendering  of  wood  and 
other  combustibles  fireproof  by  chem- 
ical treatment,  has  been  an  important 
factor  in  the  development  of  present- 
day  building  methods. 

During  the  experimental  stage  in 
fireproof  construction  in  the  United 
States  from  1854  to  1870,  the  substi- 
tution of  iron  for  wood  for  all  con- 
structive purposes  was  thought  an  im- 
portant advance  until  iron  of  all 
kinds  proved  unreliable  when  exposed 
to  temperatures  of  900  degrees  Fahr. 
and  over.  The  danger  from  the  new 
style  of  building  was  greater  than 
from  the  old.  In  many  instances, 
buildings  with  cast-iron  fronts  col- 
lapsed completely  during  a  fire,  and 
the  plan  of  unprotected  iron  construc- 
tion was  abandoned. 

Between  1875  and  1879,  however, 
the  advantages  of  protected  iron  con- 
struction was  recognized,  and  with  the 
improvement  of  incombustible  mate- 
rials for  building  purposes,  steel  skele- 
ton construction  is  now  generally 
adopted  for  all  new  structures  of  any 
magnitude  throughout  the  United 
States,  and  is  extending  to  foreign 
countries. 

In  the  use  of  concrete,  a  wooden 
mould  of  desired  width,  placed  about 
the  steel  girders,  receives  under  pres- 
sure the  liquid  stone  which  is  left  to 
harden.  When  the  wooden  shields  are 
removed,  a  smooth  wall  is  presented, 
which  grows  harder  with  the  passage 
of  time  and  withstands  a  greater  pres- 
sure than  granite  or  steel  itself. 

The  building  of  a  modern  iron-frame 
skyscraper  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  as- 


Building 


Building  Associations 


sembling  the  parts  or  "members."  Lit- 
tle of  the  real  work  is  done  on  the 
site  of  the  building  as  in  the  old  days 
of  stone  construction.  The  digging  of 
the  cellar  and  the  sinking  of  caissons 
in  order  to  lay  a  bed  for  the  iron- 
work is  the  principal  engineering  work 
done  on  the  spot.  All  departments 
work  simultaneously  —  excavators, 
draughtsmen,  rolling  mills,  iron-work- 
ers, masons,  plumbers  and  finishers. 
How  much  weight  each  upright  and 
floor  will  have  to  carry  is  figured  out, 
and  for  the  guidance  of  the  rolling- 
mill  man  detail  sketches  are  made  of 
every  beam,  girder  and  upright  to  be 
used,  with  every  dimension  calculated 
to  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  and  every 
rivet  hole  exactly  indicated  as  to  place 
and  size.  Every  piece  is  numbered  to 
correspond  with  the  number  on  the 
builder's  plan,  the  floors  they  are  to 
occupy  being  indicated  by  letters. 
Thus  M  114  signifies  for  M,  the  thir- 
teenth floor,  and  114,  its  position  on 
that  floor.  By  this  plan  the  stone- 
work may  often  be  seen  built  up  on 
the  higher  stories,  while  the  floors  be- 
low show  only  the  iron  skeleton  left 
open  for  various  reasons,  such  as  the 
late  arrival  of  boilers,  engines,  etc. 
The  ideal  method  in  the  assembling 
and  putting  together  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  modern  building  is  to»keep 
the  stone  masons,  housesmiths  and 
plumbers  one  floor  behind  the  iron- 
workers, the  carpenters  one  floor  be- 
hind these,  the  plasterers  one  floor 
behind  the  carpenters,  and  so  on  till 
the  top  story  is  finished. 

Modern  buildings  are  erected  accord- 
ing to  the  standard  regulations  for 
fireproof  buildings  suggested  by  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
and  incorporated  in  the  Building 
Laws. 

Building  and  Loan  Associa- 
tions, combinations  of  individuals, 
who  agree  to  pay  a  fixed  sum  monthly, 
by  which  a  fund  is  accumulated  which 
is  loaned  to  members,  who  desire  to 
purchase  or  improve  real  estate.  Their 
capital  stock,  which  is  prospective,  is 
usualy  divided  into  shares  of  a  par 
value  of  $200  each.  Each  shareholder 
pays  upon  each  share  he  holds  a 
monthly  subscription  of  $1,  till  such 
payments,  with  accrued  profits,  brings 
the  value  of  the  share  to  par.  The 
number  of  shares  each  member  may 


hold  varies  in  different  associations, 
the  general  rule  being  not  less  than 
two  nor  more  than  25,  the  latter  limi- 
tation being  intended  to  prevent  specu- 
lation. When  money  sufficient  to  de- 
clare a  loan  has  accumulated  in  the 
treasury,  a  single  share  of  $200  is  put 
up  at  auction  and  knocked  down  to 
the  member  who  bids  the  highest 
premium.  He  has  the  option,  at  the 
same  premium,  of  taking  as  many 
shares  as  he  may  desire,  within  the 
limits  fixed  by  the  association.  The 
age  of  the  asociation  depends  on  the 
size  of  these  premiums ;  the  larger  the 
premium  bid  the  more  quickly  the  as- 
sociation terminates.  Premiums  vary 
with  the  age  and  location  of  the  asso- 
ciation, and  also  with  the  demand  for 
money.  There  are  two  methods  of 
treating  these  premiums,  known  as  the 
gross  and  instalment  plans.  The  gross 
plan  treats  the  premium  at  once  as 
profits  earned,  though  the  amount  bid 
will  not  be  paid  in  full  for  10  or  more 
years.  The  instalment  plan  declares 
as  profits  only  such  amount  of  the 
premium  as  is  actually  paid  in  during 
the  year.  So  far  as  the  final  result  is 
concerned,  there  is  no  difference  be- 
tween the  two.  Building  and  loan 
associations  are  formed  on  two  plans, 
called  terminal  and  serial.  The  termi- 
nal associations  compel  all  members 
to  begin  payments  on  the  same  day. 
A  new  member  joining  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  association  is  thus 
forced  to  pay  arrearages.  This  is 
avoided  in  serial  associations  by  al- 
lowing new  members  to  join  at  stated 
intervals,  usually  six  months  or  a 
year,  without  the  payment  of  arrear- 
ages. The  advantages  of  building  and 
loan  associations  are :  That  each 
share,  whether  borrowed  upon  or  not, 
has  credited  to  it  a  pro  rata  amount 
of  all  profits  declared.  Loans  are  gen- 
erally advanced  to  within  80  per  cent 
of  the  appraised  value  of  the  property. 
No  large  salaries  are  paid.  All  offi- 
cers, appraisers,  auditors,  etc.,  are 
elected  in  open  meeting.  Members 
may  withdraw  at  any  time  after  the 
first  year,  obtaining  a  fair  share  of 
the  profits.  Loans  are  invariably  se- 
cured by  first  mortgage.  Only  mem- 
bers may  obtain  loans.  Mortgages 
may  be  paid  off  at  any  time.  There 
are  no  speculative  features,  the  asso- 
ciation buys  nothing,  the  borrowing 


Bukowina 

member  making  all  contracts.  On 
Jan.  1,  1916,  there  were  6,806  build- 
ing and  loan  associations  in  the  United 
States,  reporting  a  total  membership 
of  3,334,899,  total  assets  of  $1,484,- 
205,875,  and  an  increase  in  a  year  of 
230,964  in  membership  and  $126,497,- 
975  in  assets. 

Bukowina,  ("beech  land"),  a 
Province  in  the  extreme  E.  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  surround- 
ed by  Galicia,  Russia,  Moldavia,  and 
Hungary.  Area,  4,033  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1912)  814,247,  of  whom  42  per 
cent,  were  Ruthenians,  32  Moldavians, 
and  13  Jews,  while  70  per  cent,  be- 
longed to  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  tra- 
versed by  offsets  of  the  Carpathians, 
culminating  at  6,077  feet ;  gives  rise 
to  many  rivers  flowing  toward  the 
Black  Sea ;  and  abounds  in  wood, 
along  with  considerable  mineral  riches. 

Bukowina  belonged  originally  to 
Turkey,  was  occupied  by  the  Russians 
in  1769  and  the  Austrians  in  1774, 
was  ceded  by  Turkey  to  Austria  in 
1777,  was  incorporated  with  Galicia 
in  1786,  but  was  separated  from  it  in 
1849.  The  province  was  the  center  of 
vast  military  ope'rations  for  a  long 
time  after  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
war.  On  Feb.  24,  1915,  the  Russians 
were  defeated  in  a  stubborn  attack 
here ;  on  June  23,  1916,  they  occupied 
a  part  of  the  territory. 

Bulacan,  a  town  in  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  about  22  miles  N.  W. 
of  Manila,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railway ;  pop.  about  10,000.  The 
town  is  composed  mainly  of  native 
huts,  although  there  are  factories  in 
which  silk  matting  is  made.  Sugar 
making  is  also  an  industry  of  impor- 
tance. The  place  has  strategic  advan- 
tages, which  caused  it  to  become  a 
theater  of  military  operations  after 
the  Spanish-American  War. 

Bulawayo,  the  principal  town  and 
chief  commercial  center  of  Matabele- 
land,  in  Southern  Rhodesia,  South 
Africa,  to  which  point  the  railroad 
from  Cape  Town  was  completed  in 
1897,  a  total  distance  of  1,360  miles. 
The  place  had  a  pop.  (1911)  10,859 ; 
several  hotels,  good  business  blocks 
and  residences,  and  is  rapidly  growing 
in  size  and  importance.  Bulawayo  a 
few  years  ago  was  the  site  of  a  native 
village  of  rude  huts,  in  an  inclosure 


Bulgaria 

of   wattles,    whose    inhabitants   were 
savages  of  the  lowest  type. 

Bnlbnl,  the  Indian  name  of  any 
bird  belonging  to  a  sub-family  of 
thrushes. 

Bulfinch,  Charles,  an  American 
architect,  born  in  Boston  1763 ;  died 
1844.  He  built  the  first  playhouse 
erected  in  New  England,  the  old  Fed- 
eral street  theatre  in  Boston,  and  drew 
plans  for  the  Massachusetts  State 
house.  His  principal  work  was  the 
rotunda,  the  west  approaches,  and  the 
portico,  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 

Bulgaria,  a  former  Turkish  prin- 
cipality, created  by  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin  (1878),  declared  her  indepen- 
dence on  Oct.  5,  1908,  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Rumania,  on  the  W.  by  Servia 
and  Greece,  on  the  E.  by  the  Black 
Sea,  and  on  the  S.  by  Turkey  and  the 
^Egean  Sea;  area,  43,310  square 
miles;  pop.  (1914)  est.  4,752,997; 
capital,  Sofia.  The  soil  is  excellent  and 
the  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  richly 
wooded.  The  inhabitants,  though  not 
skilled  in  agriculture,  are  able  to  pro- 
duce a  considerable  export  in  grain 
products  beyond  what  they  require  for 
themselves.  Wheat  is  the  chief  ex- 
port. Fruit  is  raised  in  abundance, 
and  vegetables  for  home  use ;  roses, 
for  the  production  of  the  attar,  are 
raised  in  large  quantities ;  80,000  gal- 
lons of  wine  are  made  annually ;  silk 
worms  are  bred  in  some  regions,  and 
tobacco  is  raised.  There  is  little  min- 
ing, although  the  mountains  are  rich 
in  minerals.  Domestic  industries  are 
chiefly  carpets,  cloths,  hosiery,  and 
ribbons.  The  roads  are  very  bad, 
and  there  is  but  a  single  line  of  rail- 
road ;  about  500  miles,  on  the  route 
between  Vienna  and  Constantinople. 
All  traffic  is  carried  on  by  the  rivers, 
and  the  export  trade  by  the  Black 
Sea.  The  population  is  about  74 
per  cent.  Bulgarians,  19  per  cent. 
Turks,  the  rest  Spanish  Jews,  with 
a  sprinkling  of  Greeks ;  77  per 
cent,  are  of  the  faith  of  the  Or- 
thodox Greeks  Church ;  only  2^  per 
cent.  Moslems.  The  government  is 
Christian ;  there  is  a  National  militia ; 
military  service  compulsory.  The  Bul- 
garians were  originally  of  Finnish  ex- 
traction, but  coalesced  with  a  Slavic 
populace,  whose  language  was  the 
richest  of  the  old  Slavic  tongues.  In 


Bull 

their  older  literature  are  found  many 
valuable  works,  chiefly  popular  song- 
and  translations  of  the  Bible.  They  j 
adopted  Christianity  in  the  9th  cen- 1 
tury.  From  that  to  the  12th  their 
rulers  were  powerful  over  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  Then  they  were  conquered 
and  ruled  by  the  Turks  for  about  500 
years.  In  1876,  on  account  of  the 
atrocities  of  the  Turkish  soldiers,  an 
insurrection  broke  out.  Russia  took 
the  part  of  Bulgaria  against  Turkey,  i 
and  the  war  of  1877-1878  followed. 
In  1879,  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  a 
German  Prince,  was  made  sovereign 
of  part  of  Bulgaria,  the  rest  being 
made  a  separate  province  called  East 
Rumelia,  to  prevent  Bulgaria  becom- 
ing a  strong  State.  In  1885  there 
was  a  revolution  in  East  Rumelia, 
which  annexed  itself  to  Bulgaria. 
Servia  intervened,  and  Alexander  was 
forced  to  abdicate.  Against  Russia's 
will,  Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg  ac- 
cepted the  vacant  throne  in  1887. 
Since  1908  the  government  has  been 
that  of  an  independent  kingdom,  with 
a  responsible  ministry  and  a  single- 
chamber  National  Assembly  (one  mem- 
ber to  every  20,000  of  population) 
elected  by  universal  manhood  suffrage 
for  four  years.  In  1903  Bulgaria  noti- 
fied the  Great  Powrrs  that  unless  they 
compelled  Turkey  to  cease  the  mas- 
sacre of  Bulgarians  in  Macedonia,  Bul- 
faria  would  take  the  issue  into  her  own 
ands.  This  declaration  caused  a  pro- 
found sensation  throughout  Europe 
and  Turkey  began  preparations  for 
war,  but  nothing  further  resulted  at  the 
time. 

On  Sept.  30,  1912,  Bulgaria  allied 
with  Servia,  Greece,  and  Montenegro 
began  war  on  Turkey  (the  first  Balk- 
an war),  which  was  ended  by  the 
treaty  of  London,  May  30,  1913,  by 
which  Turkey  ceded  to  the  Allies  all 
its  European  territory  west  of  a  line 
drawn  from  Midia  on  the  Black  Sea 
to  Enos  on  the  ^Bgean,  and  also  Crete. 
On  June  29,  1913,  she  opened  war 
on  her  former  allies  because  of  dis- 
content with  her  share  of  the  spoil 
(the  second  Balkan  war),  was  badly 
defeated,  and  lost  more  than  she  had 
gained.  In  October,  1915,  she  allied 
herself  with  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Turkey  in  the  great  war,  and  at  sev- 
eral places,  singly  and  in  conjunction 
with  her  new  allies,  again  waged  war- 


Bulldog 

fare  on  her  former  allies.  See  AP- 
PENDIX: World  War. 

Bull,  an  instrument,  edict,  ordi- 
nance, or  decree  of  the  Pope,  equiva- 
lent to  the  proclamations,  edicts,  let- 
ters patent,  or  ukases  of  secular 
princes. 

Boll,  George  Joseph,  a  Cana- 
dian ophthalmic  surgeon,  born  in 
Hamilton,  Ontario,  Feb.  16,  1848.  He 
was  graduated  at  McGill  University 
in  1869,  and,  after  studying  in  Paris, 
began  the  practice  of  medicine  in 
Montreal,  devoting  himself  especially 
to  diseases  of  the  eye.  He  took  up 
his  residence  in  Paris  in  1886,  and 
has  won  celebrity  as  an  expert  in  oph- 
thalmic subjects.  He  has  written 
"  Ophthalmia  and  Optometry,"  and 
many  similar  works. 

Bull,  John,  the  popular  sobri- 
quet or  characteristic  name  applied  to 
the  English  nation.  Its  origin  is  ob- 
scure. a  It  appears  to  have  been  first 
used  in  Arbuthnot's  famous  satire, 
the  "  History  of  John  Bull,"  written 
in  ridicule  of  the  Duke  of  Marlbor- 
ough.  This  work  is  included  hi  those 
of  Dean  Swift 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann,  a  Nor- 
wegian violinist,  born  in  Bergen,  Feb. 
5,  1810.  He  secured  great  triumphs 
both  throughout  Europe  and  in  the 
United  States  by  his  wonderful  play- 
ing. He  lost  all  his  money  in  a  scheme 
to  found  a  colony  of  his  countrymen 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  had  to  take 
again  to  his  violin  to  repair  his  broken 
fortunes.  He  afterward  settled  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  and  had  also  a 
summer  residence  in  his  native  city, 
where  he  died,  Aug.  17,  1880. 

Bull  Baiting,  the  barbarous  sport 
of  setting  dogs  on  a  bull,  who  is  tied 
to  a  stake  and  worried  by  the  dogs  for 
the  amusement  of  the  spectators.  It 
was  a  favorite  sport  in  England  from 
a  very  early  period,  till  it  was  finally 
put  down  by  Act  of  Parliament  in 
1835. 

Bulldog,  a  variety  of  the  common 
dog,  remarkable  for  its  short,  broad 
muzzle,  and  the  projection  of  its 
lower  jaw  which  causes  the  lower 
front  teeth  to  protrude  beyond  the 
upper.  The  head  is  massive  and 
broadj  and  the  frontal  sinuses  large. 
The  lips  are  thick  and  pendulous ;  the 
ears  pendant  at  the  extremity;  the 


Duller 

neck  robust  and  short ;  the  body  long 
and  stout ;  and  the  legs  short  and 
thick.  The  bulldog  is  a  slow  motioned 
animal,  better  suited  as  a  watchdog 
than  for  any  purpose  requiring  activ- 
ity and  intelligence.  He  is  also  said 
to  be  capable  of  great  affection  for 
bis  master.  His  fearlessness  is  well 
known,  and  in  fighting,  bulldogs  dis- 
play the  most  indomitable  spirit.  They 
are  apt  to  become  vicious  as  they  ad- 
vance in  years,  but  ordinarily  a  bull- 
dog is  not  more  ready  than  any  other 
dog  to  attack  persons  without  some 
cause. 

The  name  was  originally  given  to 
this  dog  on  account  of  its  being  com- 
monly employed  in  bull-baiting  in  the 
days  when  this  barbarous  sport  was 
fn  vogue.  The  bull  terrier  is  a  dog 
that  partakes  of  the  character  of  both 
the  bulldog  and  the  terrier,  and  is 
rather  a  favorite  among  lovers  of  dogs. 

Buller,  Sir  Bedvers  Henry,  a 
British  soldier;  born  in  Devonshire, 
England,  in  1839 ;  entered  the  army  in 
1858 ;  served  in  the  campaigns  in 
China  (1860),  Ashanti  (1873-1874), 
South  Africa  (1878-1879),  Egypt 
(1882-1884),  and  the  Sudan  (1884- 
1885)  ;  in  1890  succeeded  Lord  Wolse- 
ley  as  adjutant-general  of  the  army 
and  became  lieutenant-general.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Boer-British 
War  in  South  Africa,  in  October, 
1899,  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
the  British  forces  who  went  to  the  re- 
lief of  Ladysmith.  On  Dec.  15,  fol- 
lowing, in  attempting  to  force  the 
passage  of  the  Tugela  river  at  Colen- 
so,  he  was  repulsed,  with  a  loss  of 
1,097  officers  and  men  and  11  guns. 
After  several  repulses  he  succeeded  in 
relieving  Ladysmith,  March  3,  1900. 
He  was  afterward  relieved  from  com- 
mand on  the  ground  of  failure  to  meet 
the  expectations  of  his  military  su- 
periors, and  much  scandal  was  caused 
by  a  controversy  which  followed  re- 
garding the  responsibility  for  his 
failure.  He  died  June  2,  1908. 

Bullet,  the  projectile  used  for 
small-arms,  either  spherical  or  of  an 
elongated  form.  The  elongated  bullet 
is  now  in  general  use  for  rifles,  and 
there  has  also  been  introduced  some 
means  of  dilating  the  bullet  at  the 
moment  of  explosion,  so  that  it  is 
forced  into  the  grooves  of  the  rifle  and 
exactly  fits  the  barrel. 


Bull  Finck 

Bullfights,  the  favorite  or  na- 
tional diversion  of  the  Spaniards,  as 
now  practised  said  to  be  of  compara- 
tively modern  origin,  having  been  de- 
vised by  the  Moors  of  Spain  mainly 
for  the  exhibition  of  horsemanship, 
courage,  and  dexterity  with  the  lance. 
At  first  it  was  practised  by  gentlemen 
armed  only  with  a  short  spear  or  jave- 
lin ;  and  on  grand  occasions,  especially 
the  coronation  of  a  king,  such  com- 
bats are  still  exhibited.  But  generally 
the  combatants  are  professionals.  The 
excommunications  of  the  Popes  have 
not  been  sufficient  to  induce  the  Span- 
iards to  abandon  this  amusement. 
Charles  IV.  abolished  it ;  but  it  was 
soon  revived  again.  The  assailants 
are  seldom  killed  in  these  sports.  Bull- 
fights are  got  up  either  for  private 
gain  or  for  the  benefit  of  some  public 
institution.  This  characteristic  na- 
tional- sport  or  diversion  is  exhibited 
at  Madrid  through  the  summer  at  least 
once  a  week  for  the  benefit  of  the  gen- 
eral hospital.  The  bullfights  are  held 
in  special  rings  or  amphitheaters,  that 
at  Madrid  being  capable  of  seating 
12,700  persons,  its  cost  of  erection 
having  been  $400,000. 


BULL  FINCH. 


Bull  Fiuch,  a  well  known  bird, 
locally  known  as  the  norskpipe,  the 
coal-hood,  the  hoop,  or  the  tony  hoop, 
the  alp,  and  the  hope.  Its  song  Is 


Bull  Frog 

much  prized.  It  is  often  domesticated. 
It  is  found  in  many  lands. 

Bull  Frog,  any  frog  which  croaks 
with  a  deep  rather  than  a  sharp  sound. 
A  species  of  frog  found  in  Carolina 
and  the  parts  adjacent,  which  has  a 
voice  not  unlike  that  of  a  bull.  It  is 
six  or  eight  inches  long,  by  three  or 
four  broad,  without  the  legs.  It  swal- 
lows ducks  and  young  goslings  whole. 
It  is  difficult  to  catch  from  its  length 
of  leap,  besides  which  it  is  generally 
left  unharmed  because  it  is  said  to 
purify  rather  than  to  pollute  the 
water  in  which  it  lives. 

Bullhead,  various  fishes  having 
large  heads. 

Bullinger,  Henri,  a  celebrated 
Swiss  reformer ;  born  in  Bremgar- 
ten  in  1504 ;  died  in  Zurich  in  1575. 

Bullion,  uncoined  gold  and  silver 
in  bars  or  in  the  mass.  United  States 
standard  bullion  contains  900  parts  of 
pure  gold  or  pure  silver,  and  100  parts 
of  copper  alloy.  The  coining  value  of 
an  ounce  of  pure  gold  is  $20.67183, 
and  the  coining  value  of  an  ounce  of 
standard  gold  is  $18.60465.  The  coin- 
ing value  in  standard  silver  dollars  of 
an  ounce  of  pure  silver  is  $1.2929,  and 
the  coining  value  of  an  ounce  of  stan- 
dard silver  is  $1.1636. 

Bull  Run,  or  Bull's  Run,  a 
stream  in  Virginia,  dividing  Fairfax 
and  Prince  William  counties,  in  the 
N.  E.  part  of  the  State,  and  flowing 
into  the  Oecoquan  river  14  miles  from 
the  Potomac.  On  its  banks  were 
fought  two  of  the  most  memorable  bat- 
tles during  the  Civil  War.  After  a 
series  of  heavy  skirmishes,  July  16- 
19.  1861,  the  Union  army  under  Gen- 
eral McDowell  was  on  the  21st  utter- 
ly routed  by  the  Confederates  under 
the  command  of  Generals  Beauregard 
and  J.  E.  Johnston.  The  Union  loss 
was  about  3,000  men,  while  that  of 
the  Confederates  was  estimated  at 
nearly  2,000  men.  The  former  lost, 
in  addition,  27  guns,  besides  an  im- 
mense quantity  of  small  arms,  ammu- 
nition, stores,  provisions,  and  accou- 
trements. On  Aug.  30,  1862,  another 
great  battle  was  fought  here  between 
the  Union  forces  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Pope,  and  the  Confederates  un- 
der Generals  Lee,  Longstreet,  and 
**  Stonewall "  Jackson,  when  the  for- 
mer were  again  defeated  with  heavy 


Bulthaupt 

loss.  The  three  battles  of  Groveton, 
Bull's  Run,  and  Chantilly,  fought  in 
three  successive  days,  cost  the  Union 
cause  about  20,000  men  in  killed, 
wounded,  missing,  and  prisoners,  30 
guns,  and  30,000  small  arms.  The 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run  is  sometimes 
known  as  the  battle  of  Manassas. 

Bull  Terrier,  a  variety  of  dog,  a 
cross  breed  between  the  bull  dog  and 
terrier. 

Bulnes,  Manuel,  a  Chilian  sol- 
dier and  statesman,  born  in  Concep- 
cion,  Dec.  25,  1799.  He  served  in 
most  of  the  battles  of  the  Chilean  rev- 
olution. In  1838  he  commanded  the 
Chilean  army  of  5,000  men  against 
Santa  Cruz,  in  Peru,  and  was  finally 
instrumental  in  driving  Santa  Cruz 
from  the  country  and  breaking  up  the 
Peru-Bolivian  confederation.  In  1841 
he  was  elected  President  of  Chile  and 
served  for  10  years.  He  was  after- 
ward Senator  and  Councilor  of  State. 
He  died  in  Santiago,  Oct.  18,  1866. 

Bulpw,  Hans  Guido  von,  a  Ger- 
man pianist  and  composer,  born  in 
Dresden,  Jan.  8,  1830;  died  in  Cairo, 
Feb.  13,  1894. 

Bulow,  Karl  Eduard  von,  a 
German  author,  born  at  Burg  vor 
Eilenburg  in  Saxony  in  1803 ;  died  in 
1853. 

Bulow,  Margarete  von,  a  Ger- 
man novelist,  born  in  Berlin  in  1860. 
She  lost  her  life  in  an  attempt  to  res- 
cue a  boy  from  drowning,  in  1885. 

Buloz,  Francois,  born  near  Ge- 
neva, Switzerland,  1803,  died  at  Paris 
in  1877 ;  founder  and  editor  of  the 
"  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,"  the  cele- 
brated French  fortnightly  literary 
magazine. 

Bulrush,  or  Bullrush,  called 
also  cat's  tail  or  reed  mace.  The  bul- 
rush of  Scripture  is  the  translation  of 
two  distinct  Hebrew  words,  agmon, 
possibly  an  arundo  or  some  similar 
genus,  in  Isa.  Iviii :  5,  and  gome,  evi- 
dently the  papyrus  nilotica  (Ex.  ii: 
3,  Isa.  xviii:  2). 

Bulthaupt,  Heinrich  Alfred, 
a  German  poet  and  dramatist,  born  in 
Bremen,  Oct.  26,  1849.  On  quitting 
the  university  he  was  for  a  while  a 
private  tutor ;  then  he  traveled  in  the 
East,  in  Greece,  and  in  Italy.  He 
was  a  lawyer  in  his  native  town  for 


Bnlwer 

some  years,  and  in  1879  became  cus- 
todian of  the  city  library.  Of  his 
dramatic  compositions  the  list  is  very 
long. 

Bulwer.  Henry  Lytton  Earle 
(Lord  Balling),  an  English  author 
and  diplomatist,  brother  of  Sir  Ed- 
ward Bulwer-Lytton,  born  Feb.  13, 
1801 ;  died  in  Naples,  May  23,  1872. 

Bui  wer-  Clayton  Treaty,  a 
treaty  negotiated  at  Washington,  D. 
C.,  in  April,  1850,  by  John  M.  Clay- 
ton, Secretary  of  State  under  Presi- 
dent Taylor,  and  Sir  Henry  Bulwer, 
British  Minister  to  the  United  States. 
The  treaty  provided  that  neither  the 
United  States  nor  Great  Britain 
should  attempt  to  control  a  proposed 
canal  across  Nicaragua.  The  treaty 
provided  further  for  the  neutrality 
of  the  canal,  and  it  guaranteed  en- 
couragement to  all  lines  of  inter- 
oceanic  communication.  The  terms 
of  the  treaty  were  afterward  much 
disputed.  On  March  3,  1899,  Con- 
gress passed  a  bill  providing  for  the 
construction  of  a  canal  on  the  Nica- 
ragua route,  which  also  authorized 
the  President  to  open  negotiations 
with  Great  Britain  for  the  abroga- 
tion of  the  Bulwer-Clayton  Treaty, 
and  under  the  last  clause  a  conven- 
tion between  the  two  countries,  abro- 
gating portions  of  the  treaty,  was 
signed  in  Washington,  Feb.  5,  1900. 

Bnlwer-Lytton.  See  LYTTON, 
EDWARD  GEORGE  EAELE. 

Bulyea,  George  Henry  Vicars, 
a  Canadian  official:  born  in  Gage- 
town,  N.  B.,  Feb.  17,  1859;  removed 
to  Qu'appelle  (in  the  former  Assini- 
boia  District,  N.  W.  T.);  became 
Commissioner  of  Yukon  Territory, 
Territorial  Secretary  and  Minister  of 
Agriculture,  and  the  first  lieutenant- 
governor  of  the  new  Province  of  Al- 
berta (1905). 

Bunce,  Oliver  Bell,  author  and 
editor,  born  New  York,  Feb.  8,  1828. 
He  edited  "  Appleton's  Journal,"  "  Pic- 
turesque America,"  "  Picturesque  Eu- 
rope," "Picturesque  Palestine,"  etc., 
and  wrote  "  Romance  of  the  Revolu- 
tion," "  Don't :  A  Manual  of  Mistakes 
and  Improprieties,"  "  My  House  :  An 
Ideal ;  "  a  novel,  and  plays.  He  died  at 
New  York,  May  15,  1890. 

Buncombe,  a  county  in  North 
Carolina.  The  term  bunkunu  mean- 


Bnnker  Hill 

ing  talking  for  talking's  sake,  bombas- 
tic speech  making,  is  said  to  have  orig- 
inated with  a  Congressional  member 
for  this  county,  who  declared  that  he 
was  only  talking  for  Buncombe  when 
attempts  were  made  to  cut  his  oratory 
short.  ' 

Bundesrath,  the  German  Federal 
Council  which  represents  the  individ- 
ual States  of  the  Empire,  as  the 
Reichstag  represents  the  German  na- 
tion. It  consisted  (1916)  of  61  mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  Governments 
of  the  individual  States  for  each  ses- 
sion, while  the  Reichstag  had  397 
members,  elected  by  popular  ballot. 
The  duration  of  the  legislative  period 
is  five  years.  The  Bundesrath  is  quite 
similar  to  the  United  States  Senate. 

Bungalow,  originally  a  kind  of 
house  erected  by  Europeans  in  India ; 
now  very  popular  in  the  United  States 
for  a  summer  residence. 

Bunion,  a  term  applied  in  surgery 
to  enlarged  bursae,  or  synovial  sacs, 
situated  on  any  part  of  the  foot.  In 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  bunions 
are  directly  produced  by  the  pressure 
of  badly  fitting  boots ;  and  if  the  boots 
are  constructed  of  patent  leather,  or 
any  material  which  stops  the  excret- 
ing action  of  the  skin,  this,  too,  may 
be  regarded  as  an  indirect  cause  of 
their  formation.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  tendency  to  suffer  from  bunions  is 
hereditary,  and  almost  irremediable. 
A  bunion  begins  as  a  painful  and  ten- 
der spot  at  some  point  exposed  to 
pressure ;  the  part  gradually  enlarges, 
and  there  are  indications  of  an  effu- 
sion into  a  natural  bursa  or  a  newly 
formed  sac.  The  disease  sometimes 
proves  so  troublesome  that  amputation 
of  the  toe,  or  excision  of  the  ends  of 
the  bones  affected,  has  been  resorted  to. 

Bunker  Hill,  an  eminence,  110 
feet  high,  in  the  Charlestown  district 
of  Boston,  Mass.,  connected  by  a  ridge 
with  another  elevation,  75  feet  high, 
named  Breed's  Hill.  These  heights 
are  memorable  as  being  the  seat  of  a 
battle,  June  17,  1775,  and  known  un- 
der the  name  of  Bunker  Hill.  The 
city  of  Boston  was  occupied  by  the 
British  under  General  Gage,  who  had 
resolved  to  begin  offensive  operations 
against  the  rebels.  This  design  be- 
coming known  in  the  American  camp, 
it  was  determined  to  seize  and  fortify 


Bunner 

the  heights  of  Charlestown  on  the 
night  of  June  16.  The  execution  of 
this  perilous  mission  was  confided  to 
Colonels  Prescott  and  Pepperell  at  the 
head  of  a  brigade  of  1,000  men ;  and 
at  dawn  of  day  a  strong  redoubt  was 
already  completed  on  Breed's  Hill. 
About  1,500  Americans  advanced  suc- 
cessively to  the  relief  of  Prescott,  and 
General  Warren  entered  the  redoubt 
as  a  volunteer,  refusing  the  command 
which  was  tendered  to  him.  At  about 
2.30  o'clock,  two  columns  of  the  Brit- 
ish advanced  to  a  simultaneous  as- 
sault; they  were  received  with  a  ter- 
rific fire,  and  twice  repulsed  in  disor- 
der. When  the  Americans  had  ex- 
hausted all  their  ammunition,  Prescott 
gave  the  order  for  retreat.  They  re- 
ceived a  destructive  volley  as  they  left 
the  redoubt,  and  Warren  fell,  shot 
through  the  head  with  a  bullet.  The 
retreat  was  harassed  by  a  raking  fire 
from  the  British  ships  and  batteries, 
but  there  was  no  pursuit  beyond 
Charlestown  Neck.  The  British  loss 
was  226  officers  and  men  killed,  and 
828  wounded ;  that  of  the  Americans 
145  killed  or  missing,  and  304 
wounded.  Although  a  defeat,  the 
moral  result  of  this  action  was  great. 
The  Americans  had  seen  superior  num- 
bers of  the  disciplined  soldiers  of  Eng- 
land retreat  before  their  fire,  and 
given  the  proof  that  they  were  able 
to  defend  their  liberties.  On  Breed's 
Hill,  and  near  the  spot  where  Warren 
fell,  stands  now  the  Bunker  Hill  Mon- 
ument, the  corner  stone  of  which  was 
laid  by  the  Marquis  de  Lafayette, 
June  17,  1825.  This  monument  was 
inaugurated  June  17,  1843.  It  con- 
sists of  a  plain  granite  shaft,  220  feet 
high,  31  feet  square  at  the  base,  and 
15  at  the  top.  The  monument  affords 
a  magnificent  panoramic  view  of  the 
surrounding  country. 

Bnnner,  Henry  Cuyler,  an 
American  poet  and  story  writer;  born 
in  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,  1855;  be- 
came a  journalist  in  1873,  and  was 
editor  of  "  Puck  "  from  shortly  after 
its  start  till  his  death.  He  died  in 
Nutley,  N.  J.,  May  11,  1896. 

Bunsen,  Christian  Karl  Josias, 
Chevalier,  a  distinguished  German 
statesman  and  philosopher;  born  in 
Korbach,  in  the  principality  of  Wai- 
deck,  Aug.  25,  1791;  died  in  Bonn, 
Nev.  28,  I860. 


Bunyan 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm  Zb- 
erhard,  a  German  chemist ;  born  in 
Gottingen,  March  31,  1811.  He  waa 
successively  professor  in  Cassel,  Mar- 
burg and  Heidelberg.  Among  his 
many  discoveries  and  inventions  are 
the  production  of  magnesium  in  quan- 
tities, magnesium  light,  spectrum 
analysis,  and  the  electric  pile  and  the 
burner  which  bear  his  name.  He  died 
in  Heidelberg,  Aug.  16,  1899. 

Bunsen  Battery,  a  modification 
of  the  Grove  battery,  plates  or  bars  of 
gas  coke  being  used  instead  of  plati- 
num. The  electromotive  force  is 
slightly  less  than  that  of  the  Grove 
battery. 

Bunsen's  Burner,  a  form  of  gas 
burner  especially  adapted  for  heating, 
consisting  of  a  tube,  in  which,  by 
means  of  holes  in  the  side,  the  gas 
becomes  mixed  with  air  before  con- 
sumption, so  that  it  gives  a  non-lumi- 
nous smokeless  name. 

Bnnt,  attacks  the  ears  of  wheat, 
completely  filling  the  grains  with  a 
black,  fetid  powder.  This  powder  is 
a  mass  of  spherical,  reticulated  spores, 
which,  when  crushed,  give  out  a  most 
disagreeable  smell.  It  was  formerly 
called  stinking  rust  Bread  made 
from  flour  containing  this  fungus  has 
a  disagreeable  flavor  and  a  dark  color. 
Such  flour,  however,  is  said  to  be 
sometimes  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
gingerbread,  the  molasses  effectually 
disguising  the  flavor.  The  presence  of 
bunt  is  readily  detected  by  the  micro- 
scope. 

Bunting,  the  popular  name  of  a 
number  of  insessorial  birds,  as  the 
common  bunting,  the  rice  bunting,  the 
Lapland,  snow,  black-headed,  yellow, 
cirl,  and  ortolan  buntings.  The  snow 
bunting  is  one  of  the  few  birds  which 
cheer  the  solitudes  of  the  Polar  re- 
gions. 

Bunting,  a  thin  woolen  stuff,  of 
which  the  colors  and  signals  of  a  ship 
are  usually  formed ;  hence  a  vessel's 
flags  collectively. 

Bunyan,  John,  author  of  the 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  was  the  son  of 
a  tinker,  and  was  born  in  the  village 
of  Elstow,  near  Bedford,  England,  in 
1628.  After  receiving  a  scanty  edu- 
cation, he  for  some  time  led  a  wander- 
ing life.  During  the  civil  war  he 
served  as  a  soldier,  most  probably  in 


"Buoy 

the  army  of  the  Parliament;  and  his 
wind  now  became  impressed  with  a 
deep  sense  of  religion.  This  reforma- 
tion in  his  life  was  powerfully  assisted 
by  the  piety  of  his  wife,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  1648  or  1649,  and  who  died 
some  seven  years  later.  He  joined  a 
Nonconformist  body  in  Bedford,  and 
at  length  in  1657  formally  undertook 
the  office  of  a  public  teacher  among 
them.  Acting  in  defiance  of  the  se- 
vere laws  enacted  against  dissenters 
from  the  Established  Church,  Bunyan 
was  arrested  on  Nov.  12,  1660,  and 
committed  for  trial  to  the  county  jail. 
He  was  indicted  at  the  quarter-sessions 
early  in  1601,  and  after  an  irregular 
trial  was  sentenced  to  three  months' 
imprisonment,  which  was  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  banishment  if  he  persisted  in 
his  determination  to  repeat  his  of- 
fense. He  could  not  be  induced  to 
moderate  his  zeal,  and  consequently 
though  not  banished,  he  lay  in  prison 
almost  continuously  till  1G72,  and 
was  again  imprisoned  in  1675  for  six 
months. 

To  this  confinement  he  owes  his  lit- 
erary fame,  for,  in  the  solitude  of  his 
cell,  his  ardent  imagination,  brooding 
over  the  mysteries  of  Christianity,  the 
miraculous  narratives  of  the  sacred 
Scripture,  and  the  visions  of  Jewish 
prophets,  gave  birth  to  that  admired 
religious  allegory,  the  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress "  —  a  work  which,  like 
"  Bobinson  Crusoe,"  has  remained  un- 
rivaled amid  a  host  of  imitators.  The 
first  edition  appeared  in  1678;  the 
second,  describing  the  journey  of 
Christian's  wife  and  children,  was 
published  in  1684.  His  "Holy  War 
made  by  Shaddai  upon  Diabolus " 
(1682),  his  other  religious  parables, 
and  his  devotional  tracts,  which  are 
numerous,  are  also  remarkable,  and 
many  of  them  valuable.  He  died  dur- 
ing a  visit  to  London,  Aug.  31,  1688. 

Buoy,  any  floating  body  employed 
to  point  out  the  particular  situation  of 
a  ship's  anchor,  a  shoal,  the  direction 
of  a  navigable  channel,  etc.  They  are 
made  of  wood,  or,  now,  more  com- 
monly of  wrought  iron  plates  riveted 
together  and  forming  hollow  cham- 
bers. They  are  generally  moored  by 
chains  to  the  bed  of  the  channel,  etc. 
They  are  of  various  shapes,  and  re- 
ceive corresponding  names ;  thus,  there 
are  the  can  buoy,  the  nun  buoy;  the 


Bnrchard 

bell,  mooring,  whistling,  etc.  buoys.  A 
life-buoy  is  one  intended  to  keep  a  per- 
son afloat. 

Burbage,  Richard,  a  noted  Eng- 
lish actor  and  contemporary  of  Shake- 
speare, b.  1567,  d.  1619. 

Burbank,  Lnther,  American  hor- 
ticulturist, b.  Lancaster.  Mass.,  Mar. 
7,  1849.  The  son  of  a  farmer,  he  be- 
came interested  in  plant  life  and 
earned  a  world-wide  reputation  on  the 
Burbank  Exposition  Farms  at  Santa 
Rosa,  Cal.,  in  new  developments 
through  cross-breeding.  He  originated 
the  plumcot,  a  new  fruit ;  a  white 
blackberry ;  new  apples ;  gold  and  pit- 
less  plums ;  a  new  potato ;  an  edible 
thornless  cactus  for  desert  travelers ; 
new  prunes,  roses,  violet-odored  lilies, 
etc.,  the  number  of  fruits  and  flowers 
which  he  improved  being  unequaled. 
In  1905  the  Carnegie  Institution 
granted  him  $10,000  yearly  for  10 
years  to  continue  his  work. 

Burbot,  or  Burbolt,  a  fish  of  thd 
cod  family,  shaped  like  au  eel. 

Bnrbridge,  Stephen  Gano,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Scott  county,  Ky.,  Aug.  19,  1831;  or- 
ganized for  the  Union  army  the  fa- 
mous 26th  Kentucky  Regiment,  which 
he  led  at  Shiloh;  led  the  charge  at 
Arkansas  Post  and  at  Port  Gibson, 
being  the  first  to  enter  each  of  these 
places;  retired  1865;  died  1894. 

Burch,  Charles  Summer,  an 
American  clergyman;  born  in  Pinck- 
uey,  Mich.,  June  30,  1854;  was  en- 
gaged for  several  years  in  editorial 
work;  ordered  deacon  in  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  1895,  and 
ordained  priest  in  1905;  and  in  1910 
was  elected  the  first  suffragan  bishop 
(for  New  York)  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  America. 

Bnrchard,  Samuel  Dickinson, 
an  American  Presbyterian  clergyman, 
born  in  Steuben,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  6,  1812 ; 
for  many  years  pastor  in  New  York 
city;  created  much  political  excitement 
throughout  the  United  States  by  an 
alliterative  characterization  of  the 
Democratic  Party  during  the  Presi- 
dential campaign  of  1884.  A  com- 
pany of  clergymen,  about  600  in  num- 
ber, called  on  James  G.  Blaine,  the 
Republican  candidate,  at  the  Fifth 
Avenue  Hotel,  New  York  city,  where 
Burchard  made  an  address,  in  which 


Burckhardt 

he  affirmed  that  the  antecedents  of  the 
Democracy  were  "  Rum,  Romanism, 
and  Rebellion."  He  died  in  Saratoga, 
N.  Y.,  Sept  25,  189L 

Bnrckliardt,  Joliann  Ludwig,  a 
Swiss  traveler,  born  in  Lausanne  in 
1784.  He  went  to  England  in  1806, 
and  undertook  a  journey  of  explora- 
tion to  the  interior  of  Africa  for  the 
African  Association.  He  started  in 
1809,  assuming  an  Oriental  name  and 
costume;  spent  some  time  in  Syria, 
thence  visited  Egypt  and  Nubia;  spent 
several  months  at  Mecca,  and  visited 
Medina ;  and,  after  a  short  stay  in 
Egypt,  died  at  Cairo  while  preparing 
for  his  African  journey,  in  1817. 

Burden,  Henry,  an  American  in- 
ventor, born  in  Dumblane,  Scotland, 
April  20,  1791;  was  brought  up  on  a 
farm,  and,  at  an  early  age,  showed 
his  inventive  genius  by  making  a  va- 
riety of  labor-saving  machinery,  in- 
cluding a  threshing  machine.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1819; 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultural implements ;  invented  an  im- 
proved plow;  the  first  cultivator  made 
in  this  country ;  machines  for  making 
horse  shoes  and  hook  headed  spikes 
used  on  railroads:  a  self-acting  ma- 
chine for  rolling  iron  into  bars ;  and 
a  new  machine  for  making  horse  shoes, 
which  received  a  rod  of  iron  and  turned 
out  completed  shoes  at  the  rate  of  60 
a  minute.  He  died  in  Troy,  N.  Y.. 
Jan.  19,  1871. 

Bnrdett,  Sir  Francis,  an  Eng- 
lish politician,  born  Jan.  25,  1770.  He 
sat  in  the  British  Parliament  for  40 
years,  as  a  Liberal  of  the  most  ultra 
type;  was  one  of  the  earliest  advo- 
cates of  Parliamentary  reform,  and 
suffered  bitter  persecutions  at  the 
hands  of  the  Tory  government  of  those 
times.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower  of  London  for  his  outspoken 
Liberalism,  fined  $5,000,  and  con- 
demned to  three  months'  further  im- 
prisonment in  the  King's  Bench.  He 
died  Jan.  23,  1844. 

Bnrdette,  Robert  Jones,  an 
American  journalist  and  humorist, 
born  in  Greensboro,  Pa.,  July  30, 
1844.  He  served  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  fam- 
ous for  humorous  newspaper  skits,  of 
rare  variety,  charm,  and  freshness. 
Licensed  as  a  Baptist  clergyman  in 
1887 ;  died  Nov.  19, 1914. 


Bureaucracy 

Burdett-Coutts  The  Right 
Hon.  Angela  Georgina,  Baron- 
ess, daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Bur- 
dett,  born  April  21,  1814.  In  1837. 
she  inherited  much  of  the  property  or 
her  grandfather,  Thomas  Coutts,  the 
banker,  on  the  death  of  his  widow, 
Miss  Mellon,  the  actress  once,  after- 
ward Duchess  of  St.  Albans.  Be- 
sides spending  large  sums  of  money  in 
building  and  endowing  churches  and 
schools,  she  endowed  the  three  colon- 
ial bishoprics  of  Cape  Town,  Adelaide, 
and  British  Columbia,  founded  an  es- 
tablishment in  South  Australia  for 
the  improvement  of  the  aborigines,  or- 
ganized the  Turkish  Compassionate 
Fund  (1877),  and  established  a  fish- 
ery school  at  the  Irish  village  of  Bal- 
timore (1887).  To  the  city  of  Lon- 
don she  presented,  besides  several 
handsome  fountains,  the  Columbia 
Market,  Bethnal  Green  (1870),  for 
the  supply  pf  fish  in  a  poor  district; 
she  also  built  Columbia  Square,  con- 
sisting of  model  dwellings  at  low  rents, 
for  about  300  families ;  and  the  Peo- 
ple's Palace  owes  much  to  her  gen- 
erosity. In  1871  she  accepted  a  peer- 
age. In  1881  she  was  married  to  Wil- 
liam Ashmead-Bartlett  (born  in 
1846),  who  in  1882  obtained  the  royal 
license  to  assume  her  name.  She  died 
in  London,  Dec.  30,  1906. 

Burdick,  Francis  Marion,  an 
American  jurist  and  legal  writer,  born 
in  De  Ruyter,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1,  1845. 
He  was  graduated  at  Hamilton  Col- 
lege in  1869  and  at  its  Law  School  in 
1872.  He  practiced  law  at  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  from  1872  to  1883,  and  was  later 
Professor  of  Law  at  Hamilton  College 
and  at  Cornell.  Since  1891,  he  has 
been  Professor  of  Law  at  Columbia. 
He  has  written  a  number  of  legal  text 
books. 

Bureau,  Jacques,  a  Canadian 
lawyer;  born  in  Three  Rivers,  P.  Q., 
July  9,  1SQO;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1882;  lived  in  Winnipeg  and 
Duluth,  Minn.  Member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Three  Rivers  and  St.  Maur- 
ice in  1900  and  1904;  became  Solic- 
itor-General of  Canada  in  1907. 

Bureaucracy,  government  by  de- 
partments of  State,  acting  with  some 
measure  of  independence  of  each 
other,  instead  of  government  by  tho 
heads  of  those  departments  acting  as 
a  cabinet  on  their  joint  responsibility. 


Burger 

Burger,    Gottfried    August,    a 

German  poet,  born  in  Molmerswende, 
Anhalt,  Dec.  31,  1747;  died  in  Got- 
tingen,  June  8,  1794. 

Burgess,  Edward,  an  American 
naval  architect,  born  in  West  Sand- 
wich, Mass.,  June  30,  1848.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard,  where  he  grad- 
uated in  1871,  and  became  secretary 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory. He  was  instructor  of  entomol- 
ogy at  Harvard. from  1879  to  1883. 
He  then  became  a  designer  of  sailing 
yachts.  In  1884  he  designed  the 
"  Puritan,"  the  winner  of  the  Amer- 
ica's Cup  in  1885;  and  a  year  later 
the  "  Mayflower"  the  winner  in  1886. 
He  died  in  Boston,  Mass.,  July  12, 
1891. 

Burgess,  James,  a  Scotch  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Kirkmahoe,  Dumfries- 
shire, Aug.  14,  1832.  He  went  to  In- 
dia in  1855  and  became  director-gen- 
eral of  archaeological  surveys  there. 

Burgess,  John  William,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Corners- 
ville,  Tenn.,  Aug.  26,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  Cumberland  University, 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and  at  Amherst.  He 
studied  law  and  began  its  practice  at 
Springfield  in  1869.  During  this  year 
he  was  appointed  Professor  of  English 
Literature  and  Political  Economy  at 
Knox  College.  Two  years  later,  he 
studied  abroad  at  Gottingen,  Leipsic, 
and  Berlin.  On  his  return,  he  be- 
came Professor  of  History  and  Polit- 
ical Science  at  Amherst,  and  in  1876 
Professor  of  History,  Political  Sci- 
ence and  International  Law  in  Colum- 
bia Univ.,  where  in  1890  he  attained 
the  deanship  of  the  faculty  of  Political 
Science.  In  1906-07,  he  was  the  first 
to  hold  the  "  Roosevelt  Professorship 
of  American  History  and  Institutions  " 
in  the  University  of  Berlin. 

Burgh,  the  same  as  borough.  In 
the  United  States  the  termination  bor- 
ough was  for  generations  added  to  the 
names  of  places,  as  in  England;  but, 
under  a  decision  of  the  United  States 
Board  on  Geographic  Names,  the  form 
is  now  boro,  as  Brattleboro. 

Burglary,  the  crime  of  breaking 
into  an  inhabited  house  by  night  with 
intention  of  committing  a  felony.  In 
the  United  States  burglary  is  pun- 
ished by  State  laws,  but  the  common 
law  is  generally  followed.  Some 
E.26. 


Burgoyae 

States  include  breaking  into  shops,  of- 
fices, warehouses,  factories,  and  meet- 
ing houses  as  burglary.  An  Act  of 
Congress  of  1825  expressly  includes 
breaking  into  boats  and  vessels  with 
intent  to  commit  a  felony.  In  some 
States  the  same  deed  done  in  the  day- 
time is  defined  as  burglary-  in  the  sec- 
ond degree.  The  night  is  the  time, 
between  one  hour  after  sunset  and  one 
hour  before  sunrise,  or  when  the  feat- 
ures of  a  man  cannot  be  clearly  dis- 
cerned. In  North  Carolina  burglary  is 
punishable  by  death,  but  the  usual 
penalty  is  a  long  term  of  imprison-  . 
ment. 

Bnrgkmair,  a  family  of  German 
artists  in  the  15th  and  16  centuries, 
the  best  known  of  whom  is  Hans,  born 
in  Augsburg  in  1472.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  in  1559. 

Burgos,  a  city  of  Northern  Spain, 
once  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Old  Castile,  and  now  the  chief  town 
of  the  Province  of  Burgos.  It  stands 
on  the  declivity  of  a  hill  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Arlanzon,  and  has  dark 
narrow  streets  full  of  ancient  archi- 
tecture but  there  are  also  fine  prom- 
enades in  the  modern  style.  The  ca- 
thedral, commenced  in  1221,  is  one  of 
the  finest  examples  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture in  Spain.  It  contains  the 
tombs  of  the  famous  Cid,  and  of  Don 
Fernando,  both  natives  of  Burgos, 
and  celebrated  throughout  Spain  for 
their  heroic  achievements  in  the  wars 
with  the  Moors.  Before  the  removal 
of  the  court  to  Madrid,  in  the  16th 
century,  Burgos  was  in  a  very  flour- 
ishing condition,  and  contained  thrice 
its  present  population  (in  1910,  31,- 
489).  The  Province  has  an  area  of 
5,480  square  miles,  largely  hilly  or 
mountainous,  but  with  good  agricul- 
tural land.  Pop.  (1914)  349,423. 

Burgoyne,  John,  an  English  gen- 
eral and  dramatic  author,  born  Feb. 
24,  1723.  After  having  served  with 
distinction  in  Portugal,  he  was  sent 
to  America  in  1775.  He  joined  Gen- 
eral Gage  at  Boston,  with  large  rein- 
forcements, and  witnessed  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill,  of  which  he  has  left 
an  animated  description.  After  pro- 
ceeding to  Canada  as  Governor,  he 
returned  to  England,  but  in  1777  was 
dispatched  to  take  command  of  that 
expedition  from  Canada  against  the 


Burgundy 

United  States,  the  failure  of  which  so 
largely  contributed  to  the  establisB- 
ment  of  American  freedom.  Few  bat- 
tles, indeed,  have  achieved,  in  their 
ultimate  influence,  results  so  great 
as  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne  with 
5,791  fighting  men,  well  provided  with 
artillery,  at  Saratoga,  to  the  army  of 
General  Gates.  He  died  in  London, 
Aug.  4,  1792. 

Burgundy,  a  region  of  Western 
Europe,  so  named  from  the  Burgun- 
dians,  a  Teutonic  or  Germanic  people 
originally  from  the  country  between 
the  Oder  and  the  Vistula.  Burgundy 
is  now  represented  by  the  four  De- 
partments of  Yonne,  Cote-d'Or,  Saone- 
et-Loire,  and  Ain.  It  is  watered  by  a 
number  of  navigable  rivers,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  productive  provinces  in 
France,  especially  of  wines. 

Burgundy  Wine,  the  finest  of  all 
the  French  wines,  the  produce  of  vines 
cultivated  in  the  Cote-d'Or,  a  portion 
of  the  ancient  Province  of  Burgundy. 

Burial,  the  most  general  method 
of  disposing  of  the  dead,  the  practice 
of  burning  them  on  a  funeral  pile, 
prevalent  to  a  limited  extent  among 
the  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and 
nearly  universal  among  the  Hindus, 
being  the  exception  and  not  the  rule. 
The  Egyptians,  and,  at  least  in  some 
special  cases,  the  Jews,  embalmed 
their  dead  (Gen.  I:  3,  26;  John  xix : 
39,  40).  In  Europe,  according  to  Sir 
John  Lubbock,  interments  in  which  the 
corpse  is  in  a  sitting  or  contracted 
posture  belong  to  the  stone  age,  and 
those  in  which  it  has  been  burned  and 
only  the  ashes  interred,  to  the  bronze 
age,  and  those  in  which  the  corpse 
lies  ^  extended,  presumably  to  the  age 
of  iron.  In  ancient  Peru,  however, 
and  some  other  parts  of  America  this 
form  of  interment  was  within  the  re- 
cent historic  period. 

Buriats,  a  nomadic  Tartar  people 
allied  to  the  Kalmucks,  inhabiting  the 
S.  part  of  the  government  of  Irkutsk 
and  Transbaikalia.  Their  number  is 
about  200,000.  They  live  in  huts 
called  yurts,  which,  in  summer,  are 
covered  with  leather,  in  winter  with 
felt. 

Buriti,  a  South  American  palm 
growing  to  the  height  of  100  to  150 
feet,  preferring  marshy  situations, 
and  bearing  an  imposing  crown  of  fan 


Bnrleson 

shaped  leaves.  A  sweet  vinous  liquor 
is  prepared  from  the  juice  of  the  stem, 
as  also  from  the  fruits. 

Burke,  Edmund,  a  British  orator 
and  statesman ;  born  in  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, Jan.  12,  1729.  The  first  speech 
of  Burke  in  Parliament  was  on  the 
Grenville  Stamp  Act ;  and  it  was  at 
his  advice  that  the  Rockingham  ad- 
ministration took  the  middle  and  un- 
decided course  of  repealing  the  act, 
and  passing  a  law  declaratory  of  the 
right  of  Great  Britain  to  tax  the 
American  colonies.  This  ministry  was 
soon  dissolved  to  make  room  for  a 
new  cabinet  under  Pitt.  He  opposed 
the  ministerial  measures  antecedent 
and  consequent  to  the  American  war; 
and  the  whole  powers  of  his  eloquence 
were  exerted  first  to  prevent,  and  then 
to  heal  the  fatal  breach  between  the 
mother  country  and  her  colonies.  In 
1774  he  was  chosen  member  for  Bris- 
tol, and  for  the  next  eight  years  Fox 
warmly  supported  him  in  his  opposi- 
tion to  Lord  North's  administration. 
In  1778  he  delivered  his  famous 
speech  against  the  employment  of  the 
Indians  in  the  American  war.  The 
last  great  act  of  his  Apolitical  life  was 
his  condemnation  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution. He  died  July  9,  1797. 

Burke,  John  Benjamin  Butler, 
Irish  scientist ;  scholar  and  gold  med- 
alist of  Trin.  Coll.,  Dublin ;  research 
degree,  Cambridge  Univ.,  1900;  in 
1905  demonstrated  spontaneous  gener- 
ation by  "  radiobe  "  cultures  showing 
growth  and  sub-division.  He  was  an- 
ticipated, in  1904,  by  Prof.  Dubois's 
radium,  and  also  barium,  "  eobes." 

Burke,  Robert  O'Hara,  an  Irish 
explorer ;  one  of  the  first  white  men 
to  cross  the  Australian  continent  from 
S.  to  N.,  was  born  at  St.  Cleram, 
County  Gal  way,  in  1820 ;  educated  in 
Belgium;  served  in  the  Austrian  army 
(1840),  became  captain,  joined  the 
Irish  constabulary  (1848),  and  emi- 
grated to  Australia  in  1853.  While 
inspector  of  police  in  Victoria  he  ac- 
cepted the  leadership  of  an  expedition 
for  crossing  the  Australian  continent. 
After  many  hardships,  Burke  and 
Wills  reached  the  tidal  waters  of  the 
Flinders  river.  He  died  of  starva- 
tion on  his  return  journey,  June  28, 
1861. 

Burleson,  Albert  Sidney,  an 
American  executive,  born  in  San 


Burlingame 

Marcos,  Tex.,  June  7,  1863  ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Texas  in 
1884;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1885; 
Representative  in  Congress  in  1899- 
1913  ;  re-elected  but  resigned  to  become 
Postmaster-General,  March  5,  1913. 

Burlingame,  Anson,  an  Ameri- 
can diplomatist,  born  in  New  Berlin, 
N.  Y.,  Nov.  14,  1822.  He  was  sent 
as  United  States  Minister  to  China  in 
1861,  and  on  his  retirement  from  this 
post,  in  1867,  he  was  requested  by 
the  Regent,  to  go  on  a  special  mission 
for  the  Government  to  foreign  courts. 
Died  in  St.  Petersburg,  Feb.  23,  1870. 

Burlingame,  Edward  Liver- 
more,  an  American  man  of  letters, 
born  in  Boston,  May  30,  1848.  He 
was  private  secretary  to  his  father, 
Anson  Burlingame;  after  1879  was 
associated  with  the  house  of  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons;  and  in  1886  became 
editor  of  "  Scribner's  Magazine." 

Burlington,  city  and  capital  of 
Chittenden  county,  Yt.;  on  Lake 
Champlain  and  the  Central  Vermont 
and  Rutland  railroads;  40  miles  N. 
W.  of  Montpelier;  has  exceptionally 
fine  scenic  environments,  a  commodi 
ous  harbor  protected  by  a  breakwater 
and  enhancing  its  value  a  port  of 
entry,  and  flour,  cotton,  saw,  and 
planing  mills,  and  machine  shops;  is 
the  seat  of  the  State  University  and 
the  State  Agricultural  College,  and 
the  see  of  a  Protestant  Episcopal 
and  a  Roman  Catholic;  bishop.  Pop. 
(1910)  20,463. 

Burlington,  city  and  capital  of 
Des  Moines  county,  la.;  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi river  and  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington &  Quincy  and  other  trunk 
line  railroads;  206  miles  W.  of  Chi- 
cago. It  is  in  a  noted  bituminous 
coal  region;  is  an  important  distrib- 
uting point  in  general  trade  and  es- 
pecially in  grain;  has  large  building 
and  paving  brick  plants,  a  consider- 
able output  of  steam  and  gas  engines, 
farming  machinery  and  implements, 
patent  medicines,  and  woolen  goods, 
ard  the  machine  shops  of  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  &  Quincy  railroad. 
Pop.  (1910)  23,234. 

Burma,  a  province  of  British 
India;  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal;  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
Siam,  the  Laos  territory,  and  China, 
and  on  the  N.  and  N.  W.  chiefly  by 


Burnaby 

Assam  and  other  parts  of  India.  At 
one  time  it  formed  the  greater  por- 
tion of  a  native  empire,  its  greatest 
length  being  about  1,200  miles,  and 
its  breadth  600;  its  area  being  then 
about  270,000  English  sq.  m.  In 
1826  Arracan  aud  Tenasserim,  in  1852 
Pegu  and  Martaban,  and  in  1886 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  was  an- 
nexed by  Great  Britain,  King  Thee- 
baw  deposed,  and  British  or  Lower 
Burma  and  Upper  Burma  united  in 
one  province  under  a  lieut.-gov.  The 
chief  towns  are  Mandalay,  cap.  Upper 
Burma;  Rangoon,  cap.  Lower  Burma; 
and  Moulmein.  Rice,  wheat  and  other 
grains,  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar  cane 
and  tea  are  cultivated,  the  famous 
ruby  mines  worked,  and  the  oil 
fields  exploited  by  the  American  Stand- 
,  ard  Oil  Co.  All  outside  oil  is  ex- 
i  eluded  by  law.t  Area  (1916)  230,839 
i  square  miles  ;  pop.  (1911)  12,115,217; 
1  capital  of  Lower  Burma,  Rangoon 
(pop.  293,316),  of  Upper  Burma, 
Mandalay  (pop.  138,299). 

Bnrmeister,  Hermann,  a  German 
scientific  writer,  born  in  Stralsund, 
Jan.  15,  1807 ;  distinguished  himself 
as  a  geologist  and  zoologist  in  his  na- 
tive country,  and  settled  permanently 
in  the  Argentine  Republic,  where  he 
continued  his  investigations.  He  died 
in  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, May  2,  1892, 

Bnrmeister,  Richard,  a  Ger- 
man-American musical  composer ; 
born  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  Dec.  7, 
1860;  received  an  academical  educa- 
tion in  Hamburg;  studied  with  Franz 
Liszt,  and  in  Rome,  Budapest,  and 
Weimar ;  made  concert  tours  in  Eu- 
in  1883-1885  and  in  the  winter  of 


1893;  was  at  the  head  of  the  piano 
department  of  Peabody  Institute,  Bal- 
timore, Md.,  in  1885-1897;  and  set- 
tled in  New  York  in  the  latter  year. 
He  made  concert  tours  all  over  the 
United  States  and  was  director  of  the 
Scharwenka  Conservatory,  New 
York,  in  1897-1899. 

Burnaby,  Frederick  Gustavus, 
soldier,  traveler,  and  author,  born 
in  Bedford,  England,  March  3,  1842; 
a  son  of  the  Rev.  G.  A.  Burnaby.  On 
Jan.  17,  1885,  while  serving  as  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  the  Royal  Horse 
Guards  in  the  Egyptian  campaign,  be 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Abu-Klea. 


Bnraand 


Burnley 


Bnmand,  Francis  Cowley,  an 
English  author  and  dramatist,  born 
Nov.  29,  1836.  He  was  editor  of 
"Punch"  in  1880-1906.  He  wrote 
the  libretto  for  Sullivan's  "  Chief- 
tain"  (1894). 

Burne-Jones,  Sir  Edward,  an 
English  painter,  born  in  Birmingham, 
Aug.  28,  1833;  died  in  London,  July 
17,  1898. 

Bnrnet,  Jacob,  an  American 
jurist,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  Feb.  22, 
1770.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1796, 
he  removed  to  Cincinnati,  then  a  vil- 
lage with  about  500  inhabitants,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  territorial  gov- 
ernment from  1799  till  the  establish- 
ment of  a  State  Government  in  1803. 
In  1821  he  was  appointed  Judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Ohio,  and  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  in  1828. 
Burnet  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences  upon  the 
recommendation  of  Lafayette.  He 
died  in  Cincinnati,  May  10,  1853. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  an 
Anglo-American  novelist,  born  in  Man- 
chester, England,  Nov.  24,  1849.  Her  j 
family  removed  to  Tennessee  in  1865. 
She  early  wrote  stories.  In  1873  Miss 
Hodgson  married  Dr.  Burnett,  from 
whom  she  obtained  a  divorce  in  1898, 
afterwards  marrying  Stephen  Town- 
send.  Her  most  successful  work  was 
"Little  Lord  Fauntleroy."  "The  Mak- 
ing of  a  Marchioness"  appeared  1901. 

Bnrney,  Charles,  an  English 
composer  and  writer  on  music;  born 
in  Shrewsbury,  England,  April  7, 
1726 ;  died  April  12,  1814. 

Bnrney,  Frances  (Madame 
d'Arblay),  an  English  novelist, 
daughter  of  Charles  Burney;  born  in 
King's  Lynn,  Norfolk,  June  13,  1752 ; 
died  in  Bath,  Jan.  6,  1840. 

Bnrnham,  Clara  Louise,  an 
American  story  writer,  born  in  New- 
ton, Mass.,  May  25,  1854.  She  is  the 
daughter  of  George  F.  Root,  and  has 
lived  in  Chicago  since  childhood.  She 
has  written  several  novels,  and  has 
also  written  libretti  for  her  father's 
cantatas. 

Bnrnhant,  Daniel  Hudson,  an 
American  architect,  born  in  Hender- 
son, N.  Y.,  Sept  4,  1846.  He  studied 
architecture  in  Chicago  and  designed 
notable  structures  there,  including  the 
Rookery,  Calumet  Club,  the  Temple, 


Masonic  Temple,  the  Great  Northern 
Hotel,  etc.  He  was  Director  of  Works 
at  the  Chicago  World's  Fair.  He  died 
June  1,  1912. 

Bnrnham,  Sherbnrne  Wesley, 
an  American  astronomer,  born  in 
Thetford,  Vt,  in  1838.  He  took  up 
astronomy  as  an  amateur,  and,  in 
1876,  became  connected  with  the  Chi- 
cago Observatory,  and  later  with  the 
Lick  Observatory,  receiving  also  an 
appointment  as  Professor  of  Practical 
Astronomy  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago. He  has  made  notable  discover- 
ies of  double  stars,  having  catalogued 
1,274  new  ones. 

Burning,  a  mode  of  capital  pun- 
ishment formerly  common  in  civilized 
countries. 

In  metal  working,  joining  metals  by 
melting  their  adjacent  edges,  or 
heating  the  adjacent  edges  and  run- 
ning into  the  intermediate  space  some 
molten  metal  of  the  same  kind.  la 
ceramics,  the  final  heating  of  clay 
ware,  which  changes  it  from  the  dried 
or  biscuited  condition  to  the  perfect 
ware.  The  glaze  or  enamel  is  ap- 
plied to  the  baked  ware,  and  is  vitri- 
fied in  the  burning. 

Burning  Glass,  a  convex  lens  of 
large  size  and  short  focus,  used  for 
causing  an  intense  heat  by  concen- 
trating the  sun's  rays  on  a  very  small 
area.  The  larger  the  circular  area 
of  the  lens  and  the  smaller  the  area 
of  the  spot  on  which  the  concentrated 
rays  fall,  the  greater  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced. Concave  mirrors  have  been 
used  for  similar  purposes,  and  are 
also  called  burning  glasses.  Their 
power  was  known  to  Archimedes,  and 
it  is  mythically  stated  that  by  their 
aid  he  burned  a  fleet  in  the  harbor  of 
Syracuse,  214  B.  C. 

Burnisher,  a  tool  for  smoothing 
or  pressing  down  surfaces  to  close  the 
pores  or  obliterate  lines  or  marks. 
The  engraver's  burnisher  is  made  of 
steel,  elliptical  in  cross  section,  and 
coming  to  a  dull  point  like  a  probe. 
Some  burnishers  are  made  of  the  ca- 
nine teeth  of  dogs.  Burnishers  of 
bloodstone  are  used  for  putting  gold 
leaf  on  china  ware.  Agate  burnishers 
are  used  by  bookbinders.  The  gilder's 
burnisher  is  of  agate  or  porphyry. 

Burnley,  a  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in  Lan- 


Burns 


Burnside 


cashire,    about  22  miles   N.   of  Man- 
chester.      It   presents   a   modern   ap- 
pearance, and  is,  generally  speaking, 
well  built,  mostly  of  stone.     The  sta- 
ple manufacture  is  cotton  goods,  and 
there  are  large  cotton  mills  and  sev-  i 
eral  extensive  foundries  and  machine  • 
shops,  with  collieries  and  other  works, 
in     the     immediate     vicinity.       Pop. 
(1911)  106,322. 

Burns,  Alexander,  a  Canadian 
educator,  born  in  Castlewellan,  Ire- 
land, Aug.  12,  1834.  He  went  to  Can- 
ada in  1847,  and  was  graduated  at 
Victoria  College,  Toronto,  in  1861, 
joining  the  Methodist  Church.  Frem 
1868  to  1878  he  was  President  ef 
Wesleyan  Ladies'  College,  Hamilton, 
Ontario.  He  was  tried  for  heresy  by 
the  Ontario  Methodist  Conference  in 
1882,  but  acquitted.  He  died  May  22, 
1900. 

Burns,      Anthony,      a      fugitive 
slave,  born  in  Virginia  in  1836;  ar- 
rested in  Boston   in   1854,  under   the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law.     An  indignation 
meeting,    in    which    Theodore    Parker 
and  Wendell  Phillips  participated,  was 
held  in  Faneuil  Hall,  while  a  prema- 
ture and  unsuccessful  attempt  to  res- 
cue Burns   under    the    leadership   of 
Thomas    W.    Higginson    resulted    in  j 
bloodshed  and  the  death  of  one  of  the  ; 
deputies.     When    the    courts    decided  j 
that  the  extradition  was  legal,  Burns ! 
was  escorted  by  a  strong  guard  to  a 
revenue  cutter,  and  a  riot  was  barely 
averted.       Burns  afterward  regained 
his  liberty,  studied  at  Oberlin  College, 
and  became  a  Baptist  minister  in  Can- 
ada.    He  died  in  St.  Catherine,  Can- 
ada, July  27,  1862. 

Burns,  John,  an  English  labor 
organizer  and  Socialist  leader,  born 
in  London  in  1858.  He  was  of  hum- 
ble birth  and  became  a  factory  boy  at 
the  age  of  10.  By  working  a  year  as 
engineer  on  the  Niger  river,  he  earned 
enough  for  a  six  months'  tour  of  Eu- 
rope. He  constantly  addressed  audi- 
ences of  workmen,  and  in  1887  was 
imprisoned  for  maintaining  the  right 
of  public  meeting  in  Trafalgar  Square. 
In  1892  he  was  elected  to  the  London 
County  Council,  and  to  Parliament 
from  Battersea,  and  in  1905-06  be- 
came a  member  of  the  British  Cabinet 
AS  President  of  the  Local  Government 
Board. 


Burns,  Robert,  Scotland's  na- 
tional poet ;  born  in  a  clay-built  cot- 
tage less  than  2  miles  S.  of  the  town 
of  Ayr,  and  not  far  from  the  river 
Doon,  Jan.  25,  1759.  His  father,  Wil- 
liam Burness  (for  so  the  name  was 
originally  spelled),  the  son  of  a  Kin- 
cardineshire  farmer,  and  a  worthy  and 
intelligent  man,  at  the  time  of  the 
poet's  birth  occupied  a  few  acres  of 
land,  and  acted  as  gardener  and  over- 
seer for  a  neighboring  gentleman. 
His  mother,  Agnes  Brown,  belonged  to 
Ayrshire.  He  died  at  Dumfries,  Scot- 
land, July  21,  1796.  His  fame  has  in- 
creased as  years  go  on,  and  his  birth- 
day is  honored  everywhere  throughout 
the  civilized  world,  while  the  poems 
for  which  he  was  glad  to  accept  a  few 
pounds  have  brought  vast  sums  to 
booksellers. 

Burns  and  Scalds,  injuries  pro- 
duced by  the  application  of  excessive 
heat  to  the  human  body.  They  are 
generally  dangerous  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  surface  they  cover,  and 
a  widespread  scald  may  cause  serious 
consequences  on  account  of  the  nervous 
shock. 

Bnrnside,  Ambrose  Everett,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  Lib- 
erty, Ind.,  May  23,  1824;  served  an 
apprenticeship  to  a  tailor,  but  re- 
ceived a  nomination  to  West  Point, 
where  he  graduated  in  1847.  He  left 
the  army  as  First  Lieutenant  in  1852, 
but  returned  as  Colonel  of  Volunteers 
in  1861,  commanded  a  brigade  at  Bull 
Run,  and,  in  February,  1862,  cap- 
tured Roanoke  Island.  Having  ren- 
dered important  services  at  South 
Mountain  and  Antietam,  he,  in  No- 
vember, reluctantly  superseded  Gen- 
eral McClellan.  On  December  13,  he 
crossed  the  Rappahannock,  and  at- 
tacked General  Lee  near  Fredericks- 
burg,  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of 
over  10,000  men,  and  was  soon  after 
transferred  to  the  Department  of 
Ohio.  In  November,  1863,  he  success- 
fully held  Knoxville  against  a  superior 
force  and,  in  1864  he  led  a  corps,  un- 
der General  Grant,  through  the  battles 
of  the  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor. 
Resigning  in  April,  1865,  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Rhode  Island 
(1866-1868),  and  United  States  Sen- 
ator in  1875  and  1881.  He  died  in 
Bristol,  R.  I.,  Sept.  13.  1881.  Al- 
though unsuccessful  in  high  command 


Burnt  Offering 

he  gained  universal  esteem  by  his 
frankness  in  avowing  responsibility 
for  defeat. 

Burnt  Offering,  one  of  the  sacri- 
fices divinely  enjoined  on  the  Hebrew 
Church  and  nation.  It  is  called,  in 
their  language,  olah,  from  the  root 
alah  =  to  ascend,  because,  being 
wholly  consumed,  all  but  the  refuse 
ashes  was  regarded  as  ascending  in 
the  smoke  to  God. 

Burr,  Aaron,  an  American  states- 
man, and  third  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  born  in  Newark,  N.  J., 
Feb.  5,  1756.  While  in  his  20th  year 
he  joined,  in  1775,  the  American  army, 
under  Washington,  at  Cambridge.  His 
ardor  in  behalf  of  the  Revolutionary 
cause  was  such  that  he  was  induced  to 
join  Arnold  as  a  volunteer  in  the  ex- 
pedition against  Quebec,  and  he  was 
appointed  aide-de-camp  to  Montgom- 
ery. In  1776,  he  was  received  by 
General  Washington  as  one  of  his  mili- 
tary family,  but  was  soon  cast  off.  He 
never  forgave  Washington  this  act. 
Burr's  military  talents  secured  for  him 
the  post  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  in 
1777,  which  he  retained  until  1779. 
Upon  Burr's  retirement  from  military 
life  he  resumed  the  study  of  law,  and 
commenced  its  practice  in  Albany  in 
1782,  but  soon  removed  to  New  York. 
In  1789  he  was  made  attorney-general 
of  New  York.  From  1791  to  1797  he 
was  a  member  of  the  United  States 
Senate.  In  1800  he  was  a  candidate 
for  the  Presidency,  and  received  the 
same  number  of  votes  as  Thomas  Jef- 
ferson (79),  and  the  choice  was  thus 
left  to  the  decision  of  Congress,  which, 
on  the  36th  ballot,  elected  Jefferson  as 
President  and  Burr  as  Vice-President. 
In  1804  was  fought  the  famous  duel 
between-  Alexander  Hamilton  and 
Burr,  in  which  the  former  was  killed. 
In  1807  he  was  apprehended,  taken  to 
Richmond,  Va.,  and  tried  on  a  charge 
of  a  treasonable  design  upon  the  south- 
west, but  was  acquitted.  He  resumed 
the  practice  of  law,  but  lived  in  com- 
parative obscurity  until  his  death  on 
Staten  Island,  Sept.  14,  1836.  In  his 
later  life  he  was  for  a  time  husband 
of  the  noted  Madame  Jumel. 

Burr,  Edward,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer:  born  in  Booneville,  Mo., 
May  19,  1859;  was  a  student  in 
Washington  University  in  1874-1878, 
and  at  the  United  States  Military 


BurriU 

Academy  in  1878-1882,  and  was  grad- 
uated at  the  latter  and  assigned  to  the 
corps  of  engineers  with  the  rank  of  2d 
lieutenant  in  the  latter  year.  He  was 
promoted  1st  lieutenant  in  1883,  and 
captain  in  1894 ;  and  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  volunteers  commanded  the 
battalion  of  engineers  in  the  campaign 
against  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  June- 
July,  1898.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Burr,  Enoch.  Fitch,  an  American 
mathematical  and  religious  writer, 
born  in  Green's  Farms,  Fairfield  co., 
Conn.,  Oct.  21,  1818.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  in  1839,  and  became 
pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church 
iu  Lyme,  Conn.,  "in  1850.  After  1868 
he  was  a  lecturer  at.  Amherst  Col- 
lege. He  died  in  1907. 

Burr,  George  Lincoln,  an  Amer- 
ican historian,  born  in  Oramel,  N.  Y., 
Jan.  30,  1857.  He  was  graduated  at 
Cornell  in  1881  and  entered  its  facul- 
ty in  18S8,  being  Professor  of  Ancient 
and  Mediaevaj  History  there.  He  was 
Expert  in  History  to  the  Venezuelan 
Boundary  Commission  (1896-1897). 

Burr,      "William      Hubert,      an 
American   educator ;    born   in    Water- 
loo, Conn.,  July  14,  1851 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute in   1872;   was  employed  by   the 
Wrought    Iron    Bridge    Co.,    of    New 
|  York  city  and  later  on  the  water  sup- 
i  ply  and  sewerage  system  of  Newark, 
N.  J. ;    was  Assistant   Professor,  and 
i  later  Professor  of  Rational  and  Tech- 
nical  Mechanics  at   Rensselaer   Poly- 
technic   Institute    in    1876- 1884;    be- 
came assistant  engineer  of  the  Phoenix 
Bridge  Co.,  in  1884,  and  subsequently 
I  its  general  manager ;  was  Professor  of 
Engineering   in   the   Lawrence   Scier 
|  tific  School  of  Harvard  University 
1 1892-1893;  consulting  engineer  to  the 
New  York  city  department  of  public 
1  works  in  1893-1895,  of  parks  and  of 
1  docks    in    1895-1897;    and    later 
bridges. 

Burrill,  Thomas  Jonathan,  ar 
I  American   naturalist ;    born   in    Pitts- 
field,  Mass.,  April  25,  1839;  was  grad- 
:  uated  at   the  Illinois    State  .Normal 
i  University  in  1865;  became  Professor 
of  Botany  and   Horticulture  there  in 
1868,  and  its  vice-president  in  1882; 
was  dean  of  the  Department  of  Na- 
tural Sciences  in  1877-1894,  and  act- 
ing president  in  1891-1894. 


Burritt 


Bushel 


Burritt,  Elihu,  an  American  au- 
thor, called  the  "  Learned  Black- 
smith," born  in  New  Britain,  Conn., 
Dec.  8,  1811.  He  was  a  blacksmith, 
linguist,  lecturer,  reformer  and  a  noted 
advocate  of  peace.  He  died  in  New 
Britain,  March  7,  1879. 

Burritt  College,  a  co-educational 
institution,  in  Spencer,  Tenn. ;  organ- 
ized in  1848,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

Burroughs,  George,  an  American 
clergjman,  born  in  1650;  was  exe- 
cuted for  witchcraft,  at  Salem,  Mass., 
Aug.  19,  1692.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1670,  and  preached  in 
Salem  in  1680.  He  was  accused  of 
bewitching  Mary  Wolcott  and  others 
by  wicked  arts  and  condemned  on  the 
evidence  of  the  afflicted  persons.  At 
his  execution  he  repeated  without  mis- 
take the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  a  witch 
was  said  to  be  unable  to  do.  Cotton 
Mather  witnessed  his  execution. 

Btirrpughs,  George  Stockton, 
an  American  educator  ;  born  in  Water- 
loo, N.  Y.,  Jan.  6,  1855 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  University  in  1873, 
and  at  its  Theological  Seminary  in 
1877 ;  removed  to  New  England  in 
1880 ;  and  served  in  the  ministry  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Fairfield 
and  New  Britain,  Conn. ;  and  at  Am- 
herst  College ;  was  Professor  of  Bibli- 
cal Literature  in  1886-1892 ;  president 
of  Wabash  College,  Crawfordsville, 
Ind.,  in  1892-1899;  and  became  Pro- 
fessor of  Old  Testament  Language  and 
Literature  in  Oberlin  Theological 
Seminary  in  1899.  He  died  in  1901. 

Burroughs,  John,  an  American 
essayist  and  descriptive  writer ;  born 
in  Roxbury,  N.  Y.,  April  3,  1837.  He 
taught  school  for  about  eight  years, 
was  for  a  time  a  journalist  and  then 
became  a  clerk  in  the  Treasury  De- 
partment and  subsequently  a  national 
bank  examiner.  He  settled  on  a  farm 
in  New  York  State  and  has  since  de- 
voted himself  to  fruit  culture,  nature 
study  and  literature.  Many  of  his 
papers  were  written  in  his  bark  cov- 
ered study  to  which  he  has  given  the 
name  "  Riverby,"  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson. 

Burro-wing  Owl.  In  the  West 
Indies  these  birds  dig  burrows  for 
themselves,  in  which  they  form  their 
nests  and  deposit  their  eggs,  while  in 


the  western  part  of  the  United  States 
they  occupy  the  holes  of  the  prairie 
dogs  jointly  with  the  dogs. 

Burrows,  William,  an  American 
naval  officer,  born  near  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Oct.  6,  1785.  He  commanded 
the  "  Enterprise "  in  its  successful 
action  with  the  British  "  Boxer "  off 
the  coast  of  Maine.  Both  com- 
manders were  killed  in  the  fight, 
Sept.  5,  1813,  and  were  buried  side 
by  side  at  Portland. 

Burt,  Thomas,  an  English  labor 
leader,  born  in  Northumberland,  Nov. 
12,  1837.  Since  1874  he  has  had  a 
seat  in  Parliament  as  a  Liberal. 

Burton,  Marion  LeTtoy,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  Brook- 
lyn, la.,  Aug.  30,  1874;  was  ordained 
to  the  Congregational  ministry  in 
1905;  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the 
Pilgrims,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  in  1908- 
1909;  became  president  of  Smith 
College  (Mass.)  in  1910. 

Burton,    Sir   Richard  Francis, 

an  English  traveler,  linguist,  and 
author ;  born  in  Barham  House,  Her- 
fordshire,  March  19,  1821;  died  in 
Trieste,  Oct.  20,  1890. 

Burn,  or  Boeroe,  an  island  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  in  the  Residency 
of  Amboyna,  from  which  it  lies  about 
40  miles  to  the  W.  Area,  with  the 
small  island  of  Amblau,  3,360  square 
miles ;  population  variously  estimated 
at  from  10,000  to  50,000. 

Burying  Beetles.  They  receive 
their  name  from  a  practice  they  have 
of  burying  the  carcasses  of  moles,  mice 
or  other  small  quadrupeds  to  afford 
nutriment  to  their  larvae. 

Busaco,  a  ridsre  (1,826  feet)  on 
the  N.  side  of  the  river  Mondego,  in 
the  Portuguese  Province  of  Beira,  16 
miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Coimbra.  Here 
Wellington,  with  40,000  British  and 
Portuguese  troops,  renulsed  the  attack 
of  Massena  with  65,000  French,  Sept. 
27,  1810. 

Bnsh  Antelope,  also  called  BUSH 
BUCK,  and  BUSH  GOAT,  names 
common  to  a  number  of  species  of  AN- 
TELOPE, natives  chiefly  of  the  Southern 
and  Western  parts  of  Africa. 

Bushel,  a  measure  of  capacity  used 
for  corn ;  or  what  is  called  dry  meas- 
ure. It  contains  32  quarts,  8  gallons, 
or  4  pecks. 


Buskire 


Butler 


Bushire,  or  Abushehr,    ("father) 
of  cities,"  also  variously  written  Bush^ 
ahr;  in  Persian,  Bendershehr),  a  prin- 
cipal port  of  Persia,  on  a  sandy  penin-  j 
sula  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  in  the  Province  of  Fars.     Pop.  j 
27,000,    chiefly    Persians,   Arabs,   and  | 
Armenians. 

Bushmen,     a     nomadic     race     of 
Africa.     They  are  a  thin,  wiry  people, 
poor  and  debased  near  the  coast,  but 
greatly  improved  further  inland.  They 
recognize  no  king  or  chief,  build  no 
houses,  have  no  cattle  or  goats,  do  not  • 
till  the  soil,  and  wear  skins  for  cloth- 
ing.    Their    language    has    a    rough, , 
clicking  sound,  and  they  resemble  the  j 
Hottentots. 

Bushnell,  Horace,  an  American 
clergyman  and  noted  writer  on  reli- 
gion, morality  and  other  topics;  born 
near  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in  1802;  died 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Feb.  17,  1876. 

Bushrangers,  in  Australia,  orig- 
inally convicts  from  the  English  penal 
stations  who  took  to  the  bush  and 
became  robbers.  The  thickly  wooded 
mountainous  districts  afforded  them 
protection,  and  they  soon  established 
a  reign  of  terror.  They  became  so 
strong  that  the  government  had  to 
adopt  the  most  stringent  measures  to 
suppress  them. 

Bnsiris,  a  town  of  ancient  Egypt, 
in  the  Delta,  the  chief  place  where  the 
rites  of  Isis  were  celebrated.  The  name 
is  also  given  as  that  of  a  mythical 
Egyptian  King. 

Bussu  Palm,  a  palm  growing  in 
the  tidal  swamps  of  the  Amazon.  The 
stem  is  only  10  to  15  feet  high;  but 
the  immense,  undivided,  coarsely  ser- 
rate leaves  are  often  35  feet  in  length 
by  4  or  5  in  width.  The  leaves  make 
excellent  and  durable  thatch.  The 
spathe  is  made  into  bags,  caps,  and 
coarse  cloth. 

Bust,  in  sculpture,  the  representa- 
tion of  that  portion  of  the  human  fig- 
ure which  comprises  the  head  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  body. 

Bustamante,  Anastasio,  a  Mexi- 
can statesman  and  revolutionist,  born 
in  Jiquilpan,  Michoacan,  July  27, 
1780.  In  1837  he  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Mexico.  In  1842  he  was 
obliged  to  retire  from  the  Presidency, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Santa  Ana.  He 
served  in  the  Mexican  army  in  the  war 


with  the  United  States,  retiring  from 
military  service  in  1848.  He  died  in 
San  Miguel  de  Allende,  Feb.  6,  1853. 

Bustamante,  Carlos  Maria,  a 
Mexican  statesman  and  historical 
writer,  born  in  Mexico  City  in  1774. 
He  studied  law  and  in  1801  began  its 
practice.  In  1805  he  became  editor 
of  the  "  Diario  de  Mejico."  He  held  a 
command  under  Morelos  in  1812,  and 
was  captured  at  Vera  Cruz.  He  was 
released,  and  became  a  member  of 
Congress  and  held  other  public  offices. 
He  published  a  history  of  the  Mexican 
Revolution,  and  histories  of  the  times 
of  Iturbide  and  of  Santa  Ana.  He 
died  in  Mexico  City,  Sept.  21,  1848. 

Bustard,  the  name  of  a  genus  of 
European  birds. 

Butler,  borough  and  capital  of 
Butler  county,  Pa.;  on  the  Cone- 
quenessing  creek  and  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  other  railroads;  26  miles 
N.  of  Pittsburg;  is  in  a  natural  gas, 
oil,  coal,  and  iron  region;  and  manu- 
factures woolen  and  silk  goods,  plate 
glass,  oil-well  machinery,  and  steel 
cars.  Pop.  (1910)  20,728. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
American  lawyer  and  soldier,  born  in 
Deerfield,  N.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818 ;  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1841,  and  became  distinguished  as  a 
criminal  lawyer  and  politician.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature 
in  1853,  of  the  State  Senate  in  185&- 
1860.  Butler  had  risen  to  the  rank 
of  Brigadier-General  of  militia ;  and, 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he 
marched  with  the  8th  Massachusetts 
Regiment,  and,  after  a  check  at  Big 
Bethel,  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  Baltimore  and  of  Eastern  Virginia, 
with  his  headquarters  at  Fort  Mon- 
roe. In  February,  1862,  he  com- 
manded the  military  forces  sent  from 
Boston  to  Ship  Island,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi ;  and,  after  New  Or- 
leans had  surrendered  to  the  naval 
forces  under  Farragut,  he  held  mili- 
tary possession  of  the  city.  Relieved 
of  his  command,  he  acted  under  Gen. 
Grant  in  his  operations  against  Peters- 
burg and  Richmond  in  1865.  Return- 
ing to  Massachusetts  at  the  end  of  the 
war,  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics 
as  an  extreme  radical,  advocated  the 
impeachment  of  President  Johnson, 
and  in  1866-1875  was  a  member  of 


Butler 


Butter 


Congress.  In  1877  and  1879  he  waa 
defeated  as  a  candidate  for  Governor 
of  Massachusetts,  but  in  1882  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority.  In  1884 
he  ran  for  the  Presidency  as  the  can- 
didate of  the  Greenback  and  Anti- 
Monopolist  Parties,  but  carried  no 
State.  He  died  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
Jan.  11,  1893. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  an 
'American  lawyer,  born  in  Kinderhook 
Landing,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  17,  1795.  From 
1821  to  1825  he  was  district-attorney 
of  Albany  county.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Assembly  in  1828,  and  from  1834 
to  1838  was  United  States  Attorney- 
General.  He  was  also  acting  Secre- 
tary of  War  during  part  of  Jackson's 
administration.  He  died  in  Paris, 
France,  Nov.  8,  1858. 

Butler,  John,  a  royalist  leader 
in  the  American  Revolution,  born  in 
Connecticut;  died  in  Niagara  in  1794. 

Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  edu- 
cator, b.  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  April  2, 
1862.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
Univ.,  1882,  studied  in  Berlin  and 
Paris ;  from  1885  was  assistant,  tutor, 
professor,  and  dean  in  the  faculty  of 
philosophy,  and  in  1902  became  Pres. 
of  Columbia  Univ.  In  1917  he  became 
actively  identified  with  various  war 
relief  measures. 

Butler,  Matthew  Calbraith, 
soldier  and  statesman,  b.  near  Green- 
ville, S.  C.,  Mar.  8,  1836.  He  became 
a  lawyer  1857;  served  as  a  Con- 
federate in  the  Civil  War;  rose  to 
Maj.-Gen.;  lost  his  right  leg  in  battle; 
was  U.  S.  Senator  1877-95;  Maj.-Gen. 
of  Volunteers  in  the  Spanish  War 
and  Commissioner  on  Cuban  Evacua- 
tion. He  died  April  4,  1909. 

Butler,  William,  an  American 
army  officer,  born  in  Prince  William 
county,  Va.,  in  1759.  He  served  in 
the  Revolution  in  Pulaski's  corps ;  af- 
terward, under  Pickens,  Lee,  and 
Greene;  won  fame  as  commander  of 
the  Mounted  Rangers ;  and,  after  the 
war,  became  (1796)  Major-General  of 
militia.  He  died  in  Columbia,  S.  C., 
Nov.  15,  1821. 

Butler,  William  Orlando,  an 
American  army  officer  and  politician, 
born  in  Kentucky  in  1793.  He  served 
in  the  War  of  1812  and  in  the  Mexi- 
can War,  and  became  a  Major-Gen- 
eral in  1846.  He  was  the  unsuccess- 


ful Democratic  candidate  for  Vice- 
President  in  1848.  He  died  in  Car- 
rollton,  Ky.,  Aug.  6,  1880. 

Butler,  Zebulon,  an  American 
military  officer,  born  in  Lyme,  Conn., 
in  1731.  He  served  in  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  and  commanded  the  gar- 
rison at  Wyoming  Valley  at  the  time 
of  the  massacre  of  July  3,  1778.  He 
died  in  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.,  July  28, 
1795. 

Butler  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional (non-sectarian)  institution,  in 
Irviugton,  Ind. ;  organized  in  1855. 

Butt,  Isaac, an  Irish  patriot;  the 
first  to  make  political  use  of  the 
phrase  "  Home  Rule."  He  died  May 
5,  1879. 

Butte,  a  French  word  used  in  the 
United  States  for  an  abrupt,  and  usu- 
ally isolated,  eminence,  sometimes  ap- 
pearing in  the  form  of  a  lofty  turret. 
They  occur  in  picturesque  grandeur 
along  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  river 
in  Oregon,  and  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Butte,  Mont. 

Bntte,   a   city   and  county-seat  of 
Silverbow  co.,    Mont.,   is   the   largest 
mining  town  in  the  world,  employing 
!  over   10,000  persons  in  this   industry 
alone,  which  is  principally  confined  to 
copper  mining,  although  there  are  val- 
i  uable  gold  and  silver  mines.  The  Ana- 
conda copper  mines  are  located  here. 
Pop.   (1900)   30,470;   (1910)   39,165. 

Butter,  a  fatty  substance  obtained 
from     milk.     Although     occasionally 
I  made  from  the  milk  of  goats,  buffa- 
loes, etc.,  it  is  commonly  made  from 
cow's  milk.     It  was  used  by  the  an- 
cients as  a  fuel  or  as  an  ointment  or 
hair  dressing,  but  is  now  used  almost 
;  wholly  as  a  food. 

The  great  butter  making  countries 

of  the  world  are   the   United   States, 

Denmark,    Sweden,   Russia,    Northern 

|  France,   Germany,   England   and  Ire- 

I  land,  and,  in  recent   years,  Australia 

I  must  be  added   to  the  list.     England 

I  imports  large  quantities  from  Canada, 

;  the  United  States,   and  Denmark,   as 

I  well  as  from  Australia.     The  United 

States  is  an  exporting  country.     The 

Southern    countries    make    much    less 

butter    and    consume    less    than    the 

Northern    countries.     In    the    South, 

j  oils,  such  as  olive  oil,  take,  to  a  con- 

i  siderable  extent,  the  place  of  butter, 


Buttercup  

and,  among  the  poorer  classes,  butter 
is  an  almost  unknown  article  of  diet. 

The  term  butter  has  been  occasion- 
ally applied  to  other  substances.  Cer- 
tain vegetable  oils  which  are  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  such  as  palm 
oil,  cocoanut  oil,  nutmeg  oil,  etc.,  are 
frequently  called  vegetable  butter,  and 
the  name  mineral  butter  has  some- 
times been  applied  to  substances 
which  are  wholly  different  in  nature. 
In  1914  there  were  4,356  butter-mak- 
ing plants  in  the  United  States,  hav- 
ing a  capital  of  $59,625,000  and  a 
production  valued  at  $243,379,000. 

Buttercup,  the  popular  name  of 
two  or  three  species  of  the  ranuncu- 
lus. They  are  common  plants  with 
brilliant  yellow  flowers. 

Butterfield,  Daniel,  an  American 
soldier,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  18, 
1831.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  Colonel  of  the  12th  New 
York  Militia.  He  served  in  the  Pen- 
hisular  campaign.  At  Fredericksburg 
he  commanded  the  5th  Corps,  and  at 
Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg  was 
chief  of  staff.  He  served  as  chief  of 
staff  to  Hooker  at  Lookout  Mountain, 
and  Ringgold,  and  Pea  Vine  Creek. 
He  was  brevetted  Major-General  in 
the  regular  army,  but  resigned  in 
1869,  and  became  chief  of  the  United 
States  sub-treasury  in  New  York ;  died 
in  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.,  July  17,  1901. 

Butterfly,  the  popular  name  of  a 
group  of  lepidopterous  insects. 

Butterfly  Weed,  or  PLETTBISY 
ROOT,  a  plant  common  in  the  United 
States,  of  which  the  root  has  medici- 
nal repute,  the  infusion  being  used  as 
a  diaphoretic  and  expectorant. 

Butterine,  a  substance  prepared 
in  imitation  of  butter,  from  animal  or 
vegetable  fats. 

Buttermilk,  the  residue  of  cream 
after  the  butter  has  been  removed  by 
churning.  It  forms  a  wholesome  and 
agreeable  as  well  as  a  nourishing 
drink  in  hot  weather.  It  possesses 
the  slightly  acid  taste  from  the  acidity 
developed  in  ripening  the  cream. 

Butternut,  the  fruit  of  white  wal- 
nut, an  American  tree,  so  called  from 
the  oil  it  contains.  The  tree  bears  a 
resemblance  in  its  general  appearance 
to  the  black  walnut,  but  the  wood  is 
not  so  dark  in  color.  The  same  name 
if1  given  to  the  nut  of  South  America, 


Buzzard 

also  known  as  suwarrow,  or  suwarra 
nut. 

Butter  Tree,  a  name  of  several 
trees  yielding  oily  or  fatty  substances 
somewhat  resembling  butter. 

Button,  a  small  circular  disk  or 
knob  of  mother  of  pearl,  horn,  metal, 
or  other  material.  Its  chief  use  is  to 
unite  portions  of  a  dress  together.  The 
ancient  method  of  fastening  dresses 
was  by  means  of  pins,  brooches, 
buckles  and  tie-strings. 

Buttresses,  in  architecture  es- 
pecially Gothic,  projections  on  the  out- 
side of  the  walls  of  an  edifice,  extend- 
ing from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  or 
nearly,  and  intended  to  give  additional 
support  to  the  walls  and  prevent  them 
from  spreading  under  the  weight  of 
the  roof. 

Butyric  Acid,  an  acid  obtained 
froni  butter;  it  also  occurs  in  perspi- 
ration, cod  liver  oil,  etc. 

Buyukdereh,  a  town  on  the  Eu- 
ropean shore  of  the  Bosphorus,  a  few 
miles  from  Constantinople.  It  is  fa- 
mous for  its  scenery,  and  is  a  favorite 
residence  of  the  Christian  ambassa- 
dors. 

Buzzard,  the  English  name  of  the 
buteo,  a  genus  of  birds,  and  especially 
of  three  species.  The  turkey  buzzard 
is  more  a  carrion  vulture  than  a  rap- 
torial bird.  They  are  natives  of  our 
Southern  States,  where  they  are  very 
useful  as  scavengers,  and  are  so  much 
'  appreciated  in  this  regard  that  in  most 
of  the  States  they  are  protected  by 
law.  In  consequence  they  grow  quite 
tame,  and  in  some  places  may  be  con- 
sidered almost  a  domesticated  fowl. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  common 
turkey,  and  the  species  gets  its  name 
from  a  distant  resemblance  between 
the  two.  They  are  of  a  dirty  black 
color,  and  are  from  25  to  36  inches 
long,  having  an  immense  span  of  wing 
(proportionate),  being  remarkable  for 
their  powerful  and  graceful  flight.  Its 
nest  is  a  mere  hollow  in  the  ground 
with  a  rampart  of  loose,  dead  branch- 
es around  it.  These  birds  may  be  seen 
by  hundreds  in  one  locality,  hovering 
over  and  lighting  upon  the  carcass  of 
a  dead  animal.  They  are  rarely  found 
N.  of  Pennsylvania.  After  the  terri- 
ble disaster  in  Galveston,  Tex.,  in 
1900,  there  was  an  entire  disappear- 
ance from  that  city  of  these  useful 


ZEBRA 
\      /BUTTERFLY 


MONARCH 
BUTTERFLY 


BUTTERFLY 


COPYRIGHT,    1913,   BY   F.   E.    WRIGHT 

BUTTERFLIES      AND      MOTHS 


Buzzard's  Bay 


Byzantine  Empire 


birds.     The  brown  buzzard,  called  also 
the   glead,   glede,   glade,   kite   or   put- 
tock,  feeds  on  small  mammalia,  birds,  , 
lizards,  worms  and  insects.     It  makes  j 
its  nest  in   trees  and  ledges  of  rock.  ! 

Buzzard's  Bay  a  bay  indenting 
the  S.  E.  coast  of  Massachusetts ; 
partly  formed  by  the  Elizabeth  Isl- 
ands. Its  shores  afford  many  summer 
resorts.  Upon  the  bay  New  Bedford 
is  situated. 

Byers,  Samuel  Hawkins  Mar- 
shall, an  American  historical  and  de-  ! 
scriptive  writer,  born  in  1838.  Dur-  j 
ing  the  Civil  War  he  served  in  the 
Union  army.  He  was  taken  prisoner ; 
and  while  in  prison  in  Columbia,  S. 
C.,  wrote  the  famous  song  "  Sher- 
man's March  to  the  Sea."  He  was 
consul  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  from 
1869  to  1884,  and  Consul-General  to 
Italy  in  1885. 

By-Law,  a  private  law,  the  local 
or  subordinate  law  of  a  city,  town, 
private  corporation  or  other  organiza- 
tion. 

Byng,  John,  British  admiral,  born 
1704,  entered  the  navy  in  1727,  and 
served  under  his  father,  Admiral 
George  Byng.  He  was  sent  to  relieve 
Minorca,  blockaded  by  a  French  fleet, 
but  failed,  it  was  thought,  through 
hesitation  in  engaging  the  enemy.  The 
public  odium  of  the  failure  was  such 
that  the  ministry  allowed  Byng,  who 
was  condemned  by  a  court-martial,  to 
be  shot  at  Portsmouth,  March  14, 1757. 

Bynner,  Edwin  Lassetter,  an 
American  novelist,  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  in  1842;  was  librarian  of  the 
Boston  Law  Library.  He  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1893. 

Byron,  George  Gordon  Noel, 
Lord  Byron,  a  great  English  poet, 
was  born  in  Holies  street,  London, 
an.  22,  1788.  He  was  the  grandson 
of  Admiral  John  Byron,  only  son, 
Captain  John  Byron,  of  the  Guards, 
so  notorious  for  his  gallantries  and 
reckless  dissipation  that  he  was  known 
as  '  Mad  Jack  Byron.'  The  injudic- 
ious indulgence  of  a  fond  mother  in  no 
way  restrained  the  inclinations  of  a 
naturally  wayward  disposition,  and 
Byron  spent  an  unregulated  youth  un- 
til his  eleventh  year,  when  the  death  of 


his  grand-uncle  gave  him  the  title  and 
estates  of  the  family.  While  a  student 
in  Cambridge,  he  essayed  a  collection 
of  poems,  "  Hours  of  Idleness,"  which 
at  best,  a  clever  school-boy's  produc- 
tion, was  treated  seriously  by  Brough- 
am, who  criticized  it  over  severely  in 
the  Edinburgh  "  Review."  The  ire 
this  roused  in  Byron  led  to  a  manifes- 
tation of  his  real  powers  as  a  poet, 
and  his  reply  to  this  criticism,  "  Eng- 
lish Bards  "  and  "  Scotch  Reviewers," 
recalling  with  its  wit  and  sarcasm  the 
days  of  Pope,  at  once  made  him  a  man 
of  mark.  After  travel  abroad,  his 
famous  poems  appeared  in  due  suc- 
cession, and  he  lived  the  life  of  a  man 
about  town  in  London,  until  his  mar- 
riage in  1815  with  Miss  Millbanke. 
The  truth  is  not  yet  known  about  this 
unhappy  marriage,  but  within  a  year 
they  parted,  and  a  judicial  separation 
was  arranged.  Be  the  cause,  what  it 
may,  Byron  was  blamed  by  the  public, 
and  fell  from  the  position  of  popular 
idol  to  that  of  the  most  despised  man 
in  England,  which  ho  left  in  1816, 
never  to  return.  The  next  few  years 
^were  spent  in  dissipation  and  literary 
work,  until  1823,  when  he  joined  the 
Greeks  in  their  effort  to  throw  off  the 
yoke  of  Turkey.  The  reforms  he  ac- 
complished in  a  short  time  in  the 
poorly  equipped  and  wretchedly  dis- 
ciplined army  of  the  Greeks,  proved 
him  to  possess  skill  as  an  organizer, 
but  his  physical  condition  did  not  fit 
him  for  the  rigors  of  a  soldier's  life, 
and  he  died  April  9,  1824,  after  a  short 
illness  brought  on  by  exposure. 

Byzantine  Empire,  also  known  as 
the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  compre- 
hended at  first  in  Asia  the  country  on 
this  side  of  the  Euphrates,  the  coasts 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  Asia  Minor;  in 
Africa,  Egypt ;  and  in  Europe,  all  the 
countries  from  the  Hellespont  to  the 
Adriatic  and  the  Danube.  This  sur- 
vived the  Western  Empire  1,000  years, 

!  and  was  even  increased  by  the  addition 
of  Italy  and  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  commenced  in  395,  when 

;  Theodosius  divided  the  Roman  empire 
between  his  two  sons  Arcadius  and 
Honorius,  and  ended  with  Constan- 
tine  XI.,  who  reigned  from  1448  to 
1453. 


c,  the  third  letter  of  the 
English  alphabet  and  in  oth- 
ers derived  from  the  Latin. 
"  In  English,"  says  Ben 
Jonson,  "  it  might  well  have 
been  spared,  for  it  has  no  peculiar 
sound  of  its  own."  It  has  the  simple 
power  of  k  before  a,  o,  u,  and  most  of 
the  consonants;  and  the  power  of  s 
before  e,  i,  y. 

Caaba,  or  Kaaba,  the  Mohamme- 
dan temple  at  Mecca,  especially  a 
small  oratory  within,  adored  by  Mo- 
hammedans as  containing  the  black 
stone  said  to  have  been  given  by  an 
angel  to  Abraham  on  the  occasion  of 
building  the  original  caaba.  The  caa- 
ba  is  at  the  center  of  the  mosque  of 
Mecca,  a  building  called  by  the  Mo- 
hammedans El-Haram,  i.  e.,  "  The 
Inviolable." 

Caaing  Whale,  one  of  the  Cetacea 
in  the  dolphin  family,  belonging  to  a 
genus  common  in  all  seas,  and  oftener 
stranded  than  any  other  whale.  The 
total  length  varies  from  16  to  24  feet, 
the  maximum  girth  about  10  feet.  The 
caaing  whale  is  very  gregarious,  and 
vast  shoals  of  50  to  100  sometimes  im- 
petuously follow  their  leader  ashore 
wfcen  alarmed  and  surrounded  in  a 
bay  or  fiord.  Exciting  scenes  of  this 
sort  have  been  frequently  witnessed 
on  the  Faroe  Islands  and  elsewhere. 
It  is  recorded  that  1,110  were  killed  in 
the  winter  of  1809-1810  at  Hvalfiord, 
in  Iceland.  In  temper  the  animals  are 
mild  compared'  with  some  of  their  al- 
lies. They  feed  chiefly  on  cuttle- 
fishes. Many  names  are  given  to  these 
common  cetaceans  — e.  g.,  pilot-whale, 
black-fish,  social  whale,  grindhval,  etc. 
The  common  name  is  derived  from  the 
Scotch  word  caa,  meaning  "  to  drive." 
Cab,  a  covered  public  carriage  hav- 
ing two  or  four  wheels,  and  drawn  by 


I  one  horse.  In  a  hansom  cab  the  driv- 
I  er's  seat  is  behind,  not  in  front.  Also 
the  covered  part  at  the  rear  end  of  a 
locomotive  which  protects  the  engi- 
neer and  fireman,  and  shields  the  lev- 
ers, etc. 

Cabal,  in  English  history  applied 
to  the  ministry  under  Charles  II., 
which  consisted  of  five  men  famous 
for  their  intrigues  —  Clifford,  Ashley, 
Buckingham,  Arlington,  and  I>uder- 
dale,  whose  initial  letters  form  this 
word.  The  use  of  this  word  to  sig- 
nify a  body  of  intriguers  was  not, 
however,  derived  from  this  circum- 
stance, as  some  have  supposed,  for  the 
word  cabale,  derived  frora  cabala,  was 
used  in  that  sense  in  French  before 
this  time. 

Cabala,  or  Cabbala,  (that  is,  re- 
ception), a  word  used  by  the  Jews  to 
denote  the  traditions  of  their  ances- 
tors regarding  the  interpretation  of 
the  Scriptures. 

CabaSas,  a  town  in  the  Province 
of  Pinar  del  Rio,  Cuba;  35  miles  S. 
W.  of  Havana;  is  in  a  rich  sugar- 
cane section;  pop.  (1907)  11,552. 

Cabanel,  Alexandra,  a  French 
artist,  born  1823;  died  1889.  He  was 
famous  for  his  portraits,  one  of 
which,  Miss  Catherine  Wolfe,  in  the 
Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  is 
a  fair  specimen  of  his  work.  He  also 
painted  imaginative  subjects. 

Cabbage,  a  plant  in  general  culti- 
vation for  culinary  purposes,  and  for 
feeding  cattle.  In  the  Northern  parts 
of  the  United  States,  cabbages  are 
sown  about  September,  kept  under 
glass  or  frames  during  winter,  and 
planted  out  in  spring. 

Cabbage  Flea,  the  name  some* 
times  given  to  a  small  leaping  beetle, 
the  larvae  of  which  destroy  seedling 


Cabbage  Moth 

cabbages,  as  those  of  an  allied  species 
do  young  turnips. 

Cabbage  Moth,  a  species  of  moth 
the  caterpillar  of  which  feeds  on  cab- 
bage and  turnip  leaves,  and  is  some- 
times very  destructive. 

Cabbage  Rose,  a  species  of  rose 
of  many  varieties,  supposed  to  have 
been  cultivated  from  ancient  times, 
and  eminently  fitted  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  rose  water  and  attar  from  its 
fragrance.  It  has  a  large,  rounded, 
and  compact  flower. 

Cabbage  Tree,  the  English  name 
for  the  palm  genus  Areca,  and  special- 
ly for  the  cabbage  palm  of  the  West 
Indies.  It  is  so  called  because  the 
bud  at  the  top  of  its  stem  is  like  a 
cabbage,  and  the  inner  leaves  which 
form  this  bud  are  eaten  like  the  vege- 
table now  mentioned,  though  the  re- 
moval of  its  bud  for  the  sake  of  these 
leaves  is  the  destruction  of  the  mag- 
nificent tree. 

Cabeiri,  sacred  priests  or  deified 
heroes,  venerated  by  the  ancients  as 
the  authors  of  religion  and  the  foun- 
ders of  the  human  race. 

Cabell,  "William  Lewis,  an 
American  lawyer ;  born  in  Danville, 
Va.,  Jan.  1,  1827;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy 
in  1850.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
served  in  the  Confederate  army ;  rose 
to  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General ;  was 
captured  in  Kansas  in  1864,  and  held 
a  prisoner  of  war  till  April  28,  1865. 
After  the  war  he  practised  law  in 
Fort  Smith,  Ark.,  and  after  1872  in 
Dallas,  Tex.,  of  which  he  was  mayor 
four  times  ;  died  Feb.  22,  1911. 

Cabell,  James  Lawrence,  an 
American  sanitarian,  born  in  Nelson 
county,  Va..,  Aug.  26,  1813.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia in  1833,  where  he  later  filled  the 
chair  of  anatomy.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  had  charge  of  military  hospi- 
tals for  the  Confederate  Government. 
He  devised  measures  to  check  the  yel- 
low fever  epidemic  at  Memphis  and 
was  president  of  the  National  Board 
of  Health  from  1879  till  his  death,  in 
Overton,  Va.,  Aug.  13,  1889. 

Cabei,  Etienne,  a  French  com- 
munist, born  in  Dijon,  Jan.  2,  1788, 
and  educated  for  the  bar,  but  turned 
his  attention  to  literature  and  politics. 
Cabet  sent  a  French  colony  to  the  Red 


Cabinet 

river  in  Texas,  but  the  colonists  who 
went  out  in  1848  found  Texas  any- 
thing but  a  Utopia.  Their  ill  fortune 
did  not  deter  Cabet  from  embarking 
at  the  head  of  a  second  band  of  colo- 
nists. On  his  arrival  he  learned  that 
the  Mormons  had  just  been  expelled 
from  Nauvoo,  111.,  and  that  their  city 
was  left  deserted.  The  Icarians  es- 
tablished themselves  there  in  1850. 
Cabet's  efforts,  however,  were  not  suc- 
cessful. He  was  finally  obliged  to 
leave  Nauvoo  and  retire  to  St.  Louis, 
where  he  died  Nov.  9,  1856. 

Cabeza,  de  Vaca,  Alvar  Nunez, 
a  Spanish  explorer,  born  about  1507. 
He  was  second  in  command  in  the 
ill-fated  expedition  of  Panfilo  de  Nar- 
vaez  to  Florida  in  1528.  After  the 
loss  of  their  commander,  Cabesa  de 
Vaca,  with  a  few  survivors,  landed 
W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  after  eight  years  of  wandering 
and  captivity  among  the  Indians,  he 
reached  a  Spanish  colony  on  the  Pa- 
cific with  three  companions.  He  re- 
turned to  Spain,  and  in  1540  was 
appointed  Governor  of  La  Plata.  He 
died  about  1564. 

Cabinet,  a  deliberative  committee 
of  the  executive  authority,  consisting 
of  the  principal  members  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. The  cabinet  of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  is  composed 
of  the  heads  of  the  several  adminis- 
trative departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment. They  are :  1.  The  Secretary  of 
State,  2.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury. 3.  The  Secretary  of  War.  4. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  5.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.  6.  The 
Postmaster-General.  7.  The  Attorney- 
General.  8.  The  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture. 9.  The  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce. 10.  The  Secretary  of  Labor. 
They  are  appointed  to  office  by  the 
President,  but  must  be  confirmed  by 
the  Senate,  and  they  generally  hold 
office  until  their  successors  are  ap- 
pointed and  confirmed.  Contrary  to 
foreign  systems,  the  United  States 
cabinet  ministers  do  not  have  seats  in 
Congress ;  there  is  no  premier,  al- 
though the  Secretary  of  State  virtu- 
ally holds  that  position  as  leading 
cabinet  officer.  The  salary  of  the 
members  of  the  cabinet  is  $12,000  an- 
nually. In  1917  an  enlargement  of  the 
cabinet  was  proposed  to  better  handle 
war  measures. 


Cable 

Cable  is  either  a  large  rope  or  a 
chain  of  iron  links.  Rope  cables  are 
made  of  the  best  hemp  or  of  wire, 
twisted  into  a  mass  of  great  compact- 
ness and  strength.  The  circumference 
of  hemp  rope  varies  from  about  3 
inches  to  26.  A  certain  number  of 
yarns  are  laid  up  left-handed  to  form 
a  strand;  three  strands  laid  up  right- 
handed  make  a  hawser,  and  three 
hawsers  laid  up  left-handed  make  a 
cable.  The  strength  of  a  hemp  cable 
of  18  inches  circumference  is  about  60 
tons,  and  for  other  dimensions  the 
strength  is  taken  to  vary  according  to 
the  cube  of  the  diameter.  Wire  rope 
has  within  recent  years  largely  taken 
the  place  of  hemp  for  tow-line  and 
hawsers  on  board  ship. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  an 
American  novelist;  born  in  New  Or- 
leans, La.,  Oct.  12,  1844;  received  a 
common  school  education ;  entered  the 
volunteer  service  of  the  Confederate 
army  in  1863  and  served  till  the  close 
of  the  war ;  when  he  obtained  employ- 
ment in  a  mercantile  house ;  and  was 
on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  New  Or- 
leans "  Picayune  "  in  1865-1879.  His 
sketches  of  Creole  life  in  "  Scribner's 
Monthly "  proved  so  successful  that 
in  1879  he  turned  his  entire  attention 
to  literature.  He  has  contributed 
numerous  sketches  to  newspapers  and 
magazines ;  and  published  various 
books. 

Cabot,  George,  an  American 
statesman ;  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Dec. 
3,  1751 ;  educated  at  Harvard  College. 
In  1791  he  became  United  States  Sen- 
ator for  Massachusetts,  and  proved  a 
steadfast  friend  of  the  Washington 
administration.  He  died  in  Boston, 
April  18,  1823. 

Cabot,  John,  (It.  GIOVANNI  CAB- 
OTO),  a  Venetian  pilot,  the  discoverer 
of  the  mainland  of  North  America, 
settled  as  a  merchant,  probably  as 
early  as  1472,  in  Bristol,  England, 
where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  1498.  Under  letters-patent 
from  Henry  VII.,  dated  March  5, 
1496,  he  set  sail  from  Bristol  in  1497, 
with  two  ships,  accompanied  by  Lewis, 
Sebastian,  and  Sancto,  his  sons,  and 
on  June  24th  sighted  Cape  Breton 
Island  and  Nova  Scotia.  Letters- 
patent  were  granted  Feb.  3,  1498,  for 
a  second  expedition,  but  whether  any 
voyages  were  made  under  these  is 


Cacerea 

doubtful.  However,  they  form  the 
last  authentic  record  of  his  career. 

The  same  uncertainty  exists  as  to 
the  birthplace  of  his  second  son,  SE- 
BASTIAN, who,  it  now  appears  most 
probable,  was  born  in  Bristol  in  1474. 
Sebastian's  name  is  associated  with 
that  of  his  father  in  the  charter  of 
1496,  and  in  1499  he  appears  to  have 
sailed  with  two  ships  in  search  of  a 
Northwest  Passage,  and  followed  the 
American  coast  from  60°  to  30°  N. 
lat. ;  but  it  has  been  considered  doubt- 
ful whether  this  voyage  also  should 
not  be  assigned  to  his  father.  In  1519 
Cabot  returned  to  Spain  from  Eng- 
land, and  was  appointed  pilot-major 
of  the  kingdom  by  Charles  V.,  for 
whom,  in  1526,  he  commanded  an  ex- 
pedition which  examined  the  coast  of 
Brazil  and  La  Plata,  where  he  en- 
deavored to  plant  colonies.  The  at- 
tempt ending  in  failure,  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  a  year  in  1530,  and  ban- 
ished for  two  years  to  Oran,  in  Af- 
rica. He  seems  to  have  died  in  Lon- 
don in  1557. 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  the  dis- 
coverer (or  second  discoverer)  of  Bra- 
zil, a  Portuguese,  born  about  1460. 
In  1500  he  received  command  of  a 
fleet  bound  for  the  East  Indies,  and 
sailed  from  Lisbon,  but  having  taken 
a  course  too  far  to  the  West  he  was 
carried  by  the  South  American  cur- 
rent to  the  coast  of  Brazil,  of  which 
he  took  possession  in  the  name  of 
Portugal.  He  died  about  1526. 

Cacao,  or  Cocoa,  the  chocolate 
tree,  and  also  the  powder  and  beverage 
made  with  it  obtained  from  the  fruit 
of  this  tree.  The  tree  is  16  to  18  feet 
high,  a  native  of  trop'cal  America, 
and  much  cultivated  in  the  tropics  of 
both  hemispheres,  especially  in  the 
West  India  Islands,  Central  and 
South  America.  Its  fruit  is  contained 
in  pointed,  oval,  ribbed  pods  6  to  10 
inches  long,  each  inclosing  50  to  100 
seeds  in  a  white,  sweetish  pulp.  The 
term^  cocoa  is  a  corruption  of  cacao, 
but  is  more  commonly  used  in  com- 
merce :  cocoa  nuts,  however,  are  ob- 
tained from  an  entirely  different  tree. 

Caceres,  Andres  Avelino,  a  Pe- 
ruvian military  officer  and  statesman; 
born  in  Ayacucho,  Nov.  11,  1838. 
The  imprisonment  of  Calderon,  the 
President,  made  him  acting  President 
of  Peru.  Afterward,  by  a  general 


Cachalot 


Cade 


election,    he    was    inaugurated    Presi-  i 
dent   (1886).     On  the  death  of  Presi- i 
dent  Bermudez  in  1894,  General  Ca- 
ceres    was    proclaimed    dictator,    and, 
May  10th,  was  elected  President.     In  ; 
1895  he  was  overthrown  in  a  revolu- 
tion by  ex-Dictator  Pierola.     He  died 
Nov.  19,  1911. 


CACAO  PLANT. 

Cachalot,    the    sperm    of    sperma- ! 
ceti  whale.     The  male  is  from  46  to 
60,  or  even  70  feet  long ;  the  female ; 
from  30  to  35.     They  are  gregarious, ! 
and   go   in    what    the    fishermen    call ' 
schools,   sometimes   with   as   many   as 
500  or  600  individuals.     The  cachalot 
inhabits  the  northern  seas,  but  strag-  j 
gles    through    a    great    part    of    the  \ 
ocean. 

Cachao.     See  HANOI. 

Cacliar,  a  district  of  Assam,  India  ; 


area,  3,750  square  miles.  The  inhab- 
itants (313,900)  are  mainly  engaged  in 
rice  and  tea  cultivation. 

Cache,  a  hole  in  the  ground  for 
hiding  and  preserving  provisions 
which  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry; 
used  by  settlers  in  the  Western  States 
and  Arctic  explorers. 

Cachet,  Lettre  de,  a  name  given 
especially  to  letters  proceeding  from 
and  signed  by  the  kings  of  France, 
and  countersigned  by  a  secretary  of 
state. 

Cache-long,  a  beautiful  mineral, 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  semi-opal. 
It  is  sometimes  called  pearl  opal,  or 
mother-of-pearl  opal.  It  is  generally 
of  a  milk-white  color,  rarely  with  a 
yellowish  or  reddish  tinge. 

Cactaceae  (named  from  the  cac- 
tus), Indian  figs.  About  800  are 
known.  The  fruit  of  some  species  is 
refreshing  and  agreeable,  that  of  oth- 
ers insipid. 

Cactus,  an  old  and  extensive  ge- 
nus of  Linnseus.  The  plant,  though 
now  seen  all  over  India,  undoubtedly 
came  at  first  from  a  foreign  and  a 
distant  country.  It  grows  very  ex- 
tensively in  the  western  and  south- 
western part  of  the  United  States  and 
all  over  tropical  America,  usually  on 
arid  lands.  Once  rooted  in  a  place, 
it  spreads  so  widely  abroad  that  it  is 
difficult  to  get  it  out  again,  and  it 
is  believed  to  impoverish  the  land 
of  which  it  takes  possession. 

Caddoan  Indians,  a  family  of 
North  American  Indians,  comprising 
the  Arikari  tribe  in  North  Dakota; 
the  four  Pawnee  villages.  Grand,  Tap- 
age,  Republican,  and  Skidi,  in  the 
Indian  Territory ;  and  the  Caddo,  Ki- 
chai,  Wichita,  and  other  tribes,  for- 
merly in  Louisiana,  Texas,  and  Ar- 
kansas. 

Cade,  Jack,  the  leader  of  a  popu- 
lar insurrection  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VI.  of  England.  He  collected  20,000 
followers,  chiefly  Kentish  men,  who, 
in  June,  1450,  flocked  to  his  standard, 
that  they  might  claim  redress  for  the 
grievances  so  widely  felt.  Cade  de- 
feated a  detachment  of  the  royal  for- 
ces at  Seven  Oaks,  and  obtained  pos- 
session of  London,  the  King  having 
retired  to  Kenilworth ;  but  having  put 
Lord  Say  cruelly  to  death,  and  laid 
aside  the  appearance  of  moderation 


Cadence 

•which  he  had  at  first  assumed,  the 
citizens  rose,  gave  his  followers  bat- 
tle, dispersed  them,  and  put  Cade  to 
death,  1450. 

Cadence,  a  close,  the  device  which 
in  music  answers  the  use  of  stops  in 
language. 

Cadenza,  a  flourish  of  indefinite 
form  introduced  upon  a  bass  note  im- 
mediately preceding  a  close. 

Cadet,  a  younger  or  youngest  son; 
a  junior  male  member  of  a  noble  fam- 
ily. Also  the  name  or  title  given  to  a 
young  man  in  training  for  the  rank 
of  an  officer  in  the  army  or  navy,  or 
in  a  military  school.  In  the  United 
States  cadets  are  trained  for  military 
life  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  for 
naval  life  at  Annapolis,  Md. 

Cadi,  or  Kadi,  in  Arabic,  a  judge 
or  jurist.  Among  the  Turks  cadi  sig- 
nifies an  inferior  judge,  in  distinction 
from  the  mollah,  or  superior  judge. 
They  belong  to  the  higher  priesthood, 
as  the  Turks  derive  their  law  from 
their  prophet. 

Cadiz,  Spain,  an  important  sea- 
port city,  capital  of  a  province,  which 
forms  a  part  of  Andalusia.  It  reached 
its  highest  prosperity  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  when  it  became  the 
depot  of  all  the  commerce  with  the  New 
World;  declined  greatly  as  a  com- 
mercial city  after  the  emancipation 
of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South 
America;  but  again  revived,  owing 
partly  to  the  extension  of  the  Span- 
ish railway  system,  and  partly  to  the 
establishment  of  lines  of  steamers. 

Cadiz  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
towns  in  Europe,  having  been  built  by 
the  Phoenicians,  under  the  name  of 
Gaddir  ("fortress"),  about  1100  B. 
C.  It  afterwards  passed  into  the 
bands  of  the  Carthaginians,  from 
•whom  it  was  captured  by  the  Ro- 
mans, who  named  it  Gades,  and  under 
them  it  soon  became  a  city  of  vast 
wealth  and  importance.  Occupied  af- 
terward by  the  Goths  and  Moors,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1262. 

In  1898  it  was  the  rendezvous  of 
the  vessels  of  the  Spanish  navy 
which,  for  a  time  during  the  war  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Spain, 
were  expected  to  make  a  demonstra- 
tion against  some  of  the  principal 
American  cities  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. Pop.  (1910)  67,174. 


Ceesar 

Cadorna,  Luigi,  an  Italian  mili- 
tary officer,  born  in  Pallawza,  Sept. 
4,  1850,  of  a  family  distinguished  in 
the  military  history  of  Italy ;  was 
graduated  at  the  Turin  Military  Acade- 
my in  1868  and  afterward  at  the 
School  of  War ;  was  for  several  years 
attached  to  the  General  Staff ;  was 
appointed  its  Chief  when  Italy  entered 
the  great  war ;  and  so  distinguished 
himself  in  the  operations  against 
Austria  that  he  was  called  the  Joffre 
of  the  Italian  army.  See  APPENDIX: 
World  War. 

Caduceus,  Mercury's  rod ;  a  winged 
rod  entwisted  by  two  serpents  borne 
by  Mercury  as  an  ensign  of  quality 
and  office. 

Cadwalader,  George,  an  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  soldier ;  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  1804.  He  practiced  law 
till  1846 ;  was  made  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers ;  and  won  distinction  at 
Chapultepec.  He  resumed  his  law 
practice  till  1861 ;  became  major-gen- 
eral of  State  volunteers ;  was  placed 
in  command  at  Baltimore;  accom- 
panied Patterson's  expedition  to  Win- 
chester (1861)  ;  and,  as  one  of  a  mili- 
tary board,  directed  the  United  States 
army  operations.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  Feb.  3,  1879. 

Cadwalader,  John,  an  American 
soldier,  born  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  10, 
1742.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion he  was  placed  in  command  of  a 
battalion  and  soon  became  brigadier- 
general.  He  fought  at  Trenton, 
Brandywine,  Germantown,  and  Mon- 
mouth.  He  died  in  Shrewsbury,  Pa., 
Feb.  10, 1786. 

Caen,  a  town  of  France,  in  Nor- 
mandy, chief  place  in  the  department 
of  Calvados,  125  miles  N.  W.  of  Paris, 
and  about  9  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Orne.  Two  remarkable  churches 
are  St.  Etienne  or  Church  of  the  Ab- 
baye-aux-Hommes,  built  by  _  William 
the  Conqueror,  who  was  buried  in  it, 
and  La  Ste.  Trinite  or  Church  of  the 
Abbaye-aux-Dames,  founded  by  the 
Conqueror's  wife.  Pop.  (1911)  46,- 
934. 

Caerleon,  a  town  of  England  on 
the  Usk,  18  miles  S.  of  Monmouth. 
Many  fine  Roman  remains  have  been, 
and  are  still,  found  here. 

Caesar,  Cains  Julius,  son  of  a 
family  of  the  Julian  gens,  claiming 


Caesar 


Cagliari 


descent  from  lulus,  son  of  JEneas. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain. 

Caesar,  Cains  Julius,  son  of  a 
Roman  praetor  of  the  same  name,  was 
born  July  12,  100  B.  c.,  according  to 
Mommsen  in  102  B.  c.  One  of  the 
greatest,  if  not  the  greatest  of  mili- 
tary commanders,  he  was  likewise 
peerless  in  his  time  as  politician  and 
statesman.  He  overcame  all  his  ene- 
mies in  the  field,  and  was  the  dictator, 
and  virtually  the  first  emperor  of 
Rome.  During  the  year  46  B.  C.  he 
conferred  a  benefit  on  Rome  and  on 
the  world  by  the  reformation  of  the 
calendar,  which  had  been  greatly 
abused  by  the  pontifical  college  for 
political  purposes.  After  quelling  an 
insurrection  which  broke  out  in  Spain, 
where  Pompey's  sons,  Cneius  and  Sex- 
tus,  had  collected  an  army,  he  received 
the  title  of  "Father  of  his  Country," 
and  also  of  imperator,  was  made  dic- 
tator and  prsefectus  morum  for  life, 
and  consul  for  10  years;  his  person 
was  declared  sacred,  and  even  divine ; 
he  obtained  a  body-guard  of  knights 
and  senators ;  his  statue  was  placed 
in  the  temples ;  his  portrait  was  struck 
on  coins ;  the  month  Quintilis  was 
called  Julius  in  his  honor,  and  on  all 
public  occasions  he  was  permitted  to 
wear  the  triumphal  robe.  He  pro- 
posed to  make  a  digest  of  the  whole 
Roman  law  for  public  use,  to  found 
libraries  for  the  same  purpose,  to 
drain  the  Pontine  Marshes,  to  enlarge 
the  harbor  of  Ostia,  to  dig  a  canal 
through  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  and 
to  quell  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians 
on  the  E.  frontiers;  but  in  the  midst 
of  these  vast  designs  he  was  cut  off 
by  assassination  on  the  Ides  (15th) 
of  March,  44  B.  O. 

Csesarea,  the  ancient  name  of 
many  cities,  such  as:  (1)  Caesarea 
Philippi  in  Palestine,  N.  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  rebuilt  by  Philip,  tetrarch 
of  Galilee,  son  of  Herod  the  Great. 
(2)  Csesarea,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  about  55  miles  N.  W. 
from  Jerusalem,  enlarged  and  beauti- 
fied by  Herod  the  Great,  and  named 
in  honor  of  Caesar  Augustus ;  the  place 
where  St.  Paul  was  imprisoned  two 
years  (Acts  xxiii-xxv).  (3)  The 
capital  of  Cappadocia,  in  Asia  Minor. 

Caesarian  Operation,  the  most 
serious  operation  in  midwifery,  and 
•nly  resorted  to  to  save  life. 

E.  27. 


Csesarion,  son  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Cleopatra,  put  to  death  by  order  of 
Augustus. 

Caesars,  The  Era  of,  also  known 
as  the  Spanish  Era,  a  period  of  time 
reckoned  from  Jan.  1,  38  B.  C.,  being 
the  year  following  the  conquest  of 
Spain  by  Augustus.  It  was  much 
used  in  Africa,  Spain,  and  the  S.  of 
France ;  but  by  a  synod  held  in  1180 
its  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  church- 
es dependent  on  Barcelona.  Pedro 
IV.  of  Arragon  abolished  the  use  of 
it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.  John  of 
Castile  did  the  same  in  1383.  It  was 
used  in  Portugal  till  1415,  if  not  till 
1422.  The  months  and  days  of  this 
era  are  identical  with  the  Julian  cal- 
endar, and  to  turn  the  time  into  that 
of  our  era,  subtract  38  from  the  year ; 
but  if  before  the  Christian  era,  sub- 
tract 39. 

Caesium,  an  element  discovered  by 
Bunsen  in  I860.  The  pure  metal  is 
rare ;  it  is  similar  to  potassium,  and 
has  such  an  affinity  for  oxygen,  it  will 
burst  into  flame  when  exposed  to  the 
air. 

Caffeine,  Theine,  or  Gnaranine, 
an  alkaloid  found  in  tea,  coffee  and 
other  plants  used  as  beverages.  About 
1  per  cent,  is  found  in  coffee,  and 
from  2  to  4  per  cent,  in  tea.  It  has 
no  nutritive  value.  In  small  doses  as 
in  a  cUp  of  tea  or  coffee  it  helps  the 
circulation.  In  large  doses,  or  after 
prolonged  drinking  of  tea  or  coffee, 
it  paralyses  the  heart's  action.  It  is 
used  in  medicine  for  various  nervous 
ailments.  It  is  the  element  that  makes 
tea  and  coffee  drinking  so  injurious  for 
some  persons. 

Cagayan,  an  island  of  the  Philip- 
pines ;  the  largest  of  six  small  islets, 
known  as  the  Cagayan-Sulu  group. 
It  is  5  miles  wide  and  8  miles  long. 
Pop.  (1903)  2,000.  There  are  moun- 
tains attaining  a  height  of  1,100  feet. 
The  chief  products  are  tobacco  and 
sugar.  There  are  pearl  and  shell  fish- 
eries. Cagayan  was  sold  by  Spain  to  , 
the  United  States,  with  Sibutu,  in 
1900,  upon  payment  of  $100,000,  hav- 
ing been  inadvertently  excluded  from 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace. 

Cagliari,  Paul,  also  known  under 
the  name  of  Paul  Veronese,  a  painter 
of  Verona,  born  1528;  died  1588. 
See  VEBONESE,  PAUL. 


Oagliostro 

Cagliostro,  Alessandro,  Count 
of,  (real  name  GIUSEPPE  BALSAMO), 
a  celebrated  charlatan ;  born  in  Pa- 
lermo, Italy,  June  8,  1743.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  philosopher's  stone,  the 
preparation  of  a  precious  elixir  vita?, 
etc.,'  were  the  pretenses  by  means  of 
•which  he  extracted  considerable  sums 
from  credulous  people.  Died  in  1795. 

Caguas,  a  town  in  the  department 
of  Guayama,  Porto  Rico;  on  the 
mai'i  road  between  Ponce  and  San 
Juan;  18  miles  S.  E.  of  the  latter; 
is  in  a  section  containing  hot  springs 
and  valuable  quarries  of  marble  and 
limestone.  Pop.  (1910)  10,354. 

Caiaphas,  a  Jew,  was  the  high- 
priest  at  the  time  when  the  crucifix- 
ion took  place.  He  was  deposed  A.  D. 
35,  and  Jonathan,  the  son  of  Annas, 
appointed  in  his  stead. 

Caicos,  a  group  of  islands  belong- 
ing geographically  to  the  Bahamas, 
but  annexed  in  1874  to  Jamaica.  The 
North,  West,  East,  Grand,  and  other 
Caicos,  have,  together  with  Turk's 
Islands,  an  area  of  223  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1911)  5,615.  Salt  and  sponges 
are  their  chief  products. 

Caillie,  Rene  or  Anguste,  a 
French  traveler;  born  in  Poitou, 
France,  Sept.  19,  1799.  Having  gone 
to  Senegal,  he  learned  about  1826  that 
the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  had 
offered  a  premium  of  10,000  francs  to 
the  first  traveler  who  should  reach 
Timbuctoo.  He  started  from  Kakon- 
dy  in  Sierra  Leone,  April  18,  1827, 
and  after  some  delay  caused  by  ill- 
ness, reached  the  mysterious  city, 
•April  20,  1828.  Caillie  died  near 
Paris,  May  7,  1839. 

Cain,  the  first-born  of  the  human 
race,  and  the  first  murderer.  He  be- 
came an  outcast,  traveling  to  the  E. 
of  Eden,  where  he  built  a  city  and  had 
a  son,  named  Enoch.  The  Jewish  tra- 
dition is,  that  he  was  slain  by  Enoch. 

Caine,  Thomas  Henry  Hall,  an 
English  novelist  and  dramatist;  born 
in  Runcorn,  Cheshire,  Eng.,  May  14, 
1853.  His  novels,  which  are  striking 
In  their  pictures  of  human  motives 
and  passions,  are  read  throughout  the 
world. 

Cairn,  a  round  or  conical  heap  of 
stones  erected  as  a  sepulchral  monu- 
ment. They  are  found  on  the  hills 
of  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  and 


Cajabamha 

some  have  assigned  to  them  a  peculiar 
character,  as  receptacles  for  the  bodies 
of  criminals  burnt  in  the  wicker  im« 
ages  of  the  Druids,  etc. 

Cairngorm  Stone,  a  mineral ;  a 
variety  of  quartz  of  a  smoky  yellow 
to  smoky  brown,  and  often  transpar- 
ent, but  varying  to  brownish-black, 
then  nearly  opaque  in  thick  crystals. 

Cairo,  (Arab.  Musr  el  Kaherah 
"the  victorious  capital"),  the  capital 
of  modern  Egypt,  situated  in  a  sandy 
plain  between  the  right  bank  of  the 
Nile  and  the  ridge  of  Mokattam,  near 
the  point  of  the  delta  of  the  Nile. 

The  remarkable  edifices  of  Cairo 
comprise  many  of  the  finest  remains 
of  Arabian  architecture,  all  dating 
from  the  time  of  the  ancient  sultana 
of  Egypt.  Among  these,  besides 
mosques,  chapels,  and  Coptic  churches, 
are  several  of  the  ancient  gates,  an 
aqueduct  for  conveying  water  from  the 
Nile  to  the  citadel,  the  works  of  the 
citadel,  and  the  palace  and  well  of 
Joseph.  At  Old  Cairo  are  the  seven 
towers,  still  called  the  "  Granary  of 
Joseph,"  and  serving  their  ancient 
purpose.  In  the  island  of  Rhoda  is 
the  celebrated  Nilometer.  On  the  S., 
outside  the  walls,  are  the  tombs  of  the 
Mamelukes,  and  on  the  N.  E.  the  obe- 
lisk of  Heliopolis.  There  are  also  a 
magnetic  observatory,  and  the  College 
of  El  Ahzar,  the  principal  university 
of  the  Mohammedan  world.  Pop. 
(1914)  726,075. 

Cairo,  city,  port  of  delivery,  and 
capital  of  Alexander  county,  111. ;  at 
junction  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio 
rivers;  on  the  Illinois  Central  and 
other  railroads ;  150  miles  S.  E.  of  St. 
Louis.  It  is  the  trade  center  of  a 
large  farming  section ;  has  passenger 
and  freight  steamer  connections  with 
all  important  river  ports ;  and  has  a 
$3,000,000  steel  railroad  bridge  across 
the  Ohio.  Pop.  (1910)  14,548. 

Caisson,  a  military  term,  denoting 
a  wooden  chest  to  hold  ammunition ; 
formerly  applied  to  the  ammunition- 
wagon  itself.  In  engineering  a  cais- 
son is  a  wooden  case  or  frame  sunk 
in  the  beds  of  rivers,  etc.,  during  the 
laying  of  the  foundations  of  a  bridge. 

Cajabamba,  former  name  of  Rio- 
bamba,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Chimborazo,  in  Ecuador,  102 
miles  S.  of  Quito,  on  the  arid  plateau 


Cajamarca 

of  Topi,  at  an  elevation  of  9,480  feet. 
Pop.  16,000.  The  original  town  of  j 
RIOBAMBA,  founded  in  1533,  was  in 
1797  overwhelmed  by  an  earthquake  in 
which  30,000  lives  were  lost.  Pop. 
(1910)  18,000. 

Cajamarca,  a  department  in  the 
N.  W.  of  Peru,  between  the  W.  chain 
of  the  Andes  and  the  Amazon.  A 
railway  connects  it  with  the  Pacific, 
and  there  is  a  large  farming  and  cat- 
tle-raising industry.  Area,  12,538 
square  miles;  pop.  (1896)  442,412. 
Capital,  Cajamarca ;  pop.  12,000. 

Calabar,  a  maritime  district  of 
West  Africa  on  the  Bight  of  Biafra, 
intersected  by  two  rivers,  called  re- 
spectively Old  and  New  Calabar,  un- 
der British  protection.  Duke  Town 
and  Creek  Town,  the  chief  towns  on 
Old  Calabar  river,  are  stations  of 
British  missionaries. 

Calabash,  a  tree  about  30  feet 
high,  found  in  some  places  wild,  in 
others  cultivated,  in  the  West  Indies 
and  other  tropical  parts  of  America. 
The  fruit  of  the  tree  is  inclosed  in  a 
shell  used  by  the  natives  of  the  Carib- 
bee  Islands  for  drinking  cups,  pots, 
musical  instruments,  and  other  do- 
mestic utensils. 

Calabash  Nutmeg,  a  tree  of  the 
order  Anonaceae,  introduced  into  Ja- 
maica probably  from  Western  Africa. 
The  fruit  resembles  small  calabashes ; 
hence  the  name.  It  is  called  also 
American  nutmeg,  or  Jamaica  nutmeg. 

Calabria,  a  compartmento  of  Italy 
(the  "  toe "  of  the  boot "),  between 
the  Ionian  and  Tyrrhenian  seas;  di- 
vided into  the  provinces  of  Cosenza. 
Reggio,  and  Catanzaro:  area  5,819 
square  miles;  pop.  1,471,780.  On 
Dec.  28,  1908,  Calabria  and  Sicily 
were  visited  by  an  earthquake  and 
tidal  wave,  causing  an  appalling  loss. 

Caladinm,  a  genus  of  endogenous 
plants,  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
caladieae.  They  are  cultivated  in 
greenhouses  here,  and  flourish  in 
warmer  parts  of  tae  world.  The 
leaves  of  the  caladium  are  boiled  and 
eaten  in  the  West  Indies. 

Calais,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of 
(France,  in  the  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  on  the  Strait  of,  and  25  miles 
S.  E.  of  Dover,  and  distant  184  miles 
by  rail  from  Paris.  The  Old  Town 
lor  Calais  proper  has  a  citadel,  and 


Calamus 

was  formerly  surrounded  by  fortifica« 
tions;  but  the  modern  suburb  of  Sfc 
Pierre  les  Calais  having  been  amaN 
gamated  with  Calais  proper,  both  are 
now  surrounded  with  forts  and  other 
works,  to  which  morasses  lend  addi- 
tional strength.  In  1347  Calais  was 
taken  by  Edward  III.  of  England, 
after  a  siege  of  11  months.  In  1558 
it  was  retaken  by  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
being  the  last  relic  of  the  French  do- 
minions of  the  Plantagenets,  which 
at  one  time  comprehended  the  half  of 
France.  Pop.  (1911)  72,322. 

Calamianes,  an  island  group  of 
the  Philippine  Archipelago.  Their 
surface  is  mountainous,  and  richly 
wooded,  producing  rice,  wool,  cacao, 
and  the  bird's  nests  used  for  food. 
Busuanga,  Calamian  and  Linacapan 
are  the  largest  of  the  islands.  Area 
about  340  square  miles;  pop.  over 
20,000. 


CAL4.DIUK. 

Calamus,  the  reed  pen  which  the 
ancients  used  in  writing,  made  of  the 
stem  of  a  reed  growing  in  marshy 
places,  of  which  the  best  were  ob- 
tained from  Egypt.  The  stem  was 
first  softened,  then  dried,  and  cut  and 
split  with  a  knife,  as  quill  pens  are 
made.  To  this  day  the  Orientals  gen« 
erally  write  with  a  reed. 


Calamus 


Calcium  Light 


Calamus,  the  traditional  name  of 
the  sweet  flag,  which  is  no  doubt  the 
"  calamus  aromaticus  "  of  Roman  au- 
thors, and  probably  the  sweet  calamus 
and  sweet  cane  of  Scripture. 

Galas,  Jean,  a  French  victim  of 
fanaticism ;  born  in  1698.  He  was  a 
Protestant,  and  was  engaged  as  a 
merchant  in  Toulouse,  when  his  eld- 
est son  committed  suicide ;  and  as  he 
was  known  to  be  attached  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  faith,  a  cry  arose  that 
he  had  on  that  account  been  murdered 
by  his  father.  Jean  Calas  and  his 
whole  family  were  arrested,  and  a 
prosecution  instituted  against  him,  in 
support  of  which  numerous  witnesses 
came  forward.  The  parliament  of 
Toulouse  condemned  him,  by  eight 
voices  against  five,  to  be  tortured  and 
then  broken  on  the  wheel,  which  sen- 
tence was  carried  out  in  1762,  his 
property  being  also  confiscated.  Vol- 
taire became  acquainted  with  his  fam- 
ily, and  procured  a  revision  of  the 
trial,  when  _  Galas  was  declared  inno- 
cent, and  his  widow  pensioned. 

Calatafimi,  a  town  of  Sicily  near 
its  W.  end,  with  a  ruined  Saracenic 
castle.  Near  it  is  the  scene  of  Gari- 
baldi's first  victory  over  the  Neapoli- 
tans in  1860. 

Calatrava  la  Viega,  a  ruined 
city  of  Spain,  on  the  Guadiana,  12 
miles  N.  E.  of  Ciudad  Real.  Its  de- 
fence against  the  Moors,  undertaken 
by  Raymond,  abbot  of  Fitero,  and  Die- 
go Velasquez  in  1158,  after  it  had 
been  abandoned  by  the  Templars,  is 
famous  on  account  of  its  having  orig- 
inated the  Order  of  the  Knights  of 
Calatrava,  which  was  instituted  at 
Calatrava  in  1158,  by  King  Sancho 
III.  of  Castile,  and  was  at  several 
periods  associated  with  the  Cistercian 
monks.  Their  almost  uniform  success 
against  the  Moors  gave  rise  to  rash- 
ness, and  in  1197  they  were  defeated 
and  nearly  exterminated,  the  survivors 
transferring  the  seat  to  the  castle  of 
Salvatierra. 

Calaveras  Grove,  Cal.,  one  of  the 
famous  groves  of  big  trees,  and  the 
nearest  to  San  Francisco,  measures 
1,100  yards  by  70  yards,  and  con- 
tains about  100  trees.  It  is  State 
property. 

Calcareous,  a  term  applied  to  sub- 
stances partaking  of  the  nature  of 


lime,  or  containing  quantities  of  lime. 
Thus  we  speak  of  calcareous  waters, 
calcareous  rocks,  calcareous  soils.  Cal- 
careous spar  (crystallized  carbonate  of 
lime)  is  found  crystallized  in  more 
than  700  different  forms,  all  having 
for  their  primitive  form  an  obtuse 
rhomboid.  The  rarest  and  most  beau- 
tiful crystals  are  found  in  Derbyshire, 
England. 

Calceolaria,  a  well  known  and 
beautiful  genus  of  plants.  The  spe- 
cies, which  are  numerous,  come  from 
South  America,  chiefly  from  the  west- 
ern slope  or  side  of  the  Andes.  The 
greater  number  have  yellow  flowers, 
others  are  purple,  while  in  a  few  the 
two  colors  are  intermingled.  Various 
calceolarias  are  cultivated  in  the 
United  States. 

Calciferols  Epoch,  one  of  the 
subordinate  divisions  of  the  Lower  Si- 
lurian System  of  North  America.  The 
division  is  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  calcareous  sandstones  and 
limestones. 

Calcination,  the  operation  of  ex- 
pelling from  a  substance  by  heat,  eith- 
er water  or  volatile  water  combined 
with  it.  Thus,  the  process  of  burning 
lime,  to  expel  the  carbonic  acid,  is 
one  of  calculation. 

Calcite,  Calcareous  Spar,  or 
Calc-spar,  the  name  usually  given 
by  mineralogists  to  carbonate  of  lime, 
rhombohedral  in  its  crystallization. 
It  differs  from  aragonite  only  in  crys- 
tallization. Calcite  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest minerals. 

Calcium,  a  dyad  metallic  element. 
Calcium  is  a  yellowish  white,  ductile, 
malleable  metal,  which  oxidizes  in 
damp  air;  it  decomposes  water,  and 
dissolves  easily  in  dilute  acids. 

Calcium  Carbide,  a  chemical 
compound  of  calcium  and  carbon.  It 
is  a  hard,  bluish-black,  clear  crystal- 
line body,  and  is  impervious  to  light, 
and  insoluble  in  all  known  solvents. 
It  is  used  generally  for  the  produc- 
tion of  acetylene  and  the  reduction  of 
iron.  See  ACETYLENE. 

Calcinm  Light,  a  brilliant  light 
produced  by  directing  the  flame  of  an 
oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe  against  a 
block  of  compressed  quicklime.  It 
has  been  used  on  the  stage  for  many 
years,  and  by  the  aid  of  colored  glasses 
very  charming  effects  are  produced. 


C  ale-sinter 


Caledonia 


More  recently  it  has  been  employed  in 
lanterns  for  projecting  photographic 
and  biographic  pictures  on  a  screen. 

Calc-sinter,  a  carbonate  of  lime, 
the  substance  which  forms  the  stalac- 
tites and  stalagmites  that  beautify 
many  caves. 

Calculating  Machine,  a  piece  _of 
mechanism  for  assisting  the  human  in- 
tellect hi  the  performance  of  arithme- 
tical operations.  Among  modern  cal- 
culating machines  are  the  slide-rule 
and  bank  and  cash  registers. 

Calculus,  the  medical  term  for 
what  is  popularly  known  as  stone. 
Calculi  vary  in  size  from  a  pin's  head 
to  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  even  larger,  and 
weigh  from  a  few  grains  to  several 
ounces.  They  derive  their  special 
name  and  character  as  well  from  the 
organs  of  the  body  in  which  they  are 
found  as  from  the  constituents  of 
which  they  are  composed. 

Calculus,  The  Infinitesimal,  or 
Transcendental  Analysis, a  branch 
of  mathematical  science. 

Calcutta,  (literally,  the  ghaut  or 
landing  place  of  Kali,  from  a  famous 
shrine  of  this  goddess),  capital  of 
British  India,  and  of  the  presidency 
and  province  of  Bengal ;  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hooghly,  a  branch 
of  the  Ganges,  about  80  miles  from 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  Hooghly  is 
navigable  up  to  the  city  for  vessels 
of  4,000  tons  or  drawing  26  feet.  The 
port  of  Calcutta  extends  for  about  10 
miles  along  the  river,  and  is  under  the 
management  of  a  body  of  commission- 
ers. Opposite  the  city  it  is  crossed 
by  a  great  pontoon  bridge,  which 
gives  communication  with  Howrah 
for  vehicles  and  foot-passengers,  and 
can  be  opened  at  one  point  to  let 
vessels  pass  up  or  down.  Beside  the 
accommodation  for  shipping  furnished 
by  the  river,  there  are  also  several 
docks.  The  trade  is  very  large,  Cal- 
cutta being  the  commercial  center  of 
India.  There  is  a  very  extensive  in- 
land trade  by  the  Ganges  and  its  con- 
nections, as  also  by  railways  (the 
chief  of  which  start  from  Howrah), 
while  almost  the  whole  foreign  trade 
of  this  part  of  India  is  monopolized 
by  Calcutta.  In  1773  Calcutta  be- 
came the  seat  of  British  government 
for  the  whole  of  India.  Since  then 
the  history  of  Calcutta  has  been  an 


almost  unbroken  record  of  progress 
and  prosperity.  Pop.  in  1911,  with 
suburbs,  1,222,313;  excluding  How- 
rah, 1,043,307. 

Caldecott,  Randolph,  an  Eng- 
lish artist ;  born  in  Chester,  England, 
March  22,  1846.  He  will  chiefly  be 
remembered  by  the  admirable  "  Calde- 
cott's  Picture-books,"  which  began  in 
1878,  with  "  John  Gilpin  "  and  "  The 
House  that  Jack  Built."  After  vain 
attempts  to  restore  his  health  by  trips 
abroad  he  died  in  St.  Augustine,  Fla., 
Feb.  12,  1886. 

Calderon,  Francisco  Garcia,  a 
Peruvian  jurist  and  statesman;  born 
in  Arequipa  in  1834.  He  became  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1867 ;  'accept- 
ed the  treasury  portfolio  in  1868,  and, 
after  the  Chilean  occupation  in  1883, 
became  the  head  of  the  provisional 
government.  Being  captured  by  the 
enemy,  he  was  retained  as  a  prisoner 
at  Valparaiso,  and,  although  his  elec- 
tion as  President  was  confirmed,  he 
was  unable  to  take  the  office.  After 
his  release  he  figured  prominently  in 
public  affairs.  He  died  Sept.  21,  1905. 

Caldwell,  Charles  Henry  Bro- 
medge,  an  American  naval  officer; 
born  in  Hingham,  Mass.,  June  11, 
1828.  In  the  Civil  War  he  command- 
ed the  "  Itasca,"  taking  part  in  the 
bombardment  of  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip  and  the  Chalmette  batter- 
ies, and  in  the  capture  of  New  Or- 
leans. He  was  promoted  commodore 
in  1874.  He  died  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.  30,  1877. 

Caldwell,  James,  an  American 
patriot;  born  in  Charlotte  county, 
Va.,  in  1734.  During  the  growing 
antagonism  between  the  Colonies  and 
Great  Britain,  he  warmly  took  the 
side  of  the  former,  and  when  hostili- 
ties began,  became  chaplain  to  the 
New  Jersey  brigade.  He  was  shot  by 
a  sentinel,  at  the  Point,  New  York, 
Nov.  24,  1781,  and  buried  at  Eliza- 
bethtown,  N.  J.,  where  a  costly  mar- 
ble monument  covers  the  remains  of 
the  "  soldier-parson." 

Caledonia  and  Caledonians,  the 
names  by  which  the  N.  portions  of 
Scotland  and  its  inhabitants  first  be- 
came known  to  the  Romans. 

Caledonia,  New,  a  French  island 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  lying  some  700 
miles  E.  of  Australia.  Its  length  N. 


Calendar 

W.  to  S.  E.  is  250  miles,  the  breadth 
being  about  35  miles.  It  is  surround- 
ed by  coral  reefs,  at  a  distance  of 
from  5  to  18  miles. 

New  Caledonia  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  French  on  Sept.  24,  1853, 
and  a  small  colony  was  formed  there. ! 
During  the  time  of  the  second  empire  : 
it  was  employed  as  a  place  of  banish- 
ment for  criminals,  a  purpose  which 
it  still  serves.  In  1872,  by  a  decree  of  , 
the  National  Assembly  at  Versailles, 
New  Caledonia  was  fixed  on  as  the 
place  to  which  the  condemned  Com- 
munists should  be  transported.  The 
number  of  the  condemned  amounted 
to  more  than  3,000.  In  1911  the  total 
population  was  50,608,  of  whom  13,- 
138  were  free,  5,671  of  convict  origin, 
and  28,075  black.  Capital,  Noumea; 
pop.  10,000. 

Calendar,  a  systematic  division  of 
time  into  years,  months,  weeks,  and 
days,  or  a  register  of  these  or  similar 
divisions.  The  present  calendar  was 
adopted  in  the  IGth  century,  the  Ju- 
lian, or  old  Roman  calendar  having^ 
become^  «;ross]y  erroneous. 

Luigi  Lilio  Ghiraldi,  frequently 
called  Aloysius  Lilius,  a  physician  of 
Verona,  projected  a  plan  for  amend- 
ing the  calendar,  which,  after  his 
death,  was  presented  by  his  brother  to 
Pope  Gregory  XIII.  To  carry  it  into 
execution,  the  Pope  assembled  a  num- 
ber of  prelates  and  learned  men.  In 
1577  the  proposed  change  was  adopted 
by  all  the  Catholic  princes ;  and  in 
1582  Gregory  issued  a  brief  abolish- 
ing the  Julian  calendar  in  all  Catho- 
lic countries,  and  introducing  in  its 
stead  the  one  now  in  use,  under  the 
name  of  the  Gregorian  or  reformed 
calendar,  or  the  "  new  style,"  as  the 
other  wa<!  now  called  £he  "  old  style." 
The  amendment  ordered  was  this : 
Ten  days  were  to  be  dropped  after  the 
4th  of  October,  1582,  and  the  15th 
was  reckoned  immediately  after  the 
4th.  Every  100th  year,  which  by  the 
old  style  was  to  have  been  a  leap 
year,  was  now  to  be  a  common  year, 
the  fourth  excepted;  that  is,  1600 
was  to  remain  a  leap  year,  but  1700,  i 
1800,  1900  to  be  of  the  common  length  j 
and  2000  a  leap  year  again.  In  this  ] 
calendar  the  length  of  the  solar  year  i 
was  taken  to  be  365  days,  5  hours,  49 
minutes,  and  12  seconds,  the  difference 
between  which  and  subsequent  obser- 


Calhoun 

vations  is  immaterial.  In  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, and  the  greater  part  of  Italy, 
the  amendment  was  introduced  ac- 
cording to  the  Pope's  instructions.  In 
France  the  10  days  were  dropped  in 
December,  the  10th  being  called  the 
20th.  In  Catholic  Switzerland,  Ger- 
many, and  the  Netherlands,  the  change 
was  introduced  in  the  following  year; 
in  Poland  in  1586,  in  Hungary  in 
1587.  Protestant  Germany,  Holland, 
and  Denmark  accepted  it  in  1700,  and 
Switzerland  in  1701.  In  England  the 
Gregorian  calendar  was  adopted  in 
1752.  The  1st  of  January  was  then 
adopted  as  the  beginning  of  the  legal 
year,  and  it  was  customary  for  some 
time  to  give  two  dates  for  the  period 
intervening  between  January  1  and 
March  25,  that  of  the  old  and  that 
of  the  new  year,  as  January  175  2/3. 
Russia  alone  retains  the  old  style, 
which  differs  12  days  from  the  new. 

Calends,  the  first  day  of  the 
month  among  the  Romans. 

Calgary,  a  city  in  the  Province 
of  Alberta,  Canada;  at  junction  of 
the  Bow  and  Elbow  rivers  and  on 
the  Canadian  Pacific  railway;  642 
miles  E.  of  Vancouver,  840  miles  W. 
of  Winnipeg,  and  near  the  foothill* 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  the 
See  of  an  Anglican  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop;  contains  Western 
Canada  College,  Provincial  Normal 
School,  St.  Hilda's  Ladies'  College, 
Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Gen- 
eral and  Holy  Cross  hospitals,  and  a 
sanitarium  for  consumptives;  is  in  an 
unusually  rich  wheat-growing  and 
mixed-farming  region;  has  large  live- 
stock interests;  and  has  an  annual 
wholesale  trade  exceeding  $25,000,- 
000.  Pop.  (1911)  43,704. 

Callioun,  John  C  aid  well,  an 
American  statesman;  born  in  Abbe- 
ville district,  S.  C.,  March  18,  1782; 
graduated  with  distinction  at  Yale 
College  in  1804,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  South  Carolina  bar  in  1807.  After 
serving  for  two  sessions  in  the  Legis- 
lature of  his  native  State,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  in  1811.  From 
that  time  until  his  death  he  was  sel- 
dom absent  from  Washington,  being 
nearly  the  whole  time  in  the  public 
service,  either  in  Congress  or  in  the 
Cabinet.  When  he  first  entered  Con- 
gress, the  difficulties  with  England 
were  fast  approaching  actual  hostill- 


Calico  Printing 


California 


ties,  and  he  immediately  took  part 
with  that  section  of  the  dominant  par- 
ty, whose  object  it  was  to  drive  the  still 
reluctant  administration  into  a  decla- 
ration of  war.  They  succeeded,  and, 
as  a  member  of  the  Committee  on  For- 
eign Relations,  he  reported  a  bill  for 
declaring  war,  which  was  passed  in 
June,  1812.  When  Monroe  formed 
his  administration  in  1817,  Calhoun 
became  Secretary  of  War,  a  post 
which  he  filled  with  great  ability  for 
seven  years. 

In  1824,  he  was  chosen  Vice-Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  under  John 
Q.  Adams,  and  again,  in  1828,  under 
General  Jackson.  With  the  latter  he 
did  not  long  continue  on  amicable  po- 
litical relations,  but  entered  into 
fierce  opposition,  when  the  President, 
and  a  majority  of  Congress,  deter- 
mined to  enforce  submission  to  the 
law  of  1828,  imposing  a  heavy  protec- 
tive tariff.  It  was  at  this  period  that 
he  broached  his  famous  "  Nullification 
Doctrine,"  which  is  substantially,  that 
the  United  States  is  not  a  union  of 
the  people,  but  a  league  or  compact 
between  sovereign  States,  any  of 
which  has  a  right  to  judge  when  the 
compact  is  broken,  and  to  pronounce 
any  law  to  be  null  and  void  which 
violates  its  conditions.  In  short,  Cal- 
houn was  the  first  great  advocate  of 
the  doctrine  of  Secession.  From  this 
time  forward,  for  the  last  17  years  of 
his  public  service,  he  hardly  aspired  to 
be  considered  a  national  statesman 
acting  for  the  whole  country ;  he  was 
content,  even  proud,  to  be  viewed  only 
as  a  Southern  statesman.  Hence  his 
advocacy  of  the  extreme  doctrine  of 
State-Rights;  his  censure  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise,  passed  13  _  years 
before,  when  he  was  himself  in  the 
Cabinet;  his  support  of  all  measures 
tending  to  the  extension  of  slave-hold- 
ing territory;  and,  finally,  his  pro- 
posal to  amend  the  Constitution  by 
abolishing  the  single  office  of  the  pres- 
idency, and  creating  two  presidents, 
one  for  the  North,  and  the  other  for 
the  South,  to  be  in  office  at  the  same 
time.  The  place  in  which  he  advo- 
cated these  doctrines  was  the  floor  of 
the  United  States  Senate,  where  he 
continued  for  the  rest  of  his  life,  ex- 
cept for  a  short  time  at  the  close  of 
Mr.  Tyler's  administration,  when  he 
accepted  the  office  of  Secretary  of 


State.   He  died  in  Washington,  March 
31,  1850. 

Calico  Printing,  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing on  calico  or  cotton  cloth  varie- 
gated patterns  by  the  process  of  print- 
ing, the  object  as  a  rule  being  to  have 
the  colors  composing  the  designs  as 
fast  as  possible  to  washing  and  other 
influences. 

Calient,  a  seaport  of  India,  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras,  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  which  was  ceded  to  the  British 
in  1792.  It  was  the  first  port  in  In- 
dia visited  by  Europeans.  It  manu- 
factures cotton  cloth,  to  which  it  has 
given  the  name  calico.  Pop.  (1911) 
78,417. 

California,  a  State  in  the  Pacific 
Division  of  the  North  American  Union, 
bounded  by  Oregon,  Nerada,  Arizona, 
Lower  California,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean;  land  area,  155,652  square 
miles ;  admitted  to  the  Union  Sept.  9, 
1850 ;  number  of  counties,  58 ;  pop. 
(1900)  1,486,053;  (1916)  2,938,654; 
capital,  Sacramento. 

The  surface  of  the  State  is  very 
mountainous,  being  traversed  by  two 
ranges  extending  in  a  N.  W.  and  S.  E. 
direction.  The  Coast  Range,  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  broken  ridges,  has 
an  average  width  at  the  base  of  65 
miles,  and  varies  from  1,000  to  8,000 
feet  in  height.  The  highest  peak  is 
Mt  Ripley,  7,500  feet  The  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  join  the  Coast 
Range  and  extend  along  the  E.  border 
of  the  State  for  about  450  miles,  with 
nearly  100  peaks  exceeding  10,000 
feet  in  height,  the  highest  being  Mt. 
Whitney,  14,898  feet,  Mt  Tyndall, 
14,386  feet,  and  Mt.  Shasta,  14,350 
feet.  Between  these  ranges  is  a  basin, 
at  some  early  time  the  bed  of  a  lake, 
about  450  miles  in  length,  the  N.  sec- 
tion known  as  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley, and  the  S.  section  as  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley.  This  valley  contains 
Tulare  Lake,  and  is  drained  by  the 
Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers. 
The  coast  line  is  irregular,  with  nu- 
merous capes  and  bays,  affording 
many  good  harbors.  San  Francisco 
Bay  is  the  largest  and  best  harbor  on 
the  Pacific  coast 

California  was  for  many  years  the 
first  State  in  the  Union  in  the  pro- 
duction of  gold,  but  it  has  now 
dropped  to  second  place.  As  early  as 
1841  gold  was  obtained  by  washing 


California 


California 


near  the  San  Fernando  Mission.  In 
1848  the  discovery  at  Coloma  of  large 
gold  deposits  started  the  up-building 
of  California.  At  first  mining  was 
carried  on  by  washing  the  river  gravel, 
and  in  1851  sluices  were  built  through 
which  the  water  was  passed.  These 
sluices  were  filled  with  blocks  of  wood 
or  stones,  which  collected  the  gold  as 
it  sank.  Digging  was  carried  on  also, 
and  in  1852  an  hydraulic  system  was 
introduced,  by  which  great  streams  of 
water  were  turned  against  the  gravel 
banks.  This  process  was  successful, 
but  by  it  the  banks  were  rapidly  swept 
away  and  the  detritus  threatened  to 
choke  the  rivers,  so  that  its  use  was 
soon  prohibited  by  law.  Gold  is  found 
in  the  metallic  state,  often  associated 
with  silver  and  other  metals,  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Sierras.  It  is  also  found 
in  streams  and  alluvial  deposits  in 
coarse  grains,  and  quartz  deposits 
where  it  is  extracted  by  amalgama- 
tion. A  very  rich  quality  of  silver 
occurs  in  small  quantities,  and  mag- 
netic iron  and  cinnabar  abound  in  the 
Sierras.  Pyrites  of  iron  and  copper 
are  found  in  gold-bearing  quartz,  and 
a  rich  variety  of  argentiferous  galena 
occurs  in  San  Bernardino  county. 
Other  valuable  mineral  products  are : 
tin,  plumbago,  cobalt,  granites,  mar- 
bles, sandstones,  hydraulic  limestones 
and  bituminous  coal.  Diamonds,  onyx 
and  other  precious  stones  abound,  and 
bitumen  and  petroleum  are  found  in 
many  places.  In  1898-1899  there  was 
a  great  boom  in  the  mineral  oil  pro- 
ductions in  the  Los  Angeles  district, 
where  there  were  750  wells  working 
and  many  new  ones  under  construc- 
tion. The  output  in  1915  was  86,591,- 
535  barrels,  valued  at  $36,558,439.  In 
the  same  year  the  production  of  all 
minerals  had  a  value  of  $97,172,541, 
gold  leading  with  $22,442,296.  Agri- 
culture in  1916  yielded  a  total  of 
$148,559,000,  and  all  live  stock  repre- 
sented a  value  of  $182,395,000.  Bank 
exchanges  at  the  clearing-houses  at 
San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles  in 
1916  aggregated  $4,405,508,000.  Com- 
mercial interests  are  concentrated  at 
San  Francisco  and  Los  Angeles, 
•where,  in  the  calendar  year  1916  the 
imports  of  merchandise  were  valued 
at  $122,591,063;  exports,  $131,197,- 
872. 

The  soil   varies   with    the   surface 


conditions  of  the  State.  In  the  ele- 
vated portions  it  is  rich,  mellow,  and 
easily  worked,  and  timber  land 
abounds.  In  the  lower  portions  the 
soil  varies  from  a  rich  loam  to  a  heavy 
clay  or  adobe.  What  was  formerly 
considered  desert  land  can  now,  under 
irrigation,  be  turned  into  valuable 
agricultural  districts.  Agriculture 
and  commerce  flourish,  and  the  State 
is  the  center  of  great  financial  inter- 
ests. 

The  manufacturing  industry  has 
had  a  remarkable  development  and  in 
1914  had  10,057  industrial  plants,  em- 
ploying $736,106,000  capital  and  139,- 
481  wage  earners,  paying  $105,613,- 
000  for  wages  and  $447,474,000  for 
materials  used  in  processes,  and  yield- 
ing products  valued  at  $712,801,000. 

The  principal  universities  and  col- 
leges are,  University  of  California 
(opened  1869,  non-sectarian)  ;  Le- 
land  Stanford  Junior  University 
(1891,  non-sectarian)  ;  St.  Ignatius 
College  (1855,  Roman  Catholic)  ; 
Santa  Clara  College  (1851,  Roman 
Catholic),  and  the  University  of 
Southern  California  (1880,  Methodist 
Episcopal). 

The  strongest  religious  denomina- 
tions in  the  State  are  the  Roman 
Catholic,  Methodist  Episcopal,  Pres- 
byterian, Congregational,  Baptist, 
Protestant  Episcopal,  Lutheran,  and 
Disciples  of  Christ.  The  1910  census 
reported  for  all  denominations  2,897 
organizations,  with  membership  of 
611,464,  church  officers  2.521,  church 
property  valued  at  $28,065,261,  Sun- 
day Schools  2,689,  officers  and  teachers 
25,447,  and  scholars  243,672. 

The  total  length  of  railroads  within 
the  State,  June  30,  1915,  was  8,451 
miles,  exclusive  of  terminal  and 
switching  mileage. 

In  1915  the  assessed  valuation  of  all 
property  subject  to  the  general  prop- 
erty tax  was  $3,232,981.478;  the 
amount  of  the  levy  was  $1,260,863; 
the  revenue  was  $24,639,357  and  ex- 
penditure $34,119,473 ;  aggregate 
State  debt  $136,528,824;  debts  of 
counties  $12,443,514;  debts  of  cities 
and  minor  civil  divisions  $116.500,- 
277;  total  State  debt  less  sinking 
fund  assets,  $25,666,382. 

Under  the  National  Banking  Act  of 
1913  California  is  in  Federal  Reserve 
District  No.  12. 


California 

The  Governor  is  elected  for  a  term  ol 
four  years  and  receives  a  salary  oi 
$10,000  per  annum.  Legislative  ses- 
sions are  held  biennially,  and  are  not 
limited  in  duration.  The  legislature 
in  1916  had  39  members  in  the 
Senate,  elected  for  4  years,  and  80 
in  the  House,  elected  for  2  years ; 
salary  of  each  $1,000  per  term  with 
mileage.  Representatives  in  Congress, 
11 ;  State  Government  Republican. 

In  1869  the  completion  of  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  R.  R.  advanced  the  pros- 
perity of  the  State.  From  1870  to 
1890  the  agitation  against  Chinese 
immigration  led  to  the  Exclusion  Act. 
In  1906  a  disastrous  earthquake 
caused  great  destruction  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  other  coastal  towns.  The 
same  year  the  Anti-Japanese  agitation 
led  to  international  representations, 
and  raised  the  question  of  State  rights 
as  affecting  Federal  interests. 

California,  Gulf  of,  or  Sea  of 
Cortes,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
separating  Lower  California  from  the 
Mexican  mainland.  It  is  700  miles  in 
length  and  varies  in  width  from  40  to 
100  miles. 

California,  Lower,  a  territory  of 
Mexico,  comprising  a  peninsula  jut- 
ting into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  sep- 
arated from  the  mainland  throughout 
its  length  by  the  Gulf  of  California. 
It  is  nearly  800  miles  in  length,  and 
in  different  places  30  to  120  miles 
wide;  area  58,328  square  miles.  Jt  is 
mountainous  and  arid,  but  possesses 
valuable  agricultural  and  mineral  re- 
sources. The  chief  towns  are  Loret- 
to  and  La  Paz,  the  capital.  Pop. 
(1910)  52,272,  of  whom  perhaps  a 
half  are  Indians. 

California,     University     of,     a 

non-sectarian  coeducational  seat  of 
learning  in  Berkeley,  CaL  The  un- 
dergraduate department  is  located  at 
Berkeley,  9  miles  from  San  Francisco ; 
the  astronomical  department  and  Lick 
Observatory  at  Hamilton,  Santa  Clara 
county,  and  the  professional  schools 
at  San  Francisco.  At  Menlo  Park  th<> 
great  Flood  Mansion  and  grounds,  do- 
nated in  1898,  comprise  a  commercial 
college  endowment.  The  university 
receives  a  handsome  sum  from  the 
National  Government  for  its  agricul- 
tural experiment  station;  the  State 


Calixtines 

adds  a  large  appropriation ;  and  the 
whole  is  spent  on  four  stations  and 
several  sub-stations,  where  many  im- 
portant horticultural  experiments  are 
made.  The  university  in  1899  ac- 
cepted plans  for  a  new  set  of  build- 
ings to  cost  about  $7,500,000.  The 
principal  benefactor  of  the  university, 
since  1896,  has  been  Mrs.  Phoebe  A. 
Hearst,  widow  of  Senator  Hearst. 
Her  gifts  have  reached  millions  of 
dollars.  As  a  result  of  these  and 
other  resources  of  endowment,  the  in- 
stitution has  become  one  of  the  rich- 
est of  American  universities. 

Caligula,  Cains  Caesar  Augus- 
tus Germanicns,  a  Roman  emperor, 
son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina; 
born  A.  D.  12,  in  the  camp  at  Antium. 
He  succeeded  Tiberius,  A.  D.  37,  and 
made  himself  very  popular  by  his 
mildness ;  but  at  the  end  of  eight 
months  he  was  seized  with  a  disorder, 
caused  by  his  irregular  mode  of  living, 
which  appears  to  have  deranged  his  in- 
tellect. After  his  recovery  he  sud- 
denly showed  himself  the  most  cruel 
and  unnatural  of  tyrants.  He  was 
assassinated  by  a  band  of  conspirators 
A.  D.  41. 

Caliper  Compasses,  compasses 
made  with  arched  legs  to  measure  the 
diameters  of  cylinders  or  globular  bod- 
ies, or  with  straight  legs  and  retracted 
points  to  measure  the  interior  diam- 
eter or  bore  of  anything. 

Caliph,  Calif,  or  Khalif,  the  title 
borne  by  the  successor  of  Mohammed 
in  temporal  and  religious  authority. 

Calisaya  Bark,  a  variety  of  Pe- 
ruvian or  cinchona  bark,  namely,  that 
of  Cinchona  calisaya  or  flava. 

Calisthenics,  or  Callisthenics, 
a  name  for  exercises  for  promoting 
gracefulness  and  strength,  and  com- 
prises the  more  gentle  forms  of  gym- 
nastics, especially  for  girls. 

Calixtines,  a  Christian  sect  in 
Bohemia,  the  more  moderate  of  the 
two  great  sections  into  which  the  Hus- 
sites were  divided  in  1420.  Unlike 
the  Taborjtes  —  the  other  section  — 
they  did  not  seek  to  subvert  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church  of  Rome,  but 
demanded  the  restoration  of  the  cup 
to  the  people  in  the  celebration  of  the 
Supper;  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel 
in  primitive  simplicity  and  purity; 
the  separation  of  the  priests  from 


Calixtna 

secular,  and  their  entire  devotion  to 
spiritual,  concerns ;  and,  the  preven- 
tion or  punishment,  by  lawful  author- 
ity, of  "  mortal  "  sins.  The  council 
of  Basel,  in  1433,  to  end  the  disas- 
trous Bohemian  war,  invited  envoys 
from  the  Hussites.  Procopius  Rasa 
and  others  appeared,  but  the  effort 
failed.  Afterward  the  council  sent 
^Eneas  Sylvius  into  Bohemia.  He, 
by  conceding  the  use  of  the  cup  to  the 
Calixtines,  reconciled  them  to  the 
Church  of  Rome. 

Cnlixtus,  the  name  of  several 
Popes. 

Calixtns  (properly  CALLISEN), 
Georg,  a  German  theologian  of  the 
Lutheran  Church;  born  in  Schleswig 
in  1586.  He  wrote  against  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy,  and  proposed  a  re- 
union of  Catholics  and  Protestants 
upon  the  basis  of  the  Apostles'  creed. 
He  died  in  1G56. 

Calkins,  Gary  Nathan,  an  Amer- 
ican scientist ;  born  in  Valparaiso, 
Ind.,  Jan.  18,  1869.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  in  1890 ;  had  charge  of 
scientific  expeditions  to  Alaska  in 
1896  and  1897;  and  in  1900  was  in- 
structor in  Zoology  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity. 

Call  ah  an,  James  Morton,  an 
American  publicist ;  born  in  Bedford, 
Ind.,  Nov.  4,  1864.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Indiana  in 
1894,  and  became  lecturer  on  Ameri- 
can Diplomatic  History  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins in  1898. 

Callao,  the  port  of  Lima,  Peru, 
lies  7  miles  S.  W.  of  Lima  by  rail,  on 
a  small  bay.  The  town  possesses  a 
floating  dock,  and  fine  harbor  works, 
embracing  an  area  of  520  acres,  with 
extensive  pier  and  dock  accommoda- 
tion ;  and  the  spacious  roadstead,  shel- 
tered by  the  island  of  San  Lorenzo, 
is  one  of  the  safest  in  the  world.  The 
present  Callao  dates  only  from  1746, 
when  the  original  city,  a  short  dis- 
tance to  the  S.,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  and  an  invasion  of  the 
sea.  Callao  was  bombarded  in  1880 
during  the  war  between  Chile  and 
Peru.  By  the  completion  of  a  direct 
cable  between  this  port  and  Mollendo, 
telegraphic  communication  has  been 
established  with  the  United  States. 
Pop.  (1905)  34,346. 


Calorie 

Callender,  John,  an  American 
historian;  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
1706;  collected  many  papers  relating 
to  the  Baptists  in  America ;  and  pub- 
lished "A  Centennial  Discourse  on  the 
Civil  and  Religious  Affairs  of  the  Col- 
ony of  Rhode  Island,"  which  was  the 
only  history  of  that  State  for  more 
than  a  century.  He  died  in  Newport. 
R.  I.,  Jan.  26,  174a 

Calliope,  one  of  the  Muses.  She 
presided  over  eloquence  and  heroic  po- 
etry, and  is  said  to  have  been  the 
mother  of  Orpheus. 

Calliope,  an  asteroid,  the  22nd 
found.  It  was  discovered  by  Hind, 
on  Nov.  16,  1852.  Also  a  series  of 
steam  whistles,  pitched  to  produce 
musical  notes ;  operated  by  a  keyboard! 

Callisthenes,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  365  B.  c.  He  was  a  grandson 
of  Aristotle,  and  accompanied  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  his  expedition  to 
Asia.  He  was  accused  of  conspiracy, 
and  put  to  death  B.  c.  328. 

Calmar,  a  fortified  seaport  town 
of  Sweden,  on  the  W.  side  of  a  narrow 
strait  of  the  Baltic,  separating  the  is- 
land of  (Eland  from  the  continent,  90 
miles  N.  E.  by  E.  of  Carlskrona.  The 
town,  built  of  wood,  stands  on  the 
small  island  of  Quarnholm.  Here,  in 
1397,  was  concluded  the  famous  treaty 
which  united  the  kingdoms  of  Sweden, 
Denmark,  and  Norway.  Here  also, 
in  1520,  Gustavus  Vasa  disembarked 
to  deliver  his  country  from  the  domi- 
nation of  foreigners  and  of  a  san- 
guinary tyrant.  Pop.  (1915)  15,917. 

Calms,  Regions  of,  tracts  in  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  on  the 
confines  of  the  trade-winds,  where 
calms  of  long  duration  prevail. 

Calomel,  mercury  sub-chloride.  It 
is  insoluble  in  water,  and  blacked 
by  ammonia.  It  is  used  in  liver  com- 
plaints, and  in  any  of  the  complaints 
for  w  hich  mercury  internally  adminis- ' 
tered  is  indicated.  Care  should  be  ex- 
ercised in  its  use,  as  it  is  likely  to  in- 
duce salivation. 

Calorescence,  the  transmutation 
of  heat  rays  into  light  rays. 

Caloric,  the  name  given  to  a  sup- 
posed subtle  imponderable  fluid  to 
which  the  sensation  and  phenomena  of 
heat  were  formerly  attributed. 


Calorimeter 

Calorimeter,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  heat  which 
a  body  parts  with  or  absorbs  when  its 
temperature  sinks  or  rises. 

Calptropis,  a  genus  of  asclepiads, 
consisting  of  three  species,  which 
form  shrubs  or  small  trees,  and  are 
natives  of  the  tropics  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica. 

Calotype,  a  process  by  which 
paper  saturated  with  iodide  of  silver 
is  exposed  to  the  action  of  light,  the 
image  being  developed  and  fixed  by 
hyposulphite  of  soda. 

Calovins.  Abraham,  (originally 
KALAU),  the  chief  representative  of 
controversial  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in 
the  17th  century;  born  in  Mohrungen 
in  East  Prussia,  April  16,  1612.  He 
waged  war  incessantly  on  Arminian, 
Socinian,  Reformed  and  Catholic  doc- 
trines. He  was  six  times*  married,  the 
last  time  in  his  72d  year.  He  died 
Feb.  25,  1686. 

Caloyers,  Greek  monks,  belonging 
to  the  order  of  St.  Basil,  who  lead  a 
very  austere  life. 

Caltrop,  a  four-pronged  piece  of 
iron,  each  prong  about  4  inches  in 
length,  formerly  thrown  down  in  war- 
fare to  check  the  approach  of  the  en- 
emy. 

Calninba,  or  Colombo,  used  in 
medicine,  a  menispermaceous  climber 
of  Eastern  Africa,  which  has  been  in- 
troduced into  India.  Sliced  and  dried, 
it  has  a  greenish-yellow  tint,  bitter 
taste,  and  a  faint  aromatic  odor.  It 
is  a  useful  mild  tonic  and  stomachic. 
AMERICAN  CALUMBA  ROOT  is  obtained 
from  Frasera  Walteri,  a  gentianaceous 
biennial,  and  has  properties  like  those 
of  gentian. 

Calumet,  a  pipe  used  by  the 
North  American  Indians.  The  bowl 
is  of  stone,  and  the  stem  is  orna- 
mented with  feathers,  etc.  The  cal- 
umet is  the  emblem  of  peace.  To  re- 
fuse it  is  to  make  a  proclamation  of 
enmity,  and  to  accept  is  a  sign  of 
friendship. 

Calvados,  a  French  department, 
part  of  the  old  province  of  Norman- 
dy, bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  English 
Channel,  and  E.,  W.  and  S.  by  the 
departments  Eure,  La  Manche,  and 
Orne.  Area,  2,197  square  miles; 


Calvim 

Sop.  (1911)  396,318;  chief  town, 
aen,  pop.  (1911)  46,934. 

Calvary,  the  English  designation 
of  the  spot  upon  which  the  crucifixion 
of  Jesus  Christ  is  recorded  as  having 
taken  place.  It  lay  beyond  the  city, 
and  by  Captain  Conder  is  identified 
with  the  old  House  of  Stoning,  or 
place  of  public  execution,  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses,  on  the  top  of 
the  remarkable  knoll  outside  the  Da- 
mascus gate,  on  the  N.  si^e  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  is  now  generally  believed  to 
have  been  the  knoll  on  the  north-east 
of  the  city,  formerly  known  as  the 
Grotto  of  Jeremiah  near  the  Damascus 
Gate. 

Calve,  Emma,  a  French  opera 
singer;  born  in  1866.  She  made  her 
debut  at  Brussels  in  Gounod's 
"  Faust."  She  has  made  successful 
tours  of  the  United  States  in  leading 
roles. 

Calverley,  Charles,  an  American 
sculptor ;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Nov. 
1,  1833.  He  won  note  with  groups 
and  figures  and  portrait  busts  of 
Greeley,  Cooper,  Howe,  etc.  He  was 
elected  to  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1875.  He  died  Feb.  26,  1914. 

Calvi,  a  seaport  on  the  island  of 
Corsica,  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Bay  of 
Calvi.  It  was  founded  in  the  13th 
century.  It  was  so  strongly  fortified 
as  to  withstand  several  sieges,  but  in 
1794,  after  a  siege  of  51  days,  was 
taken  by  the  English  from  the  Corsi- 
cans.  The  following  year  it  was  re- 
taken. Pop.  about  2,500. 

Calvin,  John,  (so  called  from 
Calvinus,  the  Latinized  form  of  his 
family  name,  CAXJVIN,  or  CHAUVIN), 
the  second  great  reformer  of  the  16th 
century;  born  in  Noyon,  Picardy, 
July  10,  1509.  Calvin  died  May  27, 
1564,  in  the  55th  year  of  his  age.  He 
was  of  a  weak  constitution,  and  suf- 
fered from  frequent  sickness.  In 
Strasburg  he  had  married  a  widow, 
Idelette  de  Burie,  in  1539 ;  a  son,  the 
fruit  of  their  union,  died  early.  In 
1549  he  lost  his  wife,  after  which  he 
never  married  again.  He  was  tem- 
perate and  austere,  gloomy  and  in- 
flexible. His  disinterestedness  was 
rare.  He  had  a  yearly  stipend  of  150 
frances,  15  measures  of  corn,  and  2 
casks  of  wine;  and  never  received  a 
larger  one. 


Calvin 

The  chief  doctrines  of  Calvin's  sys- 
tem are :  Predestination,  particular 
redemption,  total  depravity,  irresisti- 
ble grace,  and  the  certain  perseverance 
of  the  saints,  denominated  the  five 
points.  The  followers  of  Calvin  in 
Germany  are  called  the  Reformed. 
In  France  most  Protestants  are  Cal- 
vinists.  Calvinism  is  the  professed 
belief  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  Pres- 
byterians ;  the  Particular  Baptists  in 
England  and  India,  and  the  Associated 
Baptists  in  America ;  the  Independ- 
ents of  every  class  in  England  and 
Scotland,  and  the  Congregationalists 
of  New  England. 

Calvin,  Samuel,  a  Scotch-Ameri- 
can scientist;  born  in  Wigtonshire, 
Scotland,  Feb.  2,  1840.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  when  a  youth  and 
served  in  the  Civil  War.  He  studied 
geology  as  a  life  pursuit,  and  after 
1874  was  Professor  of  Geology  at  the 
University  of  Iowa,  and  State  Geolo- 
gist of  Iowa  after  1892.  Died  in  1911. 

Calvinistic  Methodists,  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Methodists,  distinguished 
by  their  Calvinistic  sentiments  from 
the  ordinary  Wesleyans,  who  are  Ar- 
minian.  Wesley  and  Whitfield,  the 
colleagues  in  the  great  evangelistic 
movement  which  did  so  much  spirit- 
ually and  morally  to  regenerate  Eng- 
land in  the  18th  century,  differed 
with  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  grace, 
Wesley  being  Arminian,  and  Whit- 
field  Calvinistic ;  the  latter  revival 
preacher  may  be  looked  on  as  the 
father  and  founder  of  Calvinistic 
Methodism.  In  distinctive  form  it 
dates  from  1725,  but  did  not  complete- 
ly sever  its  connection  with  the  Eng- 
lish Church  till  1810.  In  government 
it  is  now  Presbyterian. 

Calvo  Doctrine.    'See  DRAQO. 

Calx,  properly  lime  or  chalk,  but 
the  term  is  more  generally  applied  to 
the  residuum  of  a  metal  or  mineral 
which  has  been  subjected  to  violent 
heat,  and  which  is,  or  may  be,  re- 
duced to  a  fine  powder. 

Calycanttns,  a  genus  of  hardy 
American  shrubs,  of  which  one  spe- 
cies, Florida  allspice,  has  yellow  flow- 
ers, and  is  sweet-scented. 

Calydonian  Boar.  According  to 
a  Greek  myth,  CEneus,  King  of  Caly- 
don.  the  ancient  capital  of  JEtolia, 
omitted  a  sacrifice  to  Artemis,  where- 


Cambaceres 

upon  the  goddess,  when  he  was  absent, 
sent  a  frightful  boar  to  lay  waste  his 
fields.  No  one  dared  to  face  the 
monster,  until  Meleager,  son  of 
CEneus,  with  a  band  of  heroes,  pur- 
sued and  slew  him.  The  Curetes  laid 
claim  to  the  head  and  hide,  but  were 
driven  off  by  Meleager.  Later  ac- 
counts make  Meleager  summon  to  the 
hunt  heroes  from  all  parts  of  Greece, 
among  them  the  maiden  Atalanta,  who 
gave  the  monster  the  first  wound. 

Calyx,  in  botany,  the  name  given 
to  the  exterior  covering  of  a  flower. 

Cain,  Diogo,  a  Portuguese  ex- 
plorer of  the  15th  century,  who  in 
1484  discovered  the  mouth  of  tho 
Kongo. 

Caniagney,  a  province  and  its 
capital  city  in  Cuba;  both  formerly 
known  as  PUEBTO  PEINCIPE.  The 
province  extends  across  the  island 
between  the  provinces  of  Santa  Clara 
and  Oriente ;  has  an  area  of  10.076 
square  miles;  pop.  (1914)  154,867; 
chief  products,  cattle,  sugar  cane,  wax, 
honey,  timber,  and  hemp.  The  city 
is  in  the  heart  of  one  of  the  wildest 
parts  of  the  island,  in  the  center  of 
the  province,  and  manufactures  and 
exports  cigars,  sugar,  tobacco,  wax, 
and  honey;  pop.  (1914)  79,166. 

Camayeu,  or  Camaien,  a  term 
used  in  painting  where  there  is  only 
one  color,  and  where  the  lights  and 
shadows  are  of  gold,  wrought  on  a 
golden  or  azure  ground. 

Cambaceres,  Jean  Jacques  de, 
a  French  Senator ;  born  in  Montpel- 
lier,  Oct.  18,  1753.  During  the  raign 
of  terror  which  followed  the  condem- 
nation of  Louis  XVI.  Cambaceres  en- 
deavored to  check  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  Assembly.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hun- 
dred, and  in  1796  drew  up  a  "  Plan  of 
a  Civil  Code,"  which  became  the  basis 
of  the  "  Napoleonic  Code."  On  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon,  in  1814,  Cam- 
baceres withdrew  into  private  life,  but 
on  the  return  of  the  emperor  from 
Elba,  he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of 
Minister  of  Justice.  After  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon,  he  was  banished 
from  France  on  the  ground  of  his  hay- 
ing voted  for  the  death  of  Louis 
XVI. ;  but  in  1818  was  reinstated  in 
all  his  civil  and  political  rights ;  be 
died,  in  Paris,  March  8,  1824. 


Cambert 

Cambert,  Robert,  a  French  musi- 
cian; born  in  Paris  about  1628.  He 
founded  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
now  the  Paris  Grand  Opera.  He  died 
in  London  about  1677. 

Cambodia,  or  Camboja,  a  State 
in  Indo-China  under  a  French  pro- 
tectorate, on  the  lower  course  of  the 
Mekong,  220  miles  from  N.  E.  to 
S.  W.,  and  150  miles  broad,  compris- 
ing an  area  of  45,000  square  miles ; 
and  pop.  (1911)  1,634,252.  France, 
on  Aug.  11,  1863,  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  King  of  Cambodia,  Noro- 
dom, whom,  from  being  a  viceroy,  the 
French  had  helped  to  elevate  to  the 
throne,  placing  Cambodia  under  a 
French  protectorate.  This  treaty  was 
superseded  by  that  of  June  17,  1884. 
Capital  Pnom-Penh  (pop.  62,255). 

Cambon,  Jules  Martin,  a  French 
diplomatist ;  born  in  Paris,  April  5, 
1845.  He  studied  for  the  law  and 
fought  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War ; 
was  Ambassador  to  the  United  States 
in  1897,  retiring  in  1903,  and  repre- 
sented Spain  in  drawing  up  the  Span- 
ish-American protocol  in  1898. 

Cambrai,  a  town  in  N.  France, 
about  23  miles  from  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier and  100  miles  from  Paris ;  on  the 
Scheldt  river.  Former  strong  forti- 
fications have  been  mostly  dismantled. 
The  town  contains  many  beautiful 
churches.  Here  the  famous  "  Ladies' 
Peace  "  of  1529  was  concluded.  Cam- 
brai was  in  one  of  the  early  fighting 
zones  of  the  great  war.  See  AP- 
PENDIX: World  War. 

Cambric,  originally  the  name  of  a 
fine  kind  of  linen  which  was  manufac- 
tured principally  at  Cambrai  in 
French  Flanders,  but  is  now  applied 
to  a  cotton  fabric,  which  is  manufac- 
tured in  imitation  of  the  true  cambric. 

Cambridge,  a  city,  and  one  of  the 
county  seats  of  Middlesex  county, 
Mass.,  on  the  Charles  river  and  the 
Fitcbburg  railroad ;  opposite  to  and 
connected  with  Boston  by  four 
bridges.  It  was  founded  in  1630- 
1631,  under  the  name  of  "  Newe- 
Towne,"  or  Newtown."  In  1636  the 
General  Court  appropriated  $2,000  to 
locate  a  school  in  Old  Cambridge, 
which  later  became  Harvard  College. 
The  first  printing  office  in  the  United 
States  was  located  in  Cambridge. 
Cambridge  has  now  extensive  printing 


Camden 

establishments.  For  historical  and 
literary  associations,  Cambridge  is  one 
of  the  most  famous  cities  in  the 
United  States.  The  venerable  Wash- 
ington elm,  under  which  Washington 
took  command  of  the  American  Army, 
July  3,  1775,  still  stands.  "  Craigie 
House,"  built  by  Col.  John  Vassall  in 
1759,  was  Washington's  headquarters 
in  1775-1776,  and  afterward  became 
the  home  of  the  poet  Henry  W.  Long- 
fellow. On  Elm  avenue  is  "  Elm- 
wood,"  the  birthplace  and  home  of 
James  R.  Lowell.  Pop.  (1915)  108,822. 

Cambridge,  city  and  capital  of 
Guernsey  county,  O.;  on  Wills  creek 
and  several  railroads;  26  miles  E.  of 
Zanesville;  is  in  a  coal,  natural  gas, 
and  petroleum  region;  is  a  trade 
center  of  parts  of  three  counties;  and 
manufactures  iron,  steel,  glass,  pot- 
tery, tin,  plate,  and  iron  roofing. 
Pop.  (1«10)  17,327. 

Cambridge  University,  a  cele- 
brated seat  of  learning  and  education, 
dating  from  English  public  schools  es- 
tablished in  Cambridge  in  the  7th  cen- 
tury. The  first  college  was  founded 
under  royal  charter  in  1237. 

Cambyses,  (1)  a  Persian  of  noble 
blood,  to  whom  King  Astyages  gave 
his  daughter  Mandane  in  marriage. 
(2)  The  son  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  be- 
came, after  the  death  of  his  father, 
King  of  the  Persians  and  Medes,  B.  c. 
529.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  he 
invaded  Egypt,  conquering  the  whole 
kingdom  within  six  months.  He  died 
in  521  B.  c. 

Camden,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county  seat  of  Camden  county,  N.  J. ; 
on  the  Delaware  river,  opposite  Phila- 
delphia, with  which  it  is  connected  by 
several  ferries.  It  is  noted  for  its 
immense  market  gardens  and  manu- 
factures. Pop.  (1910)  94,538. 

Camden,  county-seat  of  Kershaw 
county,  S.  C.;  32  miles  N.  E.  of  Co- 
lumbia. It  has  extensive  cotton  and 
grain  interests  and  is  a  health  resort 
for  sufferers  from  throat  and  lung 
troubles.  Camden  was  the  site  of 
three  noted  battles.  On  Aug.  16, 
1780,  the  American  forces  under  Gen- 
eral Gates,  3,600  strong,  were  de- 
feated by  Lord  Cornwallis.  This  end- 
ed Gates's  military  career.  On  April 
25,  1781,  Greene,  who  succeeded 
Gates,  was  attacked  and  worsted  by 


Caxnden 

Lord  Rawdon  at  Hobkirk's  Hill,  near 
Camden.  On  Feb.  24,  1865,  Camden 
was  taken  by  General  Sherman  after 
a  lively  skirmish.  Two  thousand 
bales  of  cotton  and  a  quantity  of 
tobacco  were  burned.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,441. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  Mar- 
quis, an  English  statesman ;  born  in 
1714.  After  having  studied  law,  he 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  3738.  Af- 
ter nearly  20  years  devoted  to  close 
study  he  was  appointed  attorney-gen- 
eral, and  later  lord  chief  justice.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  exertions 
in  behalf  of  the  American  colonies, 
and  in  1766  rose  to  the  highest  legal 
dignity,  that  of  lord  hieh  chancellor. 
He  died  in  London.  April  18,  1794. 

Camel,  a  genus  of  ruminant  quad- 
rupeds, characterized  by  the  absence 
of  horns ;  a  fissure  in  the  upper  lip ;  a 
long  and  arched  neck;  one  or  two 
humps  or  protuberances  on  the  back ; 
and  a  broad  elastic  foot  ending  in 
two  small  hoofs.  The  native  country 
of  the  camel  is  said  to  extend  from 
Morocco  to  China,  within  a  zone  of 


CAMEL. 

900  or  .1,000  miles  in  breadth.  The 
comnon  camel,  having  two  humps,  is 
found  in  the  N.  part  of  this  region, 
and  exclusively  from  the  ancient  Bac- 
tria,  now  Turkestan,  to  China.  The 
dromedary,  or  single-humped  camel  is 
found  throughout  the  entire  length  of 
this  zone.  To  people  residing  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  great  deserts  the  camel 
is  an  invaluable  mode  of  conveyance. 
It  will  travel  three  days  under  a  load 
and  five  days  under  a  rider  without 


Cameo 

drinking.  The  camel's  power  of  en- 
during thirst  is  partly  due  to  the 
structure  of  its  stomach,  to  which  are 
attached  pouches  capable  of  straining 
off  and  storing  water  for  future  use. 
It  can  live  on  little  food,  and  of  the 
coarsest  kind.  In  this  it  is  helped  by 
the  fact  that  its  humps  are  mere  ac- 
cumulations of  fat  and  form  a  store 
upon  which  the  system  can  draw 
when  the  outside  supply  is  defective. 
Camels  which  carry  heavy  burdens 
will  do  about  25  miles  a  day;  those 
which  are  used  for  speed  alone,  from 
60  to  90  miles  a  day.  The  camel  is 
rather  passive  than  docile,  but  it  i» 
very  vindictive  when  injured.  It  lives 
from  40  to  50  years.  The  South 
American  members  of  the  family 
Camelidse  contain  the  llama  and  al- 
paca; they  have  no  humps. 

Camelopard,  a  name  given  to  the 
giraffe,  originally  from  the  notion  that 
it  was  a  hybrid  between  a  camel  and 
leopard. 

Cainelopardalis,  one  of  the  N. 
circumpolar  constellations  added  by 
Hevelius  in  1690.  It  is  a  large  irreg- 
ularly shaped  constellation,  something 
like  the  animal,  with  its  head  close  to 
the  Pole.  It  contains  no  stars  bright- 
er than  the  fourth  magnitude. 

Camelot,  a  name  applied  in  the 
mediaeval  romances  to  the  "  City  of 
Legions  "  which  grew  out  of  the  per- 
manent quarters  of  the  Second  Augus- 
ta Legion  at  Caerleon-upon-Usk,  but 
was  built  earlier  by  the  mythical  Be- 
linus. 

Camel's  Hump,  one  of  the  peaks 
of  the  Green  Mountains,  in  Vermont, 
17  miles  W.  of  Montpelier. 

Camel's  Thorn,  a  name  of  several 
plants.  They  are  half-shrubby  plants 
growing  in  the  deserts  of  the  East, 
and  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  they  afford  a  food  relished  by 
camels. 

Cameo,  a  term  applied  to  gems  of 
different  colors  sculptured  in  relief. 
The  art  of  engraving  on  gems  boasts 
of  high  antiquity,  having  been  prac- 
tised and  was  revived  in  Italy  in  the 
15th  century.  The  cameos  of  the  an- 
cients were  confined  to  the  agate, 
onyx,  and  sard,  but  are  occasionally 
found  executed  on  opal,  beryl,  or  em- 
erald. 


Camera  Lucida 


Camoens 


Camera  Lucida,  an  instrument 
invented  by  Wollaston  in  1804;  de- 
signed to  produce  on  a  plane  surface 
a  representation  of  a  landscape  or 
other  object,  which  will  enable  one  to 
delineate  it  with  accuracy. 

Camera  Obscura,  an  optical  in- 
strument used  to  view  or  sketch  ob- 
jects at  a  short  distance.  It  consists 
of  a  box,  formed  of  two  parts  sliding 
in  each  other,  like  a  telescope,  so  as 
to  adjust  the  focus  to  bodies  more  or 
less  distant.  A  tube  with  a  lens  is 
fixed  hi  one  side  of  it,  and  is  turned 
to  the  object  to  be  represented.  The 
rays  entering  fall  on  a  mirror  sloped 
at  an  angle  of  45°,  which  reflect  them 
upward.  It  is  convenient  that  they 
may  be  made  to  pass  through  a  hori- 
zontal plate  of  glass,  on  which  tracing 
paper  may  be  placed  so  as  to  enable 
one  to  draw  the  figure. 

Camera,  Photographic,  a  camera 
obscura  so  constructed  that  sensitized 
plates  or  films  may  be  placed  at  the 
back  and  receive  the  image. 

Camerarius,  Rudolph  Jakob,  a 
German  botanist,  born  in  iWurtem- 
burg,  Feb.  12,  1665.  To  him  is  as- 
cribed the  discovery  of  the  sexual  re- 
lation in  plants.  He  died  in  Tubin- 
gen, Sept  11,  1721. 

Camerlengo,  ("a  chamberlain"), 
one  of  the  highest  officers  of  the  Vati- 
can court,  and  who  acts  as  Pope  when 
there  is  a  vacancy  on  the  papal  throne. 

Cameron,  Arnold  Guypt,  an 
[American  educator :  born  in  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  March  4,  1864;  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  College  in  1847,  and  at 
department  of  Greek  at  Princeton 
professor  of  French  and  German  in 
Miami  University;  in  1891-1897,  as- 
sistant professor  of  French  in  the 
Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Tale  Uni- 
versity; and  in  1897  accepted  the 
chair  of  French  at  the  John  C.  Green 
School  of  Science,  Princeton. 

Cameron,  James  Donald,  ^  an 
American  capitalist  and  politician ; 
born  in  Middletown,  Pa.,  May  14, 
1833 ;  oldest  son  of  Simon  Cameron ; 
was  graduated  at  Princeton  College 
in  1852.  In  1876  President  Grant  an- 
pointed  him  Secretary  of  War,  and  in 
1877  he  succeeded  his  father  as  Unit- 
ed States  Senator  from  Pennsylvania, 
retiring  from  the  Senate  in  1897. 


Cameron,  Simon,  an  American, 
statesman ;  born  in  Maytown,  Lancas- 
ter co.,  Pa.,  March  8,  1799 ;  began, 
when  9  years  of  age,  to  learn  the  trade 
of  a  printer.  In  1820  he  was  editor 
of  a  paper  in  Doylestown,  Pa.,  and  in 
1822  he  held  a  similar  post  in  Harris- 
burg.  He  then  interested  himself  in 
banking  and  the  building  of  railroads. 
From  1845  to  1849  he  was  United 
States  Senator  from  Pennsylvania.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Republican 
party  on  its  formation,  and  in  1856 
he  was  again  elected  United  States 
Senator.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  by  President  Lin- 
coln. In  January,  1862,  he  resigned 
from  the  Cabinet,  and  was  appointed 
minister  to  Russia.  In  November  of 
the  same  year  he  resigned,  and  lived 
in  retirement  till  1866,  when  he  was 
again  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate. In  1877  he  retired  from  the  Sen- 
ate in  favor  of  his  son,  James  Don- 
ald Cameron.  He  died  in  Maytown, 
Pa.,  June  26,  1889. 

Camisards,  the  title  given  to  the 
Protestant  insurgents  in  the  Ceveanes, 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  from  having  worn  their  shirts 
over  their  dress  by  way  of  disguise, 
on  the  occasion  of  some  nocturnal  at- 
tacks. 

Camoens,  Luis  de,  a  Portuguese 
poet;  born  in  Lisbon,  probably  in 
1524  or  1525.  Disappointed  in  love, 
he  became  a  soldier,  and  served  in  the 
fleet  which  the  Portuguese  sent  against 
Morocco,  losine  his  right  eye  in  a 
naval  engagement  before  Ceuta.  An 
affray  into  which  he  was  drawn  wis 
the  cause  of  his  embarking  in  1553 
for  India.  He  landed  at  Goa,  but, 
being  unfavorably  impressed  with  the 
life  led  by  the  ruling  Portuguese  there, 
wrote  a  satire  which  caused  his  ban- 
ishment to  Macao  (1556).  Here  he 
wrote  the  earlier  cantos  of  his  great 
poem,  the  "  Lusiad."  Returning  to 
Goa  in  1561,  he  was  shipwrecked  and 
lost  all  his  property  except  his  pre- 
cious manuscript.  After  much  misfor- 
tune Camoens  in  1570  arrived  once 
more  in  his  native  land,  poor  and 
without  influence,  as  he  had  left  it. 
The  "  Lusiad  "  was  printed  nt  Lisbon 
(1572),  and  celebrating  the  plories  of 
the  Portuguese  conquests  in  India,  ac- 
quired a  wide  popularity.  The  king 


Camomile 

accepted  the  dedication  of  the  poem, 
but  the  only  reward  Camoens  obtained 
was  a  pittance  insufficient  to  save  him 
from  poverty.  His  other  works  con- 
sist of  sonnets,  songs,  etc.  He  died 
June  18,  1579. 

Camomile,  or  Chamomile.  The 
species  are  annual  and  perennial  herbs, 
all  palaearctic,  long  known  for  the 
medicinal  virtues  of  an  infusion  of  its 
flowers  as  a  bitter  stomachic  and 
tonic. 

Camorra,  a  well-organized  secret 
society,  once  spread  throughout  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

Camp,  the  space  occupied  by  an 
army  halted  with  tents  pitched. 

Campagna  di  Roma,  the  coast 
region  of  Middle  Italy,  in  which  Rome 
is  situated,  from  30  to  40  miles  wide 
and  100  long,  and  forming  the  undu- 
lating mostly  uncultivated  plain  which 
extends  from  near  Civita  Vecchia  or 
Viterbo  to  Terracina,  and  includes  the 
Pontine  Marshes.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile  in  the  lower  parts,  though  its 
cultivation  is  much  neglected,  owing 
to  the  malaria  which  makes  residence 
there  during  midsummer  dangerous. 
In  ancient  times  the  Campagna  was 
well  cultivated  and  populated.  Noth- 
ing of  its  former  prosperity  being  vis- 
ible but  the  ruins  of  great  temples, 
circuses,  and  monuments,  and  long 
rows  of  crumbling  aqueducts  over- 
grown with  ivy  and  other  creeping 
plants. 

Campania,  anciently  a  province  on 
the  W.  coast  of  Italy,  having  Capua 
as  its  capital,  lying  between  Latium, 
Samnium,  and  Lucania.  It  was  one 
of  the  most  productive  plains  in  the 
world,  yielding  in  extraordinary  abun- 
dance corn,  wine,  and  oil ;  and  by 
both  Greek  and  Roman  writers  is 
celebrated  for  its  soft  and  genial  cli- 
mate, its  landscapes,  and  its  harbors. 

Caiiipani-Alimenis,  Matteo,  an 
Italian  mechanician.  In  optics,  his 
greatest  achievement  was  the  manu- 
facture of  the  object-glasses,  through 
which  Cassini  discovered  two  satellites 
of  Saturn.  He  invented  the  illum- 
inated dial  for  clocks. 
_  Campanile,  a  tower  for  the  recep- 
tion of  bells,  principally  used  for 
church  purposes,  but  now  sometimes 
lor  domestic  edifices.  The  most  re- 


Campbell 

markable  of  the  campaniles  is  that 
at  Pisa,  commonly  called  the  "  Lean- 
ing Tower."  It  is  cylindrical  in  form, 
and  surrounded  by  eight  stories  of 
columns,  placed  over  one  another, 
each  having  its  entablature.  The 
height  is  about  150  feet  to  the  plat- 
form, whence  a  plumb-line  lowered 
falls  on  the  leaning  side  nearly  13 
feet  outside  the  base  of  the  building. 

The  campanile  of  St.  Mark,  dom- 
inating all  the  surrounding  buildings 
of  St.  Mark's  Square,  Venice,  was 
the  most  conspicuous  landmark  of  the 
city  for  over  1,000  years.  The  tower 
was  325  feet  high  and  42  feet  square 
at  the  base.  On  the  morning  of  July 
14,  1902,  it  fell  with  a  great  crash 
into  the  square.  The  church  of  St. 
Mark  and  the  palace  of  the  Doges 
were  not  hurt,  but  the  campanile  in 
falling  carried  away  the  Sansovino 
Loggetta  and  the  library  of  the  Royal 
Palace. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  founder  of 
the  sect  known  as  the  "Disciples  of 
Christ " ;  born  near  Ballymena,  in 
County  Antrim,  Ireland,  Sept.  12, 
1788.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  1807.  Though  at  first  a 
Presbyterian,  in  1812  he  formed  a 
connection  with  the  Baptists,  and  for 
some  time  he  labored  as  an  itinerant 
preacher.  In  1826  he  published  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  the  words  "  baptism "  and 
"  baptist "  gave  place  to  "  immersion  " 
and  "  immerser."  By  his  discussions 
on  public  platforms,  and  his  serial 
publications,  as  well  as  his  assiduity 
in  preaching  tours  and  training  young 
men  for  the  ministry,  Campbell  grad- 
ually formed  a  large  party  of  follow- 
ers, who  began  about  1827  to  form 
themselves  into  a  sect  under  the  des- 
ignation of  "  The  DISCIPLES  OP 
CHRIST."  In  1841  Campbell  founded 
Bethany  College  in  West  Virginia, 
where  he  died  March  4,  1866. 
_  Campbell,  Allan,  an  American 
civil  engineer;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
in  1815.  He  laid  out  the  route  of  the 
New  York  and  Harlem  railroad ;  built 
a  railroad  from  Callao  to  Lima,  Peru ; 
was  appointed  engineer  of  the  harbor 
defenses  of  New  York  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Civil  War;  was  chief  en- 
gineer in  the  construction  of  the 
Union  Pacific  railroad;  and  became 


Campbell 

commissioner  of  public  works  in  New- 
York  (1876).  He  died  in  New  York 
city,  March  18,  1894. 

Campbell,  Hartley,  an  American 
dramatist ;  born  in  Allegheny  City, 
Pa.,  Aug.  12,  1843.  He  died  in  Mid- 
dletown,  N.  Y.,  July  30,  1888. 

Campbell,  Charles,  an  American 
historian ;  born  in  Petersburg,  Va., 
May  1,  1807.  He  died  in  Staunton, 
Va.,  July  11,  1876. 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  Lord 
Clyde,  a  British  military  officer ;  born 
in  Glasgow,  Oct.  20,  1792.  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  to  the  United 
States  (1814),  and  then  passed  nearly 
30  years  in  garrison  duty  at  various 
places.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Cri- 
mean War,  in  1854,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  Highland  Bri- 
gade ;  the  victory  of  the  Alma  was 
mainly  his ;  and  his,  too,  the  splendid 
repulse  of  the  Russians  by  the  "  thin 
red  line"  in  the  battle  of  Balaklava. 
When,  on  July  11,  1857,  the  news 
reached  England  of  the  sepoy  mutiny, 
Lord  Palmerston  offered  him  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces  in  India.  He  ef- 
fected the  final  relief  of  Lucknow,  and 
on  Dec.  20,  1858  announced  to  the 
Viceroy  that  the  rebellion  was  ended. 
He  died  Aug.  14,  1863. 

Campbell,  Douglas  Hougliton, 
an  American  educator ;  born  in  De- 
troit, Mich.,  Dec.  16,  1859 ;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1882 ;  then  studied  in  Europe.  Re- 
turning he  was  Professor  of  Botany 
in  the  University  of  Indiana  till  1891, 
when  he  was  called  to  the  similar 
chair  in  Stanford  University  in  Palo 
Alto,  Cal. 

Campbell,  Helen  Stuart,  an 
American  sociological  writer;  born  in 
Lockport,  N.  Y.,  July  4,  1839.  She 
has  given  close  attention  to  the  study 
of  social  problems.  From  1881  till 
1884  she  was  literary  editor  of  "  Our 
Continent,"  Philadelphia. 

Campbell,  Henry  Donald,  an 
American  scientist ;  born  in  Lexing- 
troit,  Mich.,  Dec.  16,  1859;  was  grad- 
uated at  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity in  1882;  later  studied  at  Ber- 
lin and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1887  be- 
came Professor  of  Geology  and  Biol- 
ogy at  Washington  and  Lee  Univer- 
sity. 

E.  28. 


Campero 

Campbell,  John,  -a  British  his- 
torian; born  in  Edinburgh,  March  8, 
1708.  From  1755  to  the  close  of  his 
life,  he  was  agent  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment for  the  province  of  Georgia. 
He  died  Dec.  28,  1775. 

Campbell,  John  Pendleton,  an 
American  scientist ;  born  in  Cumber- 
land, Md.,  Nov.  20,  1863.  He  be- 
came Professor  of  Biology  at  the 
University  of  Georgia  in  1888. 

Campbell,  Reginald  John,  an 
English  clergyman;  born  in  London, 
Eng.,  in  1867;  entered  the  Congrega- 
tional ministry  in  1895;  became  pas- 
tor of  the  City  Temple,  London,  in 
1903;  published  "The  New  Theol- 
ogy "  (1907),  which  attracted  much 
attention  on  both  continents. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  a  Scotch 
poet;  born  in  Glasgow,  July  27,  1777. 
He  died  in  Boulogne,  June  15,  1844, 
and  was  interred  at  Poets'  Corner, 
in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Campbell,  William  W.,  an  Amer- 
ican lawyer  and  historian ;  born  in 
Cherry  Valley,  N.  Y.,  hi  1806.  Set- 
tled in  New  York  city,  he  was  a  judge 
of  the  State  Supreme  Court.  He  died 
in  Cherry  Valley,  Sept.  7,  1881. 

Campbell,  William  Wilfred,  a 
Canadian  poet;  born  in  Western  On- 
tario, Canada,  in  1861. 

Campbellites,  the  followers  of  Rev. 
John  McLeod  Campbell,  of  Dumbart- 
onshire, who  was  deposed  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  May  24,  1831,  for 
teaching  the  universality  of  the  Atone- 
ment. 

Campbell's  Station,  a  town  in 
Knox  county,  Tenn.,  noted  for  the 
battle  fought  (Nov.  16,  1863)  between 
a  Federal  army  under  Burnside  and  a 
Confederate  one  under  Longstreet,  in 
which  the  Confederates  were  repulsed 
at  nightfall,  after  sharp  fighting. 

Campeachy,  a  State,  its  capital, 
and  a  bay  of  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf ; 
pop.  State  (1910)  86,661,  town  about 
18,000. 

Campero,  Narciso,  a  Bolivian 
statesman  and  soldier;  born  in  Tojo 
(now  in  Argentina),  in  1815.  He 
studied  and  traveled  in  Europe,  and 
on  his  return  entered  the  Bolivian 
army,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Briga- 
dier-General. After  the  overthrow  of 
Diaz  (1880),  he  was  chosen  President 


Ijumpiiausen 

of  Bolivia.  Internally,  his  administra- 
tion was  quiet  He  died  in  1896. 

Camphausen,  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man painter ;  born  in  Dussoldorf ,  Feb. 
8,  1818.  He  was  specially  famous  for 
battle-pieces.  He  died  in  Dusseldorf, 
June  16,  1885. 

Camphene,  the  commercial  term 
for  purified  oil  of  turpentine,  obtained 
by  distilling  the  oil  over  quicklime  to 
free  it  from  resin. 

Camphor,  a  powerful  diffusible 
stimulant  and  antispasmodic.  It  en- 
ters into  union  with  opium,  as  a  sed- 
aditive,  under  the  name  of  paregoric. 

Campi,  a  family  of  Italian  artists 
who  founded  what  is  known  in  paint- 
ing as  the  school  of  Cremona. 

Campion,  Edmund,  an  English 
Jesuit ;  born  in  London,  Jan.  25,  1540. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  greatly.  Though 
at  first  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  adopted 
the  Reformed  faith,  and  took  deacon's 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England ;  but 
he  afterward  recanted,  became  a  Jes- 
uit, and  attacked  Protestantism.  He 
was  found  guilty  of  conspiring  to  raise 
sedition,  and  was  executed  at  Tyburn, 
Dec.  1,  1581. 

Camp  Meetings,  gatherings  of  de- 
vout persons,  held  usually  in  thinly- 
populated  districts,  and  continued  for 
several  days  at  a  time,  with  the  view 
of  securing  prolonged  and  uninterrupt- 
ed religious  exercises. 

Campo-Formio,  a  town  in  Italy, 
66  miles  N.  E.  of  Venice,  famous  for 
the  treaty  of  peace  between  Austria 
and  France,  which  was  signed  in  its 
neighborhood  on  Oct.  17,  1797. 

Campos,  Arsenio  Martinez,  a 
Spanish  military  officer ;  born  in  Cu- 
ba in  1834.  Appointed  a  lieutenant 
in  the  army  in  1858 ;  became  chief  of 
the  battalion  in  the  Morocco  cam- 
paign of  1859;  was  on  duty  in  Cuba 
with  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1864- 
1870 ;  took  part  in  suppressing  the 
Carlist  insurrection  and  was  promoted 
brigadier-general  in  1870;  opposed  the 
republic  after  the  abdication  of  King 
Amadeus,  and  was  imprisoned  as  a 
conspirator.  Under  a  plea  for  per- 
mission to  be  allowed  to  serve  as  a 
private,  he  was  released  and  given 
command  of  a  division.  With  General 
Jovellar,  he  called  Alphonso  XII.  to 


Canaanites 

the  throne;  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Catalonia  district,  and 
crushed  Don  Carlos  at  Pena  de  la 
Plata  in  1876.  In  1877  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  in  Cuba, 
and  brought  the  revolution  there  to  a 
close.  In  April,  1895,  he  was  appoint- 
ed governor-general  and  commander- 
in-chief  in  Cuba,  and  in  January, 
1896,  he  was  recalled  to  Spain.  On 
his  arrival  in  Madrid  he  repeated  his 
belief  that  the  trouble  in  Cuba  could 
only  be  ended  by  granting  reforms. 
He  died  Sept.  23,  1900. 

Campo  Santo  (lit  "Holy 
Field  ")t  the  name  given  to  a  bury  ing- 
ground  in  Italy. 

Campus  Martins  (the  "Field  of 
Mars"),  an  extensive  plain  or  mead- 
ow without  the  walls  of  Rome,  where 
the  levies  of  troops  were  made  by  the 
tribunes,  where  the  ballot  for  the  con- 
scription was  drawn,  and  where  all 
military  exercises  were  performed.  It 
was  also  a  gymnasium  for  youths.  It 
was  here  that  the  great  assemblies  of 
the  people  took  place  to  elect  their 
public  officers. 

Campus  Sceleratus,  a  name  given 
to  a  spot  within  the  walls  of  Rome, 
and  close  by  the  Porta  Collina,  where 
those  of  the  vestal  virgins  who  had 
transgressed  their  vows  were  entombed 
alive. 

Cam  Wood,  a  wood  used  for 
making  knife-handles  and  ornamental 
knobs  to  furniture.  It  is  called  also 
Barwood  and  Ringwood. 

Cana,  a  town  of  Palestine  celebra- 
ed  in  Scripture  as  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  first  miracle,  when  he  turned 
water  into  wine. 

Canaan,  the  country  W.  of  the 
Jordan,  called  also  Chanaan,  and  the 
Land  of  Canaan,  after  one  of  the  sons 
of  Ham.  The  Greeks  applied  the  term 
Cana  to  the  entire  region  between 
the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean  up 
to  Sidpn,  afterward  termed  by  them 
Phenicia,  a  name  which  by  degrees 
came  to  be  confined  to  Phenicia  proper. 

Canaanites,  The,  a  word  used  in 
two  senses:  (1)  For  the  tribe  of  the 
"Canaanites"  only.  (2)  Applied  as 
a  general  name  to  the  non-Israelite  in- 
habitants of  the  land.  Instances  of 
this  are:  Genesis  xii :  6;  Numbers 
rxi:  3.  Judges  i:  10;  and  Gene- 


Canada 

sis  xiii :  12.  See  also  Genesis  xxiv  :  3, 
37;  comp.  xxviii :  2,  6;  E?odus,  xiii: 
11 ;  comp.  5.  Like  the  Phoenicians, 
the  Canaanites  were  probably  given 
to  commerce. 


MAP  SHOWING  TBIBAL  POSSESSIONS. 

Canada,  Dominion  of,  a  Federal 
Union  of  Provinces  and  Territories, 
comprising  all  the  British  possessions 
in  North  America,  excepting  New- 
foundland ;  bounded  by  the  Arctic,  Pa- 
cific, and  Atlantic  oceans,  and  the 
United  States;  land  area,  3,603,910 
square  miles ;  number  of  Provinces, 
and  Territories,  11 ;  population 
(1901)  5,371,315;  (1911)  7,206,643; 
capital,  Ottawa. 

Extending  over  so  large  a  territory, 
Canada  presents  a  great  variety  of 
surface.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast  is 
a  range  of  hills  extending  inland  from 
15  to  20  miles.  About  60  miles  in- 
land, the  Cobequid  mountains,  some 
reaching  an  altitude  of  1,100  feet,  ex- 
tend in  a  line  parallel  to  the  coast 
from  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  through  Nova 
Scotia  to  the  Strait  of  Canso.  Nova 
Scotia  is  a  long  fertile  plain.  A  third 
mountain  range  crosses  New  Bruns- 
wick from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to 
the  State  of  Maine.  An  extensive 
plateau  intervenes  between  these 
mountains  and  the  Cobequids.  The 


Canada 

central  part  of  the  Dominion  consists 
of  a  vast  undulating  plain,  extending 
W.  to  the  foothills  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  section  consists  of 
three  prairie  plateaus.  The  E.,  800 
feet  high,  known  as  the  Red  River 
Valley  and  Lake  Winnipeg  region, 
contains  about  7,000  square  miles  of 
valuable  wheat  land.  The  middle  pla- 
teau has  an  area  of  105,000  squaro 
miles,  altitude,  1,600  feet,  and  includes 
the  Qu'Appelle  and  Assiniboia  River 
valleys.  The  third  plateau  extends 
450  miles  E.  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  has  an  average  altitude  of 
3,000  feet.  The  Rocky  Mountains  are 
the  most  prominent  physical  features 
of  the  Dominion,  and  stretch  from 
Alaska  to  California,  some  of  the 
peaks  attaining  a  height  of  16,000 
feet.  Among  the  highest  are  Mt 
Hooker,  16,760  feet;  Mt  Brown,  16,- 
000  feet,  and  Mt.  Murchison,  15,700 
feet  The  Canadian  Pacific  railroad 
crosses  the  Rockies  through  the  Kick- 
ing Horse  Pass,  just  S.  of  Mt  Mur- 
chison, at  an  altitude  of  5,300  feet 
Between  these  mountains  and  the  Pa- 
cific coast  are  the  Selkirk  Mountains, 
the  Gold  Range,  a  central  plateau,  and 
the  Cascade  or  Coast  Range.  The  Cas- 
cade or  Coast  Range  is  a  continuation 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California, 
reaches  an  altitude  of  7,000  feet,  and 
contains  many  extinct  volcanoes.  The 
Selkirk  range  has  a  glacier  region  of 
greater  extent  than  that  of  Switzer- 
land. The  coasts  of  the  Dominion  have 
numerous  indentations,  the  largest  of 
which  are  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence, 
the  Gulf  of  Georgia,  the  Bay  of  Fun- 
dy, and  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs.  In  the 
N.  are  many  large  bays  or  inland  seas, 
of  which  Baffin  Bay,  on  the  N.  E., 
and  Hudson  Bay,  near  the  center  of 
the  Dominion,  are  the  largest  The 
lakes  of  Canada  are  the  most  exten- 
sive in  the  world;  besides  the  Great 
Lakes,  there  are  many  large  lakes  in 
the  Northwest  Territories  and  Mani- 
toba. 

Canada  is  very  rich  in  its  mineral 
deposits.  The  most  important  min- 
erals found  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  cop- 
per, nickel,  lead,  and  coal ;  besides 
manganese,  cobalt,  asbestos,  pyrites, 
phosphates,  building  stones,  marbles, 
petroleum,  and  salt  Gold  is  princi- 
pally mined  in  British  Columbia,  the 


Canada 


Canada 


newly  organized  Yukon  Territory,  and 
Nova  Scotia.  The  Nova  Scotia  gold 
district  extends  over  an  area  of  6,000 
square  miles,  and  the  metal  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  quartz  in  a  very 
fine  and  pure  state.  Gold  is  also  found 
in  rich  deposits  in  the  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories. Extraordinary  silver  deposits 
are  found  in  several  islands  on  the  N. 
shore  of  Lake  Superior  and  in  argen- 
tiferous galena  in  Quebec,  Nova  Sco- 
tia, and  British  Columbia.  Copper 
abounds  in  British  Columbia,  Nova 
Scotia,  Ontario,  Quebec,  New  Bruns- 
wick, and  the  Northwest  Territories. 
The  copper  found  on  the  N.  shore  of 
Lake  Superior,  and  in  Ontario,  is  of 
excellent  quality.  Iron  is  found  in 
great  quantities  at  Hull,  Ontario,  in 
a  bed  90  feet  thick.  This  ore  is  mag- 
netic, yielding  70  per  cent  pure  iron. 
Magnetite  is  also  found  in  Nova  Sco- 
tia and  New  Brunswick.  Silver-bear- 
ing lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  bismuth  are 
found  in  many  places.  Coal  exists  in 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  British 
Columbia,  and  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories. The  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
Brunswick  fields  are  of  great  extent, 
and  the  value  of  this  output  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia  alone  is  second  only  to 
that  of  its  gold.  Anthracite  is  found 
in  Queen  Charlotte  and  Vancouver 
Islands. 

The  value  of  all  mineral  productions 
in  the  calendar  year  1912  was  $133,- 
127,489,  the  principal  ones  being  gold, 
$12,559,443  ;  silver,  $19,425,656 ;  cop- 
per, $12,709,311;  lead,  $1,597,554; 
nickel  $13,452,463 ;  pig  iron,  $14,550,- 
999.  The  coal  output  was  valued  at 
$36,349,299,  and  the  cement  at  $9,- 
083,216. 

The  greater  part  of  Nova  Scotia, 
Quebec,  New  Brunswick,  Ontario,  and 
Vancouver  Island,  beside  the  country 
lying  between  Lake  Superior  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  admirably 
adapted  to  agriculture.  And  this  in- 
dustry is  rapidly  developing.  The 
total  farm  values  of  the  principal 
grain  crops  in  1916  were :  Wheat, 
$289,374,000 ;  oats,  $187,759,000 ; 
barley,  $34,010,000;  rye,  $3,205,800; 
peas,  $4,816,000;  beans,  $2,228,000; 
buckwheat,  $6,375,000;  mixed  grains, 
$9,076,000;  flax  seed,  $14,581,300; 
and  corn  for  husking,  $6,747,000. 
Live  stock  (1912)  included  2,336,800 
horses,  2,890,100  dairy  cows,  4,093,600 


other  cattle,  2,360,600  sheep,  and 
2,656,400  swine. 

Canada  has  no  National  system  of 
education,  but  under  the  British  North 
America  Act,  1867,  the  right  to  legis- 
late on  matters  respecting  education 
was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  separate  provinces.  In 
Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  British 
Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island, 
the  schools  are  strictly  undenomina- 
tional. In  Manitoba  all  public  schools 
are  non-sectarian.  In  Quebec  and  On- 
tario the  schools  are  non-sectarian, 
but  the  Protestants  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics are  allowed  separate  schools. 

According  to  the  Dominion  census 
of  1911  the  Roman  Catholic  was  the 
strongest  denomination,  numerically. 
In  the  census  year  1911  the  manu- 
facturing industry  employed  a  capital 
of  $1,247,583,609  and  515,203  wage- 
earners  ;  paid  $241,008,416  for  salaries 
and  wages ;  and  yielded  products 
valued  at  $1,165,975,639. 

Commercial  reports  for  the  fiscal 
year  1914-15  showed :  Total  exports, 
$490,808,877 ;  total  imports,  $629,444,- 
894 ;  imports  for  home  consumption, 
$587,364,363.  The  trade  with  the 
United  States  was:  Exports,  $211,- 
758,000;  imports,  $296,633,000. 

Steam  railways  in  1914  had  a  total 
of  30,795  miles  in  operation,  with  a 
capital  liability  of  $371,863,156,  of 
which  $178,834,529  represented  direct 
Federal  Government  aid.  There  were 
59  electric  railways  with  1,561  mile- 
age. Post-offices  numbered  13,811 ; 
mileage  of  telegraph  lines,  46,333; 
mileage  of  telephone  wire,  1,343,090. 
In  1915  there  were  22  incorporated 
banks,  with  about  3,160  branches; 
capital,  $114,759.807;  clearing-house 
transactions  (1914)  $7,909,212,098; 
and  numerous  post-office  and  ordinary 
savings  banks. 

The  Constitution  of  Canada  is  after 
the  model  of  the  mother-country.  The 
Parliament  consists  of  the  King,  an 
upper  house  styled  the  Senate,  and  a 
House  of  Commons.  The  King  is  rep- 
resented by  a  governor-general,  who 
exercises  his  authority  with  the  aid 
and  advice  of  a  council  of  ministers, 
styled  the  King's  Privy  Council  for 
Canada.  The  authority  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general is  largely  nominal,  the 
government  really  being  carried  on  by 
the  Prime  Minister  and  Council,  who 


Canada 

are  directly  responsible  to  Parliament. 
The  cabinet  must  be  supported  by  a 
majority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  or 
go  out  of  office.  The  Senate,  under 
the  provisions  of  an  Act  of  1915,  con- 
sists of  96  members,  chosen  by  the 
governor-general,  and  hold  the  ap- 
pointment for  life.  Among  other  qual- 
ifications, a  senator  must  have  real 
property  to  the  value  of  $4,000,  and 
must  be  a  resident  in  the  province  for 
which  he  is  appointed.  The  Speaker 
of  the  Senate  is  nominated  by  the  gov- 
ernor-general. The  House  of  Commons 
consists  of  221  members.  The  dura- 
tion of  a  House  of  Commons  is  not  to 
exceed  five  years.  In  July,  1885,  an 
Electoral  Franchise  Act  was  passed, 
providing  for  a  uniform  franchise  for 
the  whole  Dominion  in  elections  for 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  House 
of  Commons  elects  its  own  Speaker. 
Any  bill  passed  by  the  Houses  of  Par- 
liament, even  though  assented  to  by 
the  governor-general  in  the  King's 
name,  may  afterward  be  disallowed  by 
the  Imperial  Privy  Council. 

Each  one  of  the  different  provinces 
also  has  an  executive  and  a  legis- 
lature of  its  own,  presided  over  by  a 
lieutenant-governor,  and  constituted 
much  as  before  the  Union.  The  lieu- 
tenant-governor are  appointed  by  the 
governor-general.  In  this  distribution 
of  legislative  power  between  the  gen- 
eral and  the  provincial  parliaments, 
certain  classes  of  subjects  of  a  local 
nature  are  assigned  exclusively  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  provinces,  while 
subjects  of  more  general  concern  are 
assumed  by  the  Parliament.  The  debts 
of  the  several  provinces,  at  the  Union, 
were  assumed  (with  certain  limita- 
tions) by  the  Federal  Government; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  certain  duties 
and  revenues,  and  certain  public  works 
and  properties  belonging  to  the  several 
provinces  before  the  Union,  were  taken 
possession  of  to  form  a  consolidated 
revenue-fund  for  defraying  the  inter- 
est of  these  debts,  and  for  other  ex- 
penditures of  the  Federal  Government. 
On  Sept.  1,  1905,  Alberta  and  Sas- 
katchewan, formed  from  the  provi- 
sional districts  of  Alberta,  Athabaska, 
Assiniboia  and  Saskatchewan,  were 
made  provinces.  The  Yukon  Terri- 
tory, of  which  the  Klondike  is  a  small 
section,  was  constituted  in  1898. 


Canada 

The  population,  census  of  1911, 
by  provinces  was  :  Ontario,  2,523,274 ; 
Quebec,  2,003,232;  Manitoba,  455,- 
614 ;  Saskatchewan,  492,432  ;  Alberta, 
374,663;  British  Columbia,  392,480; 
New  Brunswick,  351,889;  Nova  Sco- 
tia, 492,338;  Prince  Edward  Island, 
93,728 ;  Yukon,  8,512  ;  Northwest  Ter- 
ritories, 18,481.  The  largest  cities 
were:  Montreal,  470,480;  Toronto, 
376,538;  Winnipeg,  136,035;  Van- 
couver, 100,401;  Ottawa,  87,062; 
Hamilton,  81,969;  Quebec,  78,710; 
Halifax,  46,619 ;  London,  46,300. 

In  1534  Jacques  Cartier,  a  French 
navigator,  entering  the  St.  Law- 
rence on  the  festival  of  the  saint  of 
that  title,  took  nominal  possession  of 
North  America  in  the  name  of  his 
king,  Francis  I.  In  1608  Quebec  was 
founded  by  De  Champlain ;  in  1623 
he  built  Fort  St.  Louis,  from  which 
stronghold  France  ruled  for  150  years 
a  vast  region  extending  E.  to  Acadia 
(now  Nova  Scotia),  W.  to  Lake  Su- 
perior, and  ultimately  down  the  Mis- 
sissippi as  far  as  Florida  and  Louis- 
iana. The  Recollet  and  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries traversed  the  country,  and 
underwent  incredible  hardships  in 
their  zeal  fqr  the  conversion  of  the 
Indians.  These  fearless  priests  were 
the  pioneers  of  civilization  in  the  far 
West,  and  to  La  Salle  is  due  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Mississippi  valley.  In 
1670  Charles  II.  granted  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  the  perpetual  exclusive 
right  of  trading  in  the  territory  wa- 
tered by  all  the  streams  flowing  into 
Hudson  Bay.  Garrisoned  forts  were 
raised  at  suitable  points,  and  bitter 
enmity  between  the  French  and  English 
traders  led  to  bloody  struggles.  The 
wars  on  the  American  continent  fol- 
lowed the  course  of  the  wars  in  Eu- 
rope, until  the  long  struggle  between 
France  and  England  for  the  suprem- 
acy in  America  came  to  a  close  on  the 
"  Plains  of  Abraham  "  in  1759,  when 
General  Wolfe  defeated  Montcalm. 
Peace  was  concluded  between  Great 
Britain  and  France,  1763,  when  Can- 
ada was  formally  ceded  to  England, 
and  Louisiana  to  Spain.  In  the  same 
year  a  small  portion  of  the  recently 
acquired  territory  was  by  royal  procla- 
mation organized  under  English  laws. 
In  1774  the  new  province  was  ex- 
tended by  parliamentary  enactment, 
and  that  under  French  taws,  down  the 


Canai 


Ohio  to  its  confluence  with  the  Mis- 
sissippi, and  up  the  latter  stream  to 
its  source.  Finally,  Canada  receded 
to  its  present  limits  in  1783.  In  1791 
Canada  was  divided  under  separate 
legislatures  into  two  sections,  the  E. 
retaining  French  institutions,  and  the 
W.  receiving  those  of  England;  and 
these  sections  were  reunited  for  legis- 
lative purposes  in  1841.  In  1867  Up- 
per and  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick  were  united  as 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  in  1870 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company's  territory 
was  divided  into  Manitoba  and  the 
Northwest  Territories  and  united  to 
the  Dominion.  British  Columbia  en- 
tered the  Union  in  1871,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island  in  1873.  The  division 
of  the  Northwest  was  attended  by  the 
rebellions  of  half-breeds  under  Louis 
Riel  in  1870  and  1885.  Fenian  raids 
in  1866  and  1870-71  also  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  Dominion.  In  1893  a 
court  of  arbitration  on  the  Bering  Sea 
Seal  Fisheries  met  in  Ottawa.  In 
1896  Quebec's  boundaries  were  ex- 
tended to  Hudson  Bay.  In  1897  pref- 
erence was  given  British  goods.  In  1903 
the  Alaskan  Boundary  dispute  was  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  United  States. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  great  war  in 
Europe,  Canada  responded  promptly 
and  efficiently  to  the  call  of  the 
mother  country,  and  maintained  a 
hearty  support  with  men,  money,  mu- 
nitions, and  other  aid.  Relationa  with 
the  United  States  speedily  became 
more  cordial  than  ever.  Before  the 
United  States  was  forced  into  the 
war  its  government  had  advanced 
large  sums  of  money  to  lighten 
Canada's  great  burden,  and  vast 
quantities  of  war  supplies  were 
shipped  therefrom  through  Canada  for 
use  by  the  Entente  Allies.  For  details 
see  APPENDIX:  United  States  in  the 
World  War;  World  War. 

Canada,  a  Spanish  term  used  to 
indicate  a  small  canon,  or  valley  with 
steep  rocky  walls. 

Canada  Balsam,  a  pale  balsam, 
obtained  by  incision  from  a  Canadian 
tree,  the  American  silver-fir,  some- 
times called  the  Balm  of  Gilead  fir. 

Canada  Goose,  an  American  wild 
goose  30  to  35  inches  long,  brownish 
above,  lighter  below,  head,  neck,  bill, 
and  feet  black,  a  white  patch  on  the 
cheek ;  breeds  in  the  N.  of  the  conti- 


nent and  migrates  S.  when  the  frost 
becomes  severe. 

Canada  Hemp,  a  perennial  herb, 
of  the  dogbane  family  native  of 
North  America.  It  has  a  strong  fiber, 
used  by  the  Indians  for  twine,  nets, 
woven  fabrics,  etc. 

Canada  Rice,  a  floating  grass 
growing  in  lakes  and  sluggish  streams 
in  Canada  and  the  Northern  United 
States,  yielding  a  grain  that  forms 
part  of  the  food  of  the  Indians,  and  is 
eaten  by  the  whites  also. 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  a 
line  of  railway  which  traverses  British 
North  America  from  the  St.  Law- 
rence to  the  Pacific,  and  opened 
for  general  traffic  in  June,  1886.  Com- 
mencing at  Montreal,  the  line  goes  to 
Ottawa,  thence  round  the  N.  of  the 
Great  Lakes  to  Port  Arthur  at  the 
head  of  Lake  Superior,  and  thence  to 
Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  thence  to  Stephen 
in  the  Rocky  mountains,  then  across 
British  Columbia  to  Vancouver  on  the 
Pacific.  The  length  of  the  line  from 
Montreal  to  Vancouver  is  2,909  miles. 

Canadian  River,  a  river  that  rises 
in  the  N.  E.  part  of  New  Mexico,  and 
runs  generally  E.  through  Texas  and 
Indian  Territory  to  the  Arkansas.  Its 
length  is  about  900  miles. 

Canaigre,  a  species  of  dock,  grow- 
ing abundantly  in  New  Mexico  and 
Texas.  The  rootstock  furnishes  a  ma- 
terial used  in  tanning. 

Canaille,  a  French  word,  denoting 
the  most  degraded  element  of  the  pop- 
ulace, and  applied  to  an  individual  as 
a  term  of  contempt 

Canal,  an  artificial  water-course  or 
channel,  especially  used  for  the  passage 
of  boats.  The  Egyptians  very  early 
made  a  canal  connecting  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  Sea.  Most  of  the  ancient  na- 
tions had  canals.  The  great  canal  of 
China  was  constructed  partly  in  the 
7th  and  partly  in  the  9th  century 
A.  D.  ;  it  is  825  miles  long.  The  first 
known  English  canal  was  cut  by  the 
Romans  at  Caerdike.  The  Caledonian 
canal  projected  in  1803  was  opened 
n  1822.  The  Erie  canal,  so  important 
:o  New  York  city,  was  begun  in  1817. 
and  completed  in  1825.  The  Welland 
canal  parallel  to  Niagara  river  and 
cataract,  and  the  United  States  and 
ianadiau  Sault  Ste.  Marie  canals 


Canalejas 

overcoming  St.  Mary's  Falls,  were 
opened  in  1833,  and  1876,  and  con- 
nect for  navigation  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  basins. 
The  Languedoc,  or  Canal  du  Midi, 
connecting  the  Atlantic  with  the  Medi- 
terranean, was  completed  in  18H1.  The 
Suez  canal,  connecting  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Red  Sea,  was  opened 
in  1869.  It  is  99  miles  long;  26 
feet  deep ;  327  feet  wide  for  77  miles ; 
and  196  feet  for  the  remainder.  Its 
success  suggested  the  cutting  of  the 
Panama  Canal  (see  article),  across 
the  isthmus,  to  join  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Oceans.  This  great  undertak- 
ing, begun  by  the  renowned  engineer 
of  the  Suez  canal,  M.  de  Lesseps,  was, 
after  a  prosecution  to  a  stage  near 
completion,  abandoned  in  1892,  as  a 
result  of  a  terrific  scandal.  The  great 
Manchester  ship  canal,  extending  from 
Eastham  to  Manchester,  England,  was 
opened  Jan.  1, 1894.  The  Corinth  ship 
canal,  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth, 
was  opened  by  King  George  of  Greece, 
Aug.  6,  1893.  On  June  20,  1895,  the 
great  Baltic  and  North  Sea  canal  was 
opened  by  the  German  Emperor  in  the 
presence  of  a  navy  representing  all  na- 
tions. Work  began  on  the  great  Chi- 
cago drainage  canal  Sept  3,  1892,  and 
by  Jan.  1,  1900,  it  was  completed.  The 
main  channel  is  29  miles  long,  of 
which  about  nine  miles  was  cut 
through  solid  rock.  In  rock  the  mini- 
mum depth  is  22  feet.  See  PANAMA 
CANAI. 

Canalejas  y  Mendez,  Jos6,  a 
Spanish  statesman;  became  a  leader 
of  the  Liberal  party;  editor  of  "  El 
Heraldo "  of  Madrid;  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Jurisprudence;  chief 
of  the  Departments  of  Justice,  Fi- 
nance, Public  Instruction,  and  Pub- 
lic Works:  and  Feb.  9,  1910,  Prime 
Minister;  was  conspicuous  in  the 
controversy  between  Spain  and  the 
Vatican.  He  was  assassinated  NOT. 
12,  1912. 

Canard,  a  false  report;  a  silly 
rumor. 

Canary  Bird,  a  singing  bird,  a 
kind  of  finch  from  the  Canary  Islands. 
They  were  introduced  into  Europe  300 
or  400  years  ago. 

Canary  Flower,  an  annual  climb- 
ing plant  of  the  Indian  cress  family,  a 


Cancer 

native  of  New  Granada,  cultivated  in 
Europe  for  its  showy  yellow  flowers. 

Canary  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Spain  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  off  the  N.  W.  coast  of  Africa, 
forming  a  Spanish  province.  The  group 
consists  of  seven  large  and  several 
small  islets,  with  a  joint  area  of  about 
2,807  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1913) 
of  469,768.  The  principal  islands  are 
Lanzarote,  Fuerteventura,  Gran  Ca- 
naria,  Teneriffe,  Gomera,  Palma,  and 
Hierro  or  Ferro.  The  distance  from 
Fuerteventura  to  the  African  coast  is 
about  62  V&  geographical  miles.  The 
coasts  are  steep  and  rocky,  and  the 
surface  is  diversified  with  high  moun- 
tains, narrow  gorges,  and  deep  valleys. 
All  the  islands  are  volcanic,  and  every- 
where show  plain  marks  of  their 
origin.  There  are  no  rivers,  and  on 
several  of  the  islands  water  is  scarce. 

Canberra,  site  of  the  permanent 
capital  of  the  Australian  Common- 
wealth, in  the  State  of  New  South 
Wales,  selected  in  1910,  area  900 
square  miles,  being  built  to  order  after 
plans  by  Walter  B.  Griffin,  of  Chicago. 

Canby,  Edward  Richard  Sprigg, 
an  American  army  omcer;  born  \n 
Kentucky,  in  1817.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1839;  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  commanded  the  United 
States  troops  in  New  York  city  dur- 
ing the  draft  riots  of  1863 ;  succeeded 
General  Banks  in  the  command  of  the 
army  in  Louisiana,  1864;  became 
Brigadier-General,  1866.  He  was 
treacherously  shot  by  an  Indian  while 
negotiating  for  the  removal  of  the  Mo- 
docs  from  Northern  California,  April 
11,  1873. 

Cancan,  a  dance,  something  of  the 
nature  of  a  quadrille,  but  accompanied 
by  violent  leaps  and  indecorous  contor- 
tions of  the  body. 

Cancer,  in  astronomy,  tbe  fourth 
sign  in  the  zodiac.  The  sun  enters 
this  sign  about  June  21.  He  is  at  hia 
greatest  N.  declination  on  entering, 
and  the  point  which  he  reaches  is 
called  the  summer  solstice,  because  ha 
appears  for  the  moment  to  stop  hi  bis 
progress  N.,  and  turn  S.  again. 

Cancer,  (derived  from  the  Latin 
cancer,  a  crab),  or  Carcinoma,  in 
medicine  and  surgery  a  name  which  is 
given  to  a  group  of  malignant  diseases, 


Cancer  Root 


Candler 


in  consequence  of  their  supposed  re- 
eemblance  to  a  crab.  In  the  treatment 
of  cancer  it  is  necessary  to  get  the  dis- 
ease at  an  early  stage  of  its  growth,  so 
that  it  may  be  thoroughly  removed. 
If  it  is  detected  and  removed  at  this 
period  of  its  existence  it  is  curable, 
but  if  the  neighboring  glands  have  be- 
come involved  in  the  disease  the  relief 
is  only  temporary. 

Cancer  Root,  or  Beech  Drops, 
a  parasitic  herb  of  the  order  Oroban- 
chese,  a  native  of  North  America, 
growing  on  the  exposed  roots  of  beech- 
trees.  The  whole  plant  is  powerfully 
astringent,  and  the  root  is  especially 
bitter  and  nauseous. 

Cancrnm  Oris,  (literally  "sore in 
the  mouth"),  known  also  as  Noma, 
Water-cancer,  and  Water-canker,  a 
peculiar  form  of  mortification,  arising 
apparently  from  defective  nutrition. 
The  disease  seldom  occurs  except  be- 
tween the  2d  and  llth  years,  and  is 
usually  preceded  by  measles,  remit- 
tent or  intermittent  fever,  or  some 
other  serious  disease. 

Candace,  a  name  apparently  com- 
mon to  the  warrior  queens  of  Ethiopia 
in  the  later  period  of  the  kingdom  of 
Meroe.  The  most  distinguished  of 
them  invaded  Egypt  22  B.  c.,  was  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  and  obliged  to 
sue  for  peace,  which  she  obtained, 
with  a  remission  of  the  tribute  imposed 
on  her  by  Petronius.  One  of  her  suc- 
cessors is  mentioned  in  Acts  vii :  27 ; 
her  high  treasurer  was  baptized  by 
Philip  the  Deacon  on  the  road  to  Gaza. 

Candelabrum,  a  lamp-stand.  It6 
tripedal  form  among  the  ancients  is 
believed  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
shape  of  its  predecessors  —  braziers  or 
basins  for  holding  fuel,  mounted  on 
tripods. 

Candia,  or  Crete,  (called  in  the 
most  ancient  times  Idsea,  from  Mount 
Ida,  afterward  Greta,  whence  the 
Turkish  name  Kirid),  one  of  the  most 
important  islands  of  the  Turkish  em- 
pire; situated  in  the  Mediterranean, 
81  miles  from  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
Morea,  and  230  from  the  African 
coast.  Length  160  miles ;  breadth  7  to, 
35  ;  area  3,330  sq.  m. ;  pop.  310,400.  In 
1868  a  formidable  insurrection,  fo- 
mented by  Greece,  was  with  difficulty 
suppressed  by  the  Turks.  In  conse- 


quence of  this  revolt  the  Turks  grant- 
ed to  the  Cretans  a  degree  of  auton- 
omy, but  Turkish  bad  faith  produced 
another  revolt  nine  years  later.  At 
that  time  a  new  constitution  of  a  par- 
liamentary character  was  inaugurated, 
but  many  of  its  provisions  were  an- 
nulled in  1889.  In  1896  there  was 
again  a  rising  against  the  Turks,  in 
which  the  Greeks  took  part.  The  Greek 
troops  landed  on  the  island  were  with- 
drawn at  the  instance  of  the  Great 
Powers,  who  undertook  to  secure  an 
autonomous  government  under  Turk- 
ish suzerainty  and  to  cause  the  Turk- 
ish troops  to  be  withdrawn.  On  Sept 
6,  1898,  the  Mohammedans  of  Candia 
rose  against  the  Christians,  and  the 
fighting  resulted  in  the  death  of  many 
of  the  latter,  including  some  British 
sailors.  The  leading  powers  at  once 
demanded  the  complete  withdrawal  of 
the  Turkish  troops  who  had  abetted 
the  rebels,  and  ultimately  on  Oct.  11, 
the  Sultan  complied  with  their  de- 
mand, the  troops  being  soon  after 
withdrawn.  Prince  George  of  Greece 
was  high  commissioner  of  the  Powers 
in  1898-1906. 

Candidate,  a  term  taken  from  the 
Latin  candidatus,  a  candidate,  liter- 
ally a  person  dressed  in  white,  be- 
cause, among  the  Romans,  a  man 
who  solicited  an  office,  such  as  the 
prsetorship  or  consulship,  appeared  in 
a  bright  white  garment. 

Candleberry,  a  shrub,  natural  or- 
der Myricacese,  growing  from  4  to  18 
feet  high,  and  common  in  North- 
America,  where  candles  are  made 
from  its  drupes  or  berries  which  are 
about  the  size  of  peppercorns,  and 
covered  with  a  greenish-white  wax. 

Candle  Fish,  a  small  fish  peculiar 
to  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  so  oily  that  when  dried 
and  a  wick  is  drawn  through  it,  it  will 
burn  like  a  candle. 

Candlemas,  the  feast  of  the  puri- 
fication of  the  Virgin,  Feb.  2d;  so- 
called  from  being  formerly  celebrated 
with  processions  and  shows  of  candles. 
It  was  instituted  in  the  6th  century. 

Candler,  Warren  A.,  an  Ameri- 
can clergyman :  born  in  Carroll  coun- 
ty, Ga.,  Aug.  23,  1857.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Emory  College  in  1875,  was 
ordained  to  the  Methodist  ministry! 


Candlish 

and  in  1888  was  elected  a  bishop.  He 
has  been  President  of  Emory  College 
since  1888. 

Candlish,  Robert  Smith,  a 
Scotch  clergyman,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
March  23,  1806;  was  educated  at 
Glasgow  University.  After  the  death 
of  Chalmers,  Candlish  was  the  ruling 
spirit  in  the  Free  Church.  He  died 
Oct  19,  1873. 

Candy,  or  Kandy,  a  city  of  Cey 
Ion,  near  the  center  of  the  island,  72 
miles  N.  E.  of  Colombo.  Pop.  (1911) 
29,451. 

Canea,  the  capital  and  chief  com- 
mercial town  of  Crete,  situated  on  the 
N.  W.  coast.  It  occupies  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Cydonia.  Pop.  24,399. 

Canebrake,  a  colossal  reed,  which 
reaches  a  height  of  30  or  40  feet,  and 
forms  dense  swamp-jungles  in  marshy 
places  along  the  banks  of  the  Red 
river,  the  Arkansas,  the  Mississippi, 
and  their  tributaries. 

Canes  Venatici,  (Latin  "  the 
Hunting-dogs,"  Asterion  and  Chara), 
one  of  the  northern  constellations 
added  by  Hevelius  in  1690,  between 
Bootes  and  Ursa  Major. 

Canfield,  James  Hulme,  an 
American  educator ;  born  in  Delaware, 
O.,  March  18,  1847;  in  1877-1891  he 
was  Professor  of  History  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kansas,  and  in  1891-1895 
was  Chancellor.  He  then  became 
President  of  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity and  in  1899  librarian  of  Colum- 
bia University.  Died  in  1909. 

Cang,  Cangue,  or  Kea,  the  wood- 
en collar,  weighing  from  50  to  60 
pounds,  and  fitting  closely  round  the 
neck,  imposed  upon  criminals  in 
China. 

Canicula,  the  dog-star  or  Sirius; 
hence  Canincular  days,  the  dog-days. 

Canidae,  a  family  of  mammals,  con- 
taining the  dogs,  wolves,  foxes,  and 
jackals. 

Canis  Major,  a  constellation  of 
the  Southern  hemisphere,  remarkable 
as  containing  Sirius,  the  brightest 
star. —  CANIS  MINOR  is  a  constellation 
in  the  Northern  hemisphere,  immedi- 
ately above  Canis  Major,  the  chief  star 
in  which  is  Procyon. 

Canker,  (1)  in  medicine,  a  collec- 
tion of  small  sloughing  ulcers  in  the 


Cannon 

mouth.  (2)  In  horticulture,  a  disease 
to  which  fruit-trees  are  liable.  (3) 
In  farriery,  a  disease  in  horses'  feet 
•causing  a  discharge  of  fetid  matter 
from  the  cleft  in  the  middle  of  the 
frog. 

Canker-worm,  a  worm  or  larva  de- 
structive to  trees  or  plants. 

Cannel  Coal,  a  variety  of  bitum- 
inous coal,  containing  earthy  matters, 
which  render  it  specifically  heavier 
than  water.  It  varies  much  in  ap- 
pearance. It  is  very  dense  and  com- 
pact, and  not  easily  frangible,  break- 
ing with  an  uneven  fracture,  and  does 
not  soil  the  fingers.  When  burning, 
it  splits  and  crackles,  without  melting, 
and  leaves  3  or  4  per  cent,  of  ash. 

Cannes,  a  seaport  of  France,  oh 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  the 
Department  of  Alpes-Maritimes ;  fam- 
ous as  the  place  where  Napoleon 
landed  when  he  returned  from  Elba, 
March  1,  1815.  Pop.  19,500. 

Cannibalism,  the  act  or  practice 
of  eating  human  flesh  by  mankind. 
When  America  was  discovered,  canni- 
balism was  found  to  prevail  to  a  very 
great  extent.  It  is  stated,  on  excellent 
authority,  to  exist  in  Hayti,  and  un- 
doubtedly prevails  among  certain 
South  American  tribes.  In  many  parts 
of  Africa,  cannibalism  is  systematic- 
ally practised. 

Canning,  George,  an  English  or- 
ator and  statesman ;  born  in  London, 
April  11,  1770 ;  educated  at  Eton  and 
at  Oxford.  He  was  first  brought  into 
Parliament  by  Pitt  in  1793,  and  in 
1796  became  Under-Secretary  of 
State.  In  1797  he  projected,  with 
some  friends,  the  "  Anti-Jacobin,"  of 
which  Gifford  was  appointed  editor, 
and  to  which  Canning  contributed  the 
"  Knife-grinder  "  and  other  poems  and 
articles.  In  1798  he  supported  Wil- 
berforce's  motion  for  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  In  1807  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs.  As  British  Minister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  he  earnestly  advocated 
the  principles  embodied  in  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine.  April  12,  1827,  his  ap- 
pointment to  be  Prime-Minister  was 
announced.  He  died  in  Chiswick, 
Aug.  8,  1827. 

Cannon,  George  Q.,  born  in  Liv- 
erpool, England,  Jan.  11,  1827;  re- 
moved to  the  Salt  Lake,  where  he  be- 


Cannon 


Canteen 


came  a  Mormon  leader.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Legislative  Council  of 
Utah  in  1805-1866  and  1869-1872, 
and  was  a  delegate  to  Congress  from 
1865  to  1881.  At  a  Constitutional 
Convention  at  Salt  Lake  City  in  1872 
he  was  chosen  to  present  the  consti- 
tution and  memorial  to  Congress  for 
the  admission  of  the  Territory  into 
the  Union  as  a  State.  He  died  in 
Monterey,  Cal.,  April  12,  1901.  His 
son,  Frank  J.  Cannon,  was  elected 
one  of  the  first  United  States  Senators 
from  Utah,  1896-9. 

Cannon,  Joseph  Gnrney,  an 
American  legislator ;  born  in  Guilf ord, 
N.  C.,  May  7,  1836;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Illinois  in  1858;  was 
State  Attorney  in  1861-68 ;  member 
of  Congress  in  1873-91,  1893-1903, 
1903-13,  and  1915-17 ;  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  four  Congresses,  1903-11 ; 
and  was  a  stalwart  Republican,  famil- 
iarly known  as  "  Uncle  Joe  Cannon." 

Cano,  Juan  Sebastian  del,  _  a 
Spanish  navigator,  born  in  Guetaria, 
Guipuzcoa,  about  1460.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  to  circumnavigate  the  globe 
(1522).  He  died  on  the  Pacific,  Aug. 
4,  1526. 

Canoe,  a  boat  made  of  a  hollow 
trunk  of  a  tree,  or  of  the  bark  shaped 
and  strengthened.  They  were  original- 
ly used  by  the  North  American  In- 
dians. 

Canon,  in  its  original  sense,  a  cane 
or  reed  used  as  a  measure  or  rule. 
Specifically,  a  law  or  rule  in  general. 
In  ecclesiastical  history  a  canon  is  a 
book  containing  the  rules  of  a  religi- 
ous order  used  in  monastic  institu- 
tions. A  list  or  catalogue  of  the  can- 
onized saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  A  dignitary  of  the  Church ; 
one  who  possesses  a  prebend,  or  rev- 
enue allotted  for  the  performances  of 
divine  services  in  a  cathedral  or  col- 
legiate church. 

Canon,  the  Spanish  word  for  tube, 
funnel,  cannon ;  applied  by  the  Span- 
ish Americans,  and  hence  in  North 
America  generally,  to  long  and  narrow 
river  gorges  or  deep  ravines  with  pre- 
cipitous and  perpendicular  sides. 

Canonical  Hours,  certain  stated 
times  of  the  day  appropriated  by  ec- 
clesiastical law  to  the  offices  of  prayer 
and  devotion  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church- 


Canonization,  a  ceremony  in  the 
Roman  Church,  by  which  deceased 
persons  are  declared  saints. 

Canon-law,  the  body  of  ecclesias- 
tical law  as  laid  down  by  the  canons. 
The  oldest  canons  are  called  Apostolic 
canons.  The  canons  of  the  Councils 
of  Nice  (A.  n.  325),  Constantinople 
(A.  D.  381),  Ephesus  (A.  D.  431), 
and  Chalcedon  (A.  D.  451),  obtained 
civil  sanction  by  decree  of  Justinian. 
Afterward  papal  decrees  of  various 
dates  were  added  to  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic canon  law. 

Canon  of  Scripture,  the  term 
canon,  as  applied  to  the  Scriptural 
writings,  has  been  narrowed  in  its 
application  to  those  inspired  writings 
recognized  by  Christian  believers. 

Canossa,  a  ruined  castle  near  Reg- 
gio,  Italy,  interesting  for  its  historical 
associations.  The  Emperor  Henry 
IV.,  excommunicated  by  Gregory  VII., 
humbly  waited  for  three  days  in  its 
courtyard  bareheaded,  barefooted  and 
fasting,  until  the  Pope  reversed  his 
decision.  Hence  the  term  "  going  to 
Canossa,"  meaning  to  yield  to  papal 
wishes  or  demands. 

Canova,  Antonio,  an  Italian 
sculptor,  born  in  1757  ;  died  1822.  He 
was  largely  self-taught,  and  at  15 
years  of  age  produced  two  statues. 
He  excelled  in  whatever  style  he 
chose,  and  his  versatility  is  shown  in 
the  delicate  beauty  of  his  famous 
"  Cupid  and  Psyche  "  and  the  rugged 
(strength  of  his  colossal  "  Hercules 
throwing  Lichas  into  the  Sea." 

Canso,  Cape,  the  E.  extremity  of 
Nova  Scotia,  at  the  entrance  of  Ched- 
abucto  Bay.  Canso  Strait  or  Gut,. 
17%  miles  long  and  2%  in  average 
breadth,  separates  Nova  Scotia  from 
the  island  of  Caps  Breton. 

Cantacnzenns,  a  Greek  princely 
family,  which  gave  two  emperors  to 
Constantinople,  and  a  branch  of  which 
has  been  distinguished  in  the  service 
of  Russia.  In  1903,  a  scion  married 
a  granddaughter  of  General  Ulysses 
S.  Grant. 

Canteen,  in  military  language,  a 
regimental  establishment  managed  by 
a  committee  of  officers,  in  barracks  or 
forts,  for  the  sale  of  liquors,  tobacco, 
groceries,  etc.  The  word  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  flat  can  or  metallic  bottle 
used  by  soldiers  for  carrying  drinking 


UNITED    STATES    CANTONMENT! 


1 — Main  thoroughfare  at  an  important  camp. 
3 — General  view  of  a  Southern  training  camp. 

Photos  by  Brown   Bros. 


OR   ARMY    TRAINING 


2 — Daily  rifle  practice  is  the  most  necessary 
routine  in  the  training  of  recruits. 


Canterbury 

water.  The  sale  of  liquors  in  the 
United  States  army  establishments 
known  as  canteens  was  recently  pro- 
hibited by  law. 

Canterbury,  a  city  and  parliamen- 
tary and  municipal  borough  of  Eng- 
land in  Kent,  55  miles  S.  E.  of  Lon- 
don. In  the  8th,  9th,  10th,  and  llth 
centuries  the  city  was  dreadfully  rav- 
aged by  the  Danes,  but  at  the  Con- 
quest its  buildings  exceeded  in  extent 
those  of  London.  The  ecclesiastical 
importance  of  the  place  was  consum- 
mated by  the  murder  of  Thomas  a 
Becket  in  the  cathedral.  Henry  VIII. 
dissolved  the  priory  in  1539,  and  or- 
dered the  bones  of  Becket  to  be 
burned ;  and  the  troopers  of  Oliver 
Cromwell  made  a  stable  of  the  cathe- 
dral. The  cathedral,  one  of  the  finest 
ecclesiastical  structures  in  England, 
has  been  built  in  different  ages,  the 
oldest  part  dating  from  about  1174. 
The  great  tower,  235  feet  in  height, 
is  a  splendid  specimen  of  the  Pointed 
style.  Pop.  (1911)  24,826. 

Cantharis,  or  Spanish  Fly.  Ex- 
ternally used  as  a  rubefacient  in  the 
form  of  a  liniment,  also  as  a  vesicant 
in  the  form  of  the  common  blister. 

Canticle,  certain  detached  psalms 
and  hymns  used  in  the  service  of  the 
Angl'can  Church.  The  word  is  also 
applied  to  that  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment also  known  as  the  "Song  of 
Solomon." 

Canton,  called  also  YANG-CHING, 
city  of  rams,  a  large  commercial  city 
and  port  in  the  south  of  China,  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  Kwang- 
tung,  on  the  N.  or  left  side  of  the  Shu- 
kiang,  or  Pearl  river,  in  a  rich  alluvial 
plain,  70  miles  N.  of  Macao  and  90  N. 
W.  of  Hong-kong.  The  city  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  25  to  40  feet  high, 
20  feet  thick,  with  an  esplanade  in- 
side, 6  miles  in  circumference;  and  it 
is  divided  by  a  partition  wall  run- 
ning E.  and  W.  into  two  unequal 
parts.  There  are  12  outer  gates,  four 
gates  in  partition  wall,  and  two  water 
gates,  shut  and  guarded  by  night.  The 
entire  circuit,  including  suburbs,  is 
nearly  10  miles.  At  the  S.  W.  corner 
of  the  suburbs  S.  of  the  river,  are  the 
Hongs  or  European  quarter,  divided 
from  the  river  by  a  quay,  100  yards 
wide.  The  streets,  more  than  600, 
are  in  general  less  than  8  feet  wide, 


Cantonment 

and  very  crooked.  The  chief  exports 
are  tea,  silk,  and  cassia ;  chief  im- 
ports, cotton,  woolen  and  metal  goods. 
Pop.  est  (1916)  900,000. 

Canton,  city  and  capital  of  Stark 
county,  O. ;  on  Nimishillen  creek  and 
jthe  Baltimore  &  Ohio  and  other  rail- 
roads ;  59  miles  S.  E.  of  Cleveland ; 
manufactures  steel  bridges,  steel  cars, 
watches,  safes,  locks,  surgical  chairs, 
steel  roofing,  and  farming  implements ; 
has  a  large  trade  in  coal,  wheat, 
corn,  and  oats.  Pop.  (1910)  50,217. 

Cantonment,  an  indefinite  area  of 
land,  usually  in  the  suburbs  of  a  town 
or  village,  set  apart  for  the  training 
or  quartering  of  a  military  force. 
After  the  United  States  entered  the 
World  War,  forty-nine  cantonments 
and  camps  were  established  in  twenty- 
three  States,  the  principal  ones  being 
named  after  deceased  army  officers. 
These  reservations  comprised  sixteen 
National  Army  training  camps,  six- 
teen National  Guard  camps,  fourteen 
Navy  camps,  two  Marine  Corps  camps, 
and  one  embarkation  camp.  The  fol- 
lowing gives  the  names  (in  Italic*) 
and  location  of  the  principal  canton- 
ments and  camps : 

National  Army  Training  Camps. — 
Devens,  Ayer,  Mass. ;  Upton,  Yap- 
leank,  L.  I. ;  Dix,  Wrightstown,  N.  J. ; 
Meade,  Annapolis  Junction,  Md. ;  Lee, 
Petersburg,  Va. ;  Jackson,  Columbia, 
S.  C. ;  Gordon,  Atlanta,  Ga. ;  Sher- 
man, Chillicothe,  O. ;  Taylor,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. ;  Custer,  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.;  Grant,  Rockford.  111.;  Pike, 
Little  Rock,  Ark. ;  Dodge,  Des 
Moines,  la. ;  Funst on,  Fort  Riley, 
Ark. ;  Travis,  Fort  Sam  Houston, 
Tex. ;  and  Lewis,  American  Lake, 
Wash. 

National  Guard  Camps. — Greene, 
Charlotte,  N.  C. ;  Wadsworth,  Spar- 
tanburg,  S.  C. ;  Hancock,  Augusta, 
Ga. ;  McClellan,  Anniston,  Ala. ;  8e- 
vier,  Greenville,  S.  C. ;  Wheeler, 
Macon,  Ga. ;  McArthur,  Waco,  Tex. ; 
Logan,  Houston.  Tex. ;  Cody,  Dem- 
ing,  N.  M. ;  Doniphan,  Fort  Sill, 
Okla. ;  Bowie,  Fort  Worth,  Tex.; 
Sheridan,  Montgomery,  Ala. ;  Shelby, 
Hattiesburg,  Miss. ;  Beauregard, 
Alexandria,  La. ;  Kearny,  Linda 
Vista,  Cal. ;  and  Fre'mont,  Palo  Alto, 
Cal. 

Embarkation  Camp. — Merritt,  Du- 
mont,  N.  J. 


Cap 

Cap,  in  ships,  a  strong  piece  of 
timber  placed  over  the  head  or  upper 
end  of  a  mast,  having  in  it  a  round 
hole  to  receive  the  top  or  top-gallant 
masts. 

Cape  Breton,  an  island  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  separated  from 
Nova  Scotia,  to  which  province  it  be- 
longs, by  the  narrow  Gut  or  Strait  of 
Canso ;  area  3,120  square  miles.  Tim- 
ber, fish,  and  coal  are  exported.  The 
island  belonged  to  France  from  1632 
to  1763,  and_  Louisburg,  its  capital, 
was  long  an  important  military  post. 
It  was  separate  from  Nova  Scotia  be- 
tween 1784  and  1820.  Chief  town, 
Sydney.  Pop.  of  Cape  Breton,  83,240. 

Cape  Coast  Castle,  a  settlement 
of  Great  Britain  in  the  Gold  Coast 
Colony,  in  Upper  Guinea,  315  miles 
W.  of  Lagos.  The  place  lies  in  a 
chasm,  and  is  defended  by  the  great 
castle  near  the  water's  edge,  and  by 
three  small  forts  on  the  hills  behind. 
Ceded  by  the  Dutch  to  the  English 
in  1665,  Cape  Coast  Castle,  from  1672, 
was  possessed  by  several  British  Afri- 
can companies  tilll843,  when  it  was 
taken  over  by  government.  Pop.  11,- 
364. 

Cape  Cod,  a  peninsula  on  the  S. 
side  of  Massachusetts  Bay;  65  miles 
long  and  from  1  to  20  broad.  A  ship 
canal  was  completed  here  in  1916, 
connecting  Buzzards  Bay  and  Barn- 
stable  Bay,  at  a  cost  of  $12,000,000. 

Cape  Colony,  former  name  of  a 
British  colony  at  the  S.  extremity  of 
Africa;  since  1910  a  province  in  the 
Union  of  South  Africa,  renamed  CAPE 
OF  GOOD  HOPE  COLONY;  area,  276,- 
995  square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  2,564,- 
965 ;  chief  town,  Cape  Town,  pop. 
(1911)  67,159. 

The  province  is  better  adapted  for 
pasturage  than  for  agriculture.  All 
kinds  of  vegetables  and  pot  herbs,  and 
all  the  fruits  of  temperate  climates 
thrive  excellently,  and  fruits,  dried 
and  preserved,  are  exported.  The  vine 
is  cultivated,  and  some  excellent  wines 
are  made. 

Sheep-rearing  is  the  most  important 
industry,  and  wool  is  the  chief  export 
(although  surpassed  in  value  by  dia- 
monds). Cattle-breeding  is  carried 
on  to  some  extent,  especially  along  the 
coasts  and  in  the  E.  and  N.  districts. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  any  im- 
portance. 


Capella 

The  European  inhabitants  consist 
in  part  of  English,  Scottish,  and  Irish 
settlers  and  their  descendants,  but  the 
majority  are  of  Dutch  origin,  while 
there  are  also  a  considerable  number 
of  German  origin.  The  colored  people 
are  chiefly  Hottentots,  Kaffirs,  Be- 
chuanas,  Basutos,  Griquas,  Malays, 
and  a  mixed  race,  the  offspring  of 
black  women  and  white  fathers.  The 
province  is  now  divided  into  119  mag- 
isterial districts,  86  fiscal  divisions, 
123  municipalities,  and  79  village 
management  boards.  Each  division 
has  a  council,  which  looks  after  roads, 
boundaries,  and  beacons,  elected  tri- 
ennially  by  land  owners,  and  each 
municipality  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
or  chairman  and  councillors.  There 
are  also  120  school  districts  and  edu- 
cation is  compulsory  for  youth  of 
European  extraction. 

The  Dutch,  who  had  early  fixed 
upon  the  Cape  as  a  watering-place  for 
their  ships,  first  colonized  it  under 
Van  Riebeek,  in  1652.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  in  1795,  restored 
at  the  peace  of  Amiens  (1802),  and 
again  taken  in  1806.  From  this  time 
it  has  remained  in  the  possession  of 
Great  Britain,  to  which  it  was  for- 
mally -assigned  in  1815,  along  with 
Dutch  Guiana.  Subsequently  the  area 
of  the  colony  was  gradually  enlarged 
by  the  annexation  of  surrounding  dis- 
tricts. See  SOUTH  AFBICA,  UNION  OF. 

Cape  Fear  River,  a  river  of 
North  Carolina ;  navigable  for  steam- 
boats for  120  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Cape  Finistere,  the  westernmost 
point  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Co- 
runna,  extending  S.  W.  into  the  At- 
lantic. 

Cape  Hatteras,  a  dangerous  cape 
on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  off 
which  many  wrecks  have  occurred. 

Cape  Haiti,  a  town  on  the  N.  coast 
of  Haiti.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor 
and  a  pop.  of  about  30,000. 

Cape  Horn,  or  The  Horn,  the  ex- 
tremity  of  an  island  of  the  same  name, 
forming  the  extreme  S.  point  of  South 
America.  It  is  a  dark,  precipitous 
headland,  500  to  600  feet  high,  run- 
ning far  into  the  sea.  Navigation 
round  it  is  dangerous  on  account  of 
frequent  tempests. 

Capella,  the  name  of  a  star  situa- 
ted in  the  constellation  Auriga,  and  is 
of  remarkable  brilliancy. 


Cape  Matapan 


Cape  Verde  Islands 


Cape  Matapan,  a  promontory  of 
Greece,  forming  the  S.  extremity  of 
the  Peloponnesus. 

Capen,  Elmer  Hewitt,  an  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  in  Stoughton, 
Mass.,  April  5,  1838;  graduated  at 
Tufts  College,  and  became  a  lawyer 
and  later  a  Universalist  clergyman. 
From  1875  he  was  president  of  Tufts 
College.  He  died  Mar.  22,  1905. 

Capen,  Nahnm,  an  American  his- 
torical writer ;  born  at  Canton,  Mass., 
180-1 ;  was  postmaster  of  Boston, 
Mass. ;  introduced  street  letter-box 
collections.  He  died  Jan.  4,  1886. 

Cape  Nome,  a  cape  and  center  of 
a  remarkably  rich  gold  mining  region, 
on  the  S.  face  of  the  peninsular  pro- 
jection of  Alaska,  which  separates 
Kotzebue  Sound  on  the  N.  from  Ber- 
ing Sea  on  the  S.,  and  terminates  on 
the  W.  in  Cape  Prince  of  Wales. 

In  a  direct  line  of  navigation,  it  lies 
about  2,500  miles  N.  W.  of  Seattle,' 
and  175  miles  S.  E.  of  Siberia.  The 
nearest  settlement  of  consequence  to ' 
it  prior  to  1899  was  St.  Michael,  100 
miles  to  the  S.  E.,  but  that  year  vari- 
ous mining  camps  built  them- 
selves up  in  closer  range  and  reduced 
the  distance  some  60  miles.  The  Nome 
district  as  settled  centers  about  the 
lower  course  of  the  Snake  river,  which 
discharges  into  the  sea  at  a  position 
13  miles  W.  of  Cape  Nome  proper. 

The  first  discovery  of  gold  was  made 
hi  September,  1898,  but  it  was  not  un- 
til July,  1899,  that  the  beach  gold  was 
discovered.  In  the  middle  of  October 
following  Nome  City  had  5,000  inhabi- 
tants. The  yield  of  gold  has  been  very 
great,  and  the  district  is  being  exten- 
sively exploited.  Pop.  (1910)  2,600. 

Cape  Nnn,  a  headland  on  the  W. 
coast  of  Morocco,  extending  into  the 
sea  at  the  S.  W.  extremity  of  the  At- 
las range. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  promon- 
tory near  the  S.  extremity  of  Africa, 
at  the  termination  ot  a  small  penin- 
sula extending  S.  from  Table  moun- 
tain, which  overlooks  Cape  Town. 
Bartholomew  Diaz,  who  discovered  the 
Cape  in  1487,  called  it  Cape  of 
Storms;  but  John  II.  of  Portugal 
changed  this  to  its  present  designation. 
It  was  first  doubled  by  Vasco  de  Gama 
in  1407.  Here  is  one  of  the  principal 
astronomical  institutions  of  the  world. 


Cape  Ortegal,  a  rugged  promon- 
tory forming  the  N.  extremity  of 
Spain,  extending  into  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay. 

Caper,  the  unopened  flower-bud  of 
a  low  trailing  shrub  which  grows  in 
the  countries  bordering  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Pickled  in  vinegar  and  salt 
they  are  much  used  as  a  condiment. 

Capercailzie,  a  species  of  grouse, 
of  large  size,  formerly  indigenous  in 
the  highlands  of  Scotland,  but  which 
became  extinct,  and  had  to  be  re  intro- 
duced from  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula. 

Cape  River,  or  Rio  de  Segovia, 
a  river  of  Nicaragua,  which  after  a 
generally  N.  E.  course  of  nearly  300 
miles  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea,  after 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Honduras  and  Nicaragua. 

Capernaum,  a  city  of  Galilee  hi 
Palestine,  about  70  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Jerusalem,  situated  on  the  N.  W. 
shore  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  It  was 
here  that  Jesus  Christ  began  his  pub- 
lic ministry ;  and  in  its  neighborhood 
he  delivered  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

Capers,  Ellison,  an  American  cler- 
gyman ;  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Oct  14,  1837.  He  entered  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  ministry  in  1867, 
and  was  chosen  bishop  of  South  Caro- 
lina in  1893.  He  died  April  22,  1908. 

Caperton,  'William  Banks,  an 
American  naval  officer;  born  in 
Spring  Hill,  Tenn.,  June  30,  1855; 
was  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Naval 
Academy  in  1875 ;  became  captain  in 
1908,  and  rear-admiral  in  1913 ;  com- 
manded the  Atlantic  Reserve  Fleet  in 
1913-14;  was  sent  to  Haiti  to  sup- 
press disorders  in  1914-15 ;  and  in 
1917  was  given  command  of  the  Pa- 
cific fleet. 

Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  S.  W.  point 
of  Portugal. 

Cape  Town,  capital  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  Colony,  South  Africa ;  be- 
came the  seat  of  the  Parliament  of  the 
I  new  Union  of  South  Africa  in  1910. 
|  Pop.  (1911)  67,159. 

Cape  Verde,  the  most  westerly 
headland  of  Africa,  jutting  out  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  the  rivers 
;  Gambia  and  Senegal. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  a  group  in 
,  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  belonging 
j  to  Portugal,  about  370  miles  W.  of 


Cape  Wrath 

Cape  Verde,  which,  as  well  as  the  is- 
lands, derives  its  name  from  the  green- 
ish tinge  given  to  the  adjoining  sea  by 
the  abundance  of  sea-weed.  The  group 
consists  of  14  islands,  besides  islets 
and  rocks,  having  a  united  area  of 
about  1,480  square  miles.  They  are 
in  general,  mountainous,  rocky,  and 
very  ill  supplied  with  water;  all  are 
evidently  of  volcanic  origin.  The  cli- 
mate is  exceedingly  unhealthy,  and 
droughts  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
The  pop.  (1913)  147,794  is  a  mixed 
race  of  Portuguese  and  negroes.  These 
islands  were  discovered  in  1450.  Dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  war  between 
the  United  States  and  Spain  (189S), 
the  islands  were  made  the  rendezvous 
of  the  Spanish  fleet  under  Cervera. 

Cape  Wrath,  a  pyramidal  promon- 
tory of  unrivaled  wildness  and  gran- 
deur, the  N.  W.  extremity  of  Scotland 
and  running  out  into  the  Atlantic. 

Capillaries.  The  tubes  which  con- 
yey  the  blood  from  the  left  side  of  the 
heart  to  the  various  parts  of  the  body 
are  called  arteries,  while  those  which 
return  it  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart 
are  known  as  veins.  The  name  capil- 
laries is  given  to  the  minute  vessels 
which  form  the  connection  between 
the  terminal  branches  of  the  arteries 
and  the  commencement  of  the  trunks 
of  the  veins. 

Capita,  an  expression  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  laws  regulating  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  estates  of  persons  dy- 
ing intestate.  When  all  the  persons 
entitled  to  shares  in  the  distribution 
are  of  the  same  degree  of  kindred  to 
the  deceased  person,  and  claim  di- 
rectly from  him  in  their  own  right, 
and  not  through  an  intermediate  rela- 
tion, they  take  per  capita,  that  is, 
in  equal  shares,  or  share  and  share 
alike. 

Capital,  the  surplus  of  individual 
or  national  wealth  which  remains  af- 
ter current  necessities  have  been  met. 
It  consists  of  what  are  popularly 
called  savings.  It  is  available  for  the 
employment  of  new  labor,  and  if  this 
be  done  judiciously  it  will  produce  a 
further  surplus ;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  capital  will  increase.  In  every 
well  ordered  community  it  tends  to  do 
BO  indefinitely.  Capital  and  labor  mu- 
tually require  each  other,  and  are  not 
natural  foes,  but  natural  friends. 


Capitol 

Capital  Punishment,  the  pun- 
ishment of  crime  by  death.  In  the 
United  States  the  method  is  usually 
by  hanging,  but  in  recent  years  a 
number  of  States  have  adopted  elec- 
trocution. The  punishment  for  mur- 
der in  the  first  and  second  degrees 
varies  in  the  different  States  and  in- 
cludes hanging,  electrocution,  shooting 
(by  choice),  life  imprisonment,  limit- 
ed imprisonment,  death  or  life  impris- 
onment at  the  discretion  of  the  sen- 
tencing judge.  An  insane  person  and 
a  pregnant  woman  are  immune  from 
capital  punishment  while  the  condi- 
tion lasts. 

Capitation-grant,  a  grant  of  so 
much  per  head ;  specifically  applied  to 
grants  from  government  or  governing 
bodies  to  schools  according  to  the 
number  of  scholars  in  attendance,  or 
to  the  number  of  those  passing  a  cer- 
tain test  examination,  and  to  volun- 
teer companies  on  account  of  such 
members  as  reach  the  stage  of  "effi- 
cients." 

Capitation-tax,  a  tax  or  impost 
upon  each  head  or  person.  Generally 
called  a  poll-tax  in  the  United  States. 

Capito,  or  Kopfel,  Wolfgang 
Fabricns,  an  Alsatian  reformer ;  born 
in  Haguenau  in  1478,  entered  the 
Benedictine  order,  and  became  Profes- 
sor of  Theology  at  Basel,  He  approved 
of  Luther's  action,  but  nevertheless  in 
1519  entered  the  service  of  Albert  of 
Mainz ;  and  it  was  not  till  some  years 
later  that  he  finally  declared  for  the 
Reformation.  He  died  in  Strasburg 
in  November,  1541. 

Capitol.  A  Roman  height  on 
which  was  erected  a  famous  temple  of 
Jupiter.  The  word  is  also  applied  to 
the  building  in  which  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States  holds  its  sessions. 

The  S.  E.  corner-stone  of  the  Capi- 
tol was  laid  Sept  18,  1793,  "by 
Brother  George  Washington,  assisted 
by  the  Worshipful  Masters  and  Free 
Masons  of  the  surrounding  cities,  the 
military,  and  a  large  number  of  peo- 
ple." The  N.  wing  was  ready  for  oc- 
cupancy in  1800,  the  S.  wing  in  1808; 
but  both  were  partially  destroyed  by 
the  British  in  1814.  The  foundation 
of  the  main  building  was  laid  in  181 
(March  24),  the  restoration  of  the 
wings  having  been  commenced  thre« 
years  earlier;  and  the  whole  was  com- 


Capitoline  Game! 


Capron 


pleted  in  1827.  July  4,  1851,  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  S.  extension  was  laid 
by  President  Fillmore,  and  this  was 
finished  in  1857.  The  N.  extension 
was  occupied  by  the  Senate  in  1859. 
The  present  dome,  commenced  in  1855, 
was  completed  eight  years  later,  and 
Dec.  12,  1863,  the  American  flag  float- 
ed from  its  summit.  The  cost  of  the 
entire  building  was  $13,000,000 :  main 
building,  $3,000,000;  dome,  $1,000,- 
000;  extensions,  $8,000,000;  miscel- 
laneous items,  $1,000,000.  The  length 
of  the  entire  building  is  751  feet  4 
inches;  its  greatest  breadth,  324  feet, 
and  it  covers  a  little  over  3%  acres. 
The  distance  from  the  ground  to  the 
top  of  the  dome  is  307^  feet;  the 
diameter  of  the  dome,  135^  feet  The 
buildings  in  which  state  legislatures 
meet  are  also  called  capitols,  but  in 
New  England  usually  "  State  Houses." 

Capitoline  Games,  annual  public 
sports,  instituted  at  Rome  387  B.  C., 
in  honor  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and 
to  commemorate  the  preservation  of 
the  city  from  the  Gauls. 

Capiz,  a  province  of  Panay  (Vi- 
sayas),  Philippine  Islands;  on  the  N. 
coast;  area,  1,661  square  miles;  pop. 
(1903)  230,721;  capital,  Capiz;  pop. 
18,525. 

Capo  d'Istrias,  loannes  An- 
tonios,  Count,  was  born  in  Corfu, 
Feb.  11,  1770;  president  of  the  Greek 
republic  from  1828  to  1831.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  political  life,  and  in 
1809  entered  the  diplomatic  service  of 
Russia.  Here  his  policy  tended  to  the 
separation  of  Greece  from  Turkey.  In 
1828  he  entered  on  a  seven  years' 
presidency  of  Greece ;  but  imbued  as 
he  was  with  Russian  ideas,  he  aroused 
discontent  by  his  autocratic  measures ; 
and  on  Oct.  9,  1831,  he  was  assassin- 
ated in  a  church  at  Nauplia. 

Capote,  Domingo  Mendez,  a 
Cuban  statesman ;  born  in  Cardenas 
in  1863;  spent  his  youth  there;  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Ha- 
vana, and  became  one  of  the  best 
known  lawyers  in  Cuba.  Subsequent- 
ly he  was  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Havana  for  many  years.  In 
December,  1895, 'he  joined  the  insur- 
gents under  Gen.  Maximo  Gomez ;  be- 
came a  Brigadier-General ;  and  was 
appointed  civil  governor  of  Matanzas 
and  of  Las  Villas.  In  November,  1897, 


he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
Cuban  Republic.  When  the  Cuban 
Constitutional  Convention  appointed  a 
commission  of  five  members  to  confer 
with  President  McKinley  and  Secre- 
tary Root  concerning  the  future  rela- 
tions of  the  United  Stales  and  Cuba, 
he  became  its  leader.  The  conference 
was  held  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
April,  IDOL 

Cappadocia,  in  antiquity,  one  of 
the  most  important  provinces  in  Asia 
Minor,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  in- 
cluded in  the  modern  province  of  Ka- 
raman.  It  was  conquered  by  Cyrus, 
and  was  ruled  by  independent  kings 
from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great 
until  17  A.  D.,  when  it  became  a  Ro- 
man province. 

Capri,  an  island  in  the  beautiful 
Gulf  of  Naples,  remarkable  for  sev- 
eral remarkable  caverns  or  grottoes  in 
its  steep  rocky  coast. 

Capricornna  "  the  Goat,"  one  of 
the  12  signs  of  the  Zojdiac,  between 
Sagittarius  and  Aquarius ;  also  the 
corresponding  zodiacal  constellation, 
one  of  Ptolemy's  original  48. 

Caprimnlgidae,  the  goat-suckers,  a 
family  of  birds,  nearly  allied  to  the 
swallow  tribe. 

Caprivi,  Georg  Leo,  Graf  Ton 
sometimes  called  CAPBIVI  DE  CAPRARA 
DE  MONTECUCUTJ,  a  German  soldier 
and  statesman;  born  in  Berlin,  Feb. 
24,  1831;  entered  the  army  in  1849; 
and  in  1883  he  became  commander  of 
his  old  army  corps.  Hence  he  was 
removed,  on  the  fall  of  Bismarck,  in 
1890,  to  become  Imperial  Chancellor 
and  Prussian  Prime  Minister.  His 
principal  measures  were  the  army 
bills  of  1892  and  1893,  and  the  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Russia  in  1894,  in 
which  year  he  resigned.  He  died  at 
Skyren,  Feb.  6,  1899. 

Capron,  Allen  Kissam,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer  (son  of  Allyn 
Capron)  ;  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
June  24,  1871.  He  enlisted  as  a  pri- 
vate (1890),  and  rose  to  a  sec- 
ond lieutenancy  (1893),  joining  the 
"  Rough  Riders  "  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  with  Spain.  He  was  made  a 
captain  for  bravery,  and  was  killed  at 
Las  Guasimas,  Cuba,  June  24,  1898. 

Capron,  Allyn,  an  American  mili- 
tary officer;  born  in  Tampa,  Fla., 
Aug.  27,  1846.  He  was  a  son  of  Capt. 


Capsicum 

Erastus  A.  Capron,  killed  in  the  Mex- 
ican war,  and  was  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1867.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of 
captain  (1888),  and  in  the  war  with 
Spain  led  an  advance  at  the  battle  of 
Santiago.  He  further  distinguished 
himself  at  El  Caney.  He  contracted 
typhoid  in  Cuba  and  died  at  Fort 
Myer,  Va.,  Sept.  18,  1898. 

Capsicum,  a  genus  of  plants  bear- 
ing membranous  pods  containing  sev- 
eral seeds,  noted  for  their  hot,  pungent 
qualities. 

Capstan,  a  strong,  massive  appara- 
tus of  wood  or  iron  made  to  revolve, 
and  thus  raise  a  heavy  weight  by 
winding  a  rope  round  it.  It  is  espe- 
cially used  on  shipboard  for  weighing 
the  anchor. 


Carabobo 

amphitheatre,  said  to  have  been  capa- 
ble of  containing  100,000  spectators, 
and  of  some  of  its  tombs,  attest  its 
former  splendor  and  magnificence.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  A.  D. 
840. 

Capuchin  Monkey,  a  name  given 
to  various  species  of  South  American 
monkeys  of  the  genus  Cebus.  The  hair 
of  their  heads  is  so  arranged  that  it 
has  the  appearance  of  a  capuchin's 
cowl,  hence  the  name. 

Capuchins,  a  branch  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan order  of  monks,  founded  by 
Matthew  de  Baschi,  an  Italian.  So 
called  from  their  peculiar  capuche  or 
cowl  —  a  pointed  hood  attached  to  the 
ordinary  Franciscan  coat,  and  said  to 
have  been  worn  by  St.  Francis  himself. 


HALL  IN  BATHS  OF  CARACALLA. 


Captain,  one  who  is  at  the  head  or 
has  authority  over  others,  especially : 
(1)  The  military  officer  who  com- 
mands a  company,  whether  of  infan- 
try, cavalry,  or  artillery.  (2)  An  of- 
ficer in  the  navy  commanding  a  ship 
of  war.  (3)  The  master  of  a  mer- 
chant vessel. 

Capua  (ancient  Capoa  or  Capua), 
a  strongly  fortified  city  of  Southern 
Italy,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Voltur- 
no,  in  a  fine  plain  18  miles  N.  of  Na- 
ples. The  city  has  a  citadel,  the  work 
of  Vauban,  and  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom.  The  ancient  Ca- 
pua was  situated  about  21/&  miles  from 
the  modern  city.  The  remains  of  its 


Capulets    and    Montagues,    the 

English  spelling  of  the  names  of  the 
Cappelletti  and  Montecchi,  two  noble 
families  of  Northern  Italy,  according 
to  tradition  of  Verona,  chiefly  mem- 
orable from  their  connection  with  the 
legend  on  which  Shakespeare  has 
founded  his  tragedy  of  "  Romeo  and 
Juliet." 

Carabobo,  a  State  of  Venezuela, 
between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
State  of  Zamora ;  area,  2,974  square 
miles;  population,  198,021,  mostly  in- 
habiting the  fertile  depression  of  Lake 
Valencia,  where  large  crops  of  coffee, 
sugar,  and  excellent  cacao  are  grown. 
Capital,  Valencia. 


Caracal 


Caravel 


Caracal,  a  species  of  lynx,  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  with  black  ears, 
tipped  with  long  black  hair.  It  is  a 
native  of  Africa,  India,  Persia,  and 
Turkey. 

Carac  alia,  Marcus  Anrelins  An- 
toninus, eldest  son  of  the  Emperor 
Severus,  was  born  in  Lyons,  A.  D.  188. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  he  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne  with  his  brother,  An- 
toninus Geta,  whom  he  speedily  mur- 
dered. To  effect  his  own  security  up- 
wards of  20,000  other  victims  were 
butchered.  He  was  himself  assassin- 
ated by  Macrinus,  the  pretorian  pre- 
fect, near  Eaessa,  in  217.  Among  the 
buildings  of  Caracalla  in  Rome,  the 
baths — Thermae  Caracallae — near  Por- 
ta  Capena,  were  most  celebrated,  and 
their  ruins  are  still  magnificent. 

Caracas,  the  capital  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  Venezuela  and  of  the  Federal 
District,  6  miles  (24  by  rail)  S.  of  La 
Guaira,  its  port.  Built  on  the  S.  slope 
of  the  Avila  (8,635  feet),  it  is  3,025 
feet  above  the  tide-level.  The  streets, 
built  at  right  angles,  are  broad  and 
well  paved.  There  are  a  handsome 
promenade  and  numerous  public  parks 
and  gardens;  excellent  water  and  gas 
plants;  street  railways;  and  the  ter- 
mini of  several  steam  railways.  Pop- 
ulation 72,429. 

Caracci,  Ludovico,  Agostino, 
and  Annibale,  born  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  16th  century,  were  three  of 
the  first  painters  of  Italy,  kinsmen, 
fellow-students,  and  co-laborers,  na- 
tives of  Bologna,  and  founders  of  the 
Bolognese  School. 

Caraccioli,  Francesco,  an  Ital- 
ian admiral,  born  in  Naples  about 
1748.  When  Ruffo  took  Naples  in 
1799  Caraccioli  was  arrested,  and, 
contrary  to  the  terms  of  capitulation, 
was  condemned  to  death,  and  hanged 
at  the  yard-arm  of  a  Neapolitan  fri- 
gate, Lord  Nelson  consenting  to  his 
execution,  June  29,  1799. 

Caractacns,  a  king  of  the  Britons, 
for  nine  years  (43-50  A.  D.)  warred 
gallantly  against  the  Roman  invaders, 
but  at  length  was  completely  over- 
thrown by  Ostorius  in  a  battle  near 
the  border  of  South  Wales.  His  wife 
and  daughters  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  victors,  and  his  brothers  surren- 
dered. Caractacus  himself  fled  to 
Cartismandua,  queen  of  the  Brigan- 


tes,  who  delivered  him  up.  He  was 
carried  to  Rome,  51  A.  D.,  and  exhib- 
ited in  a  triumphal  procession  by  the 
Emperor  Claudius,  who  was  greatly 
impressed  by  his  dauntless  bearing  and 
language.  According  to  tradition  he 
died  in  Rome  about  A.  D.  54. 

Caramel,  the  name  of  a  certain 
preparation  of  candy. 

Carat,  a  weight  of  3^  grains;  the 
tweny-fourth  part  of  an  ounce.  It  is 
used  by  jewelers  to  express  the  fine- 
ness of  gold,  the  whole  mass  being 
supposed  to  be  divided  into  24  parts, 
and  said  to  be  so  many  carats  fine, 
according  to  the  number  of  twenty- 
fourth  parts  of  pure  gold  contained  in 
it.  Twenty-four  carat  means  all 
gold,  18  carat  three-quarters  gold. 
_  Caransins,  a  Roman  general,  a  na- 
tive of  Batavia.  He  was  sent  by  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  to  defend  the  At- 
lantic coasts  against  the  Franks  and 
Saxons ;  but  foreseeing  impending  dis- 
grace, he  landed  in  Britain  and  had 
himself  proclaimed  emperor  by  his  le- 
gions (287  A.  D.).  In  this  province 
he  was  able  to  maintain  himself  six 
years,  when  he  was  assassinated  at 
York  by  one  of  his  officers  named  Al- 
lectus  (293  A.  D.). 

Caravaggio,  Michel  Angelo 
Amerighi,  or  Merighi  da,  a  cele- 
brated painter,  born  in  Caravaggio  in 
1569.  He  died  near  Rome  in  1609. 

Caravan,  a  Persian  word  used  to 
denote  large  companies  which  travel 
together  in  Asia  and  Africa  for  the 
sake  of  security  from  robbers,  having 
in  view,  principally,  trade  or  pilgrim- 
ages. Camels  are  used  as  a  means  of 
conveyance  on  account  of  their  re- 
markable powers  of  endurance. 

Caravansary,  or  Caravansera,  a 
large  public  building,  or  inn,  for  the 
reception  and  lodgment  of  caravans  in 
the  desert.  Though  serving  instead 
of  inns,  there  is  this  essential  differ- 
ence between  them,  that  the  traveler 
finds  nothing  in  the  caravansary  for 
the  use  either  of  himself  or  his  cattle, 
but  must  carry  all  his  provisions  and 
necessaries  with  him.  Caravansaries 
are  also  numerous  in  cities,  where 
they  serve  not  only  as  inns,  but  as 
shops,  warehouses,  and  even  ex- 
changes. 

Caravel,  the  name  of  different 
kinds  of  vessels,  particularly  a  small 


Caraway 

ship  used  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 
for  long  voyages.  It  was  in  com- 
mand of  three  caravels  that  Columbus 
crossed  the  Atlantic  and  discovered 
America. 

Caraway,  a  plant  valued  and  culti- 
vated for  the  sake  of  the  well-known 
aromatic  "  caraway  seeds "  which  it 
bears ;  these  being,  however,  in  strict- 
ness not  seeds,  but  the  pericarps,  into 
which  the  fruit  in  this  order  splits 
when  ripening.  Caraways  are  chiefly 
used  entire  as  a  spice  by  bakers  and 
confectioners. 

Carbide,  a  compound  formed  by 
the  union  of  carbon  with  an  element, 
as  iron  or  hydrogen. 

Carbine,  a  fire-arm  used  by  cav- 
alry and  artillery,  shorter  in  the  bar- 
rel than  the  ordinary  musket  or  rifle. 
It  was  used  by  light  cavalry  as  early 
as  the  16th  century. 

Carbineers,  or  Carabineers,  for- 
merly  light  horsemen,   used  chiefly  to ; 
watch  and  harass  the  enemy,  defend  j 
narrow  passes,  and  act   as  skirmish- 
ers. 

Carbolic  Acid,  obtained  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  salicylic  acid.  It  is 
also  formed  by  the  dry  distillation  of 
coal,  in  the  coal-tar  oil.  It  is  used  as 
a  disinfectant,  and  to  preserve  meat, 
etc.  Taken  internally  it  soon  proves 
fatal,  and  its  use  should  therefore  b« 
carefully  guarded. 

Carbon,  the  name  of  the  element 
which  exists,  more  or  less  pure,  in 
charcoal,  coke,  coal  and  such  bodies. 

Carbonari,  the  name  given  to  a 
secret  political  association  in  Italy,  its 
professed  aim  being  the  reorganiza- 
tion and  reform  of  the  government  of 
that  country. 

Carbondale,  a  city  in  Lackawan- 
na  county,  Pa.;  on  the  Lacka wanna 
river  and  the  Delaware  &  Hudson 
and  other  railroads;  16  miles  N.  E. 
of  Scranton;  is  noted  for  its^  great 
deposits  of  anthracite  coal,  its  ex- 
tensive mining  interests,  and  its  man- 
ufactures of  silk  goods,  chemicals, 
and  machinery.  Pop.  (1910)  17,040. 

Carboniferous,  a  term  applied  to 
the  extensive  and  thick  series  of  strata 
with  which  seams  of  paleozoic  coal  are 
more  or  less  immediately  associated.  It 
is  applied  as  well  to  that  great  sys- 


Cardamine 

tern  of  formations  which  yield  our 
main  supply  of  coal,  or  to  some  di- 
visions of  that  system,  such  as  the 
Carboniferous  limestone  and  the  Car- 
boniferous slates.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  fossils  found  in  any  stratum 
belonging  to  the  system. 

Carborundum,  an  artificial  abra- 
sive, composed  of  carbon  and  clay 
fused  together  at  a  high  temperature. 

Carboy,  a  large  and  somewhat 
globular  bottle  of  green  glass  pro- 
tected by  an  outside  covering  of  wick- 
erwork  or  other  material,  for  carry- 
ing vitriol  or  other  corrosive  liquid. 

Carbuncle,  a  beautiful  gem  of  a 
deep-red  color  with  a  mixture  of  scar- 
let, found  in  the  East  Indies.  When 
held  up  to  the  sun  it  loses  its  deep 
tinge,  and  becomes  exactly  the  color 
of  a  burning  coal.  The  carbuncle  of 
the  ancients  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  garnet. 

Carbuncle,  in  surgery,  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  true  skin  and  tissue  be- 
neath it  akin  to  that  occurring  in 
boils.  It  is  more  extensive  than  the 
latter,  and  instead  of  one  has  several 
cores.  It  is  associated  with  a  bad 
state  of  general  health,  from  which 
condition  its  danger  arises,  for  it  may 
threaten  life  by  exhaustion  or  blood 
poisoning. 

Carbnretted  Hydrogen,  the  name 
given  to  two  compounds  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen,  one  known  as  light  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  and  the  other  aa 
olefiant  gas. 

Carcajou,  a  species  of  badger 
found  in  North  America. 

Carcanet,  a  necklace  or  collar  of 
jewels. 

Carcass,  in  military  language,  an 
iron  case,  with  several  apertures, 
filled  with  combustible  materials, 
which  is  discharged  from  a  mortar, 
howitzer,  or  gun,  and  intended  to  set 
fire  to  buildings,  ships,  and  wooden  de- 
fenses. 

Card,  an  instrument  for  combing, 
opening,  and  breaking  wool,  flax,  etc., 
and  freeing  it  from  the  coarser  parts 
and  from  extraneous  matter.  It  is 
made  by  inserting  bent  teeth  of  wire 
in  a  thick  piece  of  oblong  board  to 
which  a  handle  is  attached. 

Cardamine,  a  pretty  meadow 
plant,  with  large  pale  lilac  flowers. 


Cardamoms 


Cardinal  Virtue* 


Cardamoms,  the  aromatic  capsules 
of  different  species  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  gingers  employed  in 
medicine  as  well  as  an  ingredient  in 
§auces  and  curries. 

Cardboard,  pasteboard  paper 
stiffened  by  several  layers  being  joined 
together. 

Cardenas,  a  seaport  of  Cuba,  on 
the  N.  coast,  75  miles  E.  of  Havana, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  and  exports  sugar. 
Pop.  (1907)  24,280,  mostly  whites. 
During  the  blockade  of  the  Cuban 
coast  in  the  war  between  the  United 
States  and  Spain  a  severe  engagement : 
took  place  here  on  May  11,  1898. 

Cardia,  the  heart ;  also  the  upper  j 
orifice  of  the  stomach,  called,  on  ac- < 
count  of  its  vicinity  to  the  heart,  by 
the  same  Greek  name. 

Cardiff,  ("the  city  on  the  Taff"), 
a  municipal  and  parliamentary  bor- ; 
ough  and  seaport,  the  county  town  of 
Glamorganshire,  Wales,  situated  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Taff  on  the  estuary 
of  the  Severn.  It  is  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing town,  and  the  principal  outlet  for 
the  mineral  produce  and  manufactures 
of  South  Wales.  Iron  shipbuilding  is 
carried  on,  and  there  are  iron  and 
other  works  on  a  large  scale.  Pop. 
(1911)  182.259. 

Cardiff  Giant,  the  name  given  to 
a  rude  statue  10%  feet  high,  dug  up, 
in  1869,  at  Cardiff,  N.  Y.,  and  exhibit- 
ed for  months  as  a  petrifaction.  The 
persons  who  thus  deluded  the  public 
at  last  confessed  that  the  "  Giant " 
had  been  cut  from  a  block  of  gypsum 
quarried  at  Fort  Dodge,  la.,  sculp- 
tured at  Chicago,  conveyed  to  Cardiff, 
and  there  buried  and  "  accidentally 
discovered." 

Cardigan,  James  Thomas  Brn- 
denell,  seventh  Earl  of,  born  in 
Hampshire,  Oct  16,  1797;  sat  in  the 
House  of  Commons  from  1818  to  1837, 
when  he  succeeded  his  father.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1824,  am  rapidly 
bought  himself  into  the  command  of 
the  15th  Hussars,  which  he  resigned 
in  1833,  on  the  acquittal  of  an  officer 
whom  he  had  illegally  put  under  ar- 
rest. He  commanded  a  cavalry  bri- 
gade under  Lord  Lucan  in  the  Crimea, 
and  led  the  famous  charge  of  the  Six 
Hundred  at  Balaklava  He  was  in- 
spector-general of  cavalry.  1855-1860, 


and  died  in  Deene  Park,  March  28, 
1868. 

Cardigan  Bay,  a  semicircular 
bend  at  St.  George's  Channel,  on  the 
W.  coast  of  Wales,  54  miles  wide  from 
N.  to  S.,  and  35  miles  deep,  with  a 
sweep  of  coast  of  130  miles. 

Cardinal,  one  of  the  body  of  coun- 
sellors of  the  Pope  who,  next  to  him, 
hold  the  highest  dignity  in  the  church. 
According  to  the  present  law  the 
appointment  of  cardinals  rests  with 
the  Pope,  who  generally  consults  the 
existing  cardinals,  and  often  receives 
proposals  from  secular  governments. 
The  cardinals  in  Conclave  elect  the 
new  Pope,  have  constant  access  to 
him,  and  form  his  chief  council.  They 
have  a  vote  at  general  councils,  and 
since  the  13th  century,  precedence 
over  all  other  members.  They  have 
had  since  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of 
"  Eminence."  The  body  of  cardinals 
is  called  the  Sacred  College.  Their 
insignia  are  the  red  cardinal's  hat, 
which  is  given  them  by  the  Pope,  and 
not  worn,  but  suspended  in  the  church 
of  their  title,  and  finally  buried  with 
them;  the  red  biretta,  the  sapphire 
ring,  the  mitre  of  white  silk,  etc.  If 
a  cardinal  holds  an  episcopal  see,  he 
must  reside  there ;  otherwise  he  must 
not  leave  Rome  without  permission. 
At  the  head  of  the  college  of  cardinals 
stands  the  dean,  who  is  usually  Bishop 
of  Ostia  and  senior  of  the  cardinal 
bishops.  It  is  he  who  consecrates  the 
newly-elected  Pope,  if  not  already  a 
bishop.  In  the  United  States  the  first 
cardinal  was  McCloskey,  of  New  York, 
(1875)  ;  the  second,  Gibbons,  of  Bal- 
timore (1886)  ;  the  third,  Farley,  of 
New  York  (1911)  ;  the  fourth,  O'Con- 
nell,  of  Boston  (1911). 

Cardinal  Bird,  a  North  American 
bird  of  the  finch  family,  with  a  fine 
red  plumage,  and  a  crest  on  the  head. 
Its  song  resembles  that  of  the  night- 
ingales, hence  one  of  its  common 
names. 

Cardinal  Points,  the  N.,  S.,  E., 
and  W.  points  of  the  horizon;  the 
four  intersections  of  the  horizon  with 
the  meridian  and  the  prime  vertical 
circle. 

Cardinal  Virtues,  or  Principal 
Virtues,  in  morals,  a  name  applied 
to  justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and 
fortitude. 


Carding 


Carib 


Carding,  the  process  wool,  cotton, 
flax,  etc.,  undergo  previous  to  spinning 
to  lay  the  libers  all  in  one  direction, 
and  remove  all  foreign  substances. 

Carditis,  inflammation  of  the  heart 
substance. 

Cardoon,  a  perennial  plant  belong- 
ing to  the  same  genus  as  the  artichoke, 
and  somewhat  resembling  it.  It  is  a 
native  of  Canada. 

Cards,  oblong  pieces  of  pasteboard, 
inscribed  with  certain  figures  and 
points,  and  used  in  various  games  of 
skill  and  hazard.  The  origin  of  this  in- 
vention is  obscure.  An  immense  va- 
riety of  games  are  played  with  cards, 
some  involving  chance  only,  some 
combining  chance  and  skill,  the  best  of 
them  furnishing  very  agreeable  and 
intellectual  amusement. 

Carducci,  Giosne,  an  Italian  poet 
and  philologist,  born  in  Valdicastello, 
Tuscany,  July  27,  1836.  He  was 
Prof,  of  Literature  at  Bologna  Univ. 
from  1860.  He  died  Feb.  15,  1907. 

Carew,  Thomas,  an  English  poet; 
born  in  1598.  He  stood  high  in  favor 
with  Charles  I.,  and  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  the  greatest  poets  and  schol- 
ars of  his  time.  He  died  in  1639. 

Carey,  Henry  Charles,  an  Amer- 
ican economist,  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Dec.  15,  1793 ;  trained  in  his  father's 
publishing  house,  he  accumulated  a 
competence  from  the  business  and  re- 
tired to  devote  himself  to  study.  The 
"Essay  on  the  Rate  of  Wages" 
(1836)  and  "The  Principles  of  Po- 
litical Economy"  (1837-1840)  won 
him  an  authoritative  international  po- 
sition. He  died  in  Philadelphia,  Oct. 
13,  1879. 

Carey,  Mathew,  an  American  pub- 
lisher and  prose  writer,  born  in  Ire- 
land, Jan.  28,  1760.  The  best  known 
of  his  political  writings  was  his  "Olive 
Branch  "  (1814).  It  was  an  effort  to 
promote  harmony  among  political  par- 
ties during  the  War  of  1812.  It 
passed  through  ten  editions.  In  1819 
he  published  his  "  Irish  Vindications," 
and  in  1822,  "Essays  on  Political 
Economy."  He  died  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  Sept.  16,  1839. 

Carey,  William,  an  English  Ori- 
ental scholar  and  missionary,  born  in 
Northamptonshire,  Aug.  17,  1761.  He 
w&s  early  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
but  having  a  natural  turn  for  lan- 


guages, and  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel,  he  acquired  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  likewise  studied  theology. 
In  1786  he  became  pastor  of  a  Bap- 
tist congregation  at  Moulton,  and  in 
1787  was  appointed  to  a  similar  sit- 
uation in  Leicester.  In  1793  he  sailed 
for  the  East  Indies  as  a  Baptist  mis- 
sionary, and  in  1800,  in  conjunction 
with  Marshman,  Ward,  and  others, 
he  founded  the  missionary  college  at 
Serampore.  Here  he  had  a  printing 
press,  and  issued  various  translations 
of  the  Scriptures.  His  first  work  was 
a  "  Bengali  Grammar,"  and  later,  un- 
der his  direction  the  whole  Bible  was 
translated  into  6,  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  21  Hindustani  dialects.  He 
was  long  professor  of  Sanskrit,  Mah- 
ratta,  and  Bengali,  in  Calcutta.  He 
died  in  Serampore,  India,  June  9, 
1834. 

Carhart,  Henry  Smith,  an 
American  scientist,  born  in  Coeymans, 
N.  Y.,  March  27,  1844.  He  was  gradu 
ated  at  Wesleyan  University  in  1869 
and  since  then  has  taught  physics  and 
chemistry.  Since  1886  he  has  been 
Professor  of  Physics  at  the  University 
of  Michigan. 

Caria,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
whose  boundaries  have  been  dissimilar 
in  different  ages.  Its  chief  town  was 
Halicarnassus. 

Cariacon,  the  Virginia  deer.  It  is 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  common 
stag. 

Cariama,  a  bird,  a  native  of  Bra- 
zil and  Paraguay.  The  head  is  crested. 

Carib,  the  name  given  by  the  early 
European  navigators  to  the  inhabi- 
tants or  aborigines  found  on  the  small- 
er of  the  West  India  Islands,  and  also 
inhabiting  some  part  of  the  adjacent 
American  continent.  The  Spaniards, 
finding  them  always  a  bold  and  de- 
termined enemy,  finally  expelled  all 
but  a  mere  remnant  from  their  native 
possessions.  Those  who  escaped  the 
Spanish  sword  sought  refuge  in  that 
part  of  Southern  America  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  except  a  few 
whom  the  English  removed  and  landed 
on  the  island  of  Ruatan,  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras.  The  Ca.rib  have  always 
been  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the 
American  peoples  by  their  athletic 
stature,  firmness,  courage,  and  resolu- 
tion. 


Caribbean  Sea 


Carlisle 


Caribbean  Sea,  the  grandest  inlet 
of  the  Western  hemisphere,  separated 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  Yucatan, 
and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  the 
great  arch  of  the  Antilles. 

Caribbees,  or  Lesser  Antilles, 
usually  divided  into  the  Windward 
and  Leeward  Islands,  a  section  of  the 
.West  India  Islands. 

Cariboo,  or  Caribou,  an  animal, 
the  American  Woodland  Reindeer,  the 
Attehk  of  the  Cree,  and  Tantseeah  of 
the  Copper  Indians.  It  is  employed  by 
the  Laplanders  to  draw  their  sledges. 

Carica,  a  genus  of  plants  which 
contains  about  ten  species,  all  natives 
of  tropical  America. 

Caricature,  a  representation  of  the 
qualities  and  peculiarities  of  an  ob- 
ject, but  in  such  a  way  that  beauties 
are  concealed  and  peculiarities  or  de- 
fects exaggerated,  so  as  to  make  the 
person  or  thing  ridiculous,  while  a 
general  likeness  is  retained. 

Caries,  a  disease  of  bone  analogous 
to  ulceration  in  soft  tissues.  The  bone 
breaks  down  into  unhealthy  matter, 
which  works  its  way  to  the  surface 
and  bursts.  Caries  of  the  teeth  is 
decay  of  the  dentine  or  body  of  the 
tooth. 

Carillon,  a  species  of  chime,  played 
by  hand  or  clockwork  on  a  number 
of  bells,  forming  a  complete  series  or 
•Bcale  of  tones  or  semi-tones,  like  those 
of  the  organ  or  harpsichord. 

Carintbia,  a  W.  duchy  or  province 
of  Austria,  on  the  borders  of  Italy; 
area,  3,989  square  miles.  It  is  ex- 
tremely mounjtainous,  generally  sterile, 
and  one  of  the  most  thinly  populated 
provinces  of  Austria.  The  iron,  lead, 
and  calamine  mines  are  the  main 
sources  of  its  wealth,  though  there  are 
several  manufactories  of  woolens,  cot- 
tons, silk  stuffs,  etc.,  most  of  which 
are  in  Klagenfurt,  the  capital.  Pop. 
(1912)  402,813. 

Carisbrooke,  a  village  near  the 
center  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  over- 
looked by  the  ruins  of  its  ancient  cas- 
tle, where  Charles  I.  was  imprisoned 
13  months  previous  to  his  trial  and 
execution. 

Carlen,  Emilia  Flygare,  a  Swed- 
ish novelist,  born  at  Stromstad,  Aug. 
8,  1807.  She  died  in  Stockholm,  Feb. 
6.  1892. 


Carlen,  Rosa,  a  Swedish  novelist, 
born  in  1836;  died  in  1883. 

Carleton,  Henry  Guy,  an  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  dramatist,  born  in 
Fort  Union,  New  Mexico,  June  21, 
1855.  He  pursued  journalism  in  New 
Orleans  and  New  York,  and  wrote  sev- 
eral plays.  He  died  Dec.  10,  1910. 

Carleton,  Will,  an  American 
poet,  born  in  Hudson,  Mich.,  Oct.  21, 
1840 ;  was  best  known  by  his  ballads 
of  home  life,  many  of  them  having 
great  popularity.  He  died  Dec.  18, 
1912. 

Carleton  College,  a  co-educational 
institution  in  Northfield,  Minn. ;  or- 
ganized in  1866  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Congregational  Church. 

Carli,  Giovanni  Rinaldo,  an 
Italian  economist  and  archaeologist, 
born  in  Capo  d'Istria,  April  11,  1720 ; 
died  Feb.  22,  1795. 

Carlisle,  Richard,  an  English 
Radical,  born  in  Ashburton,  Devon- 
shire, Dec.  8, 1790 ;  died  Feb.  10, 1843. 
Carlisle,  an  ancient  city  of  Eng- 
land ;  th«  capital  of  Cumberlandshire ; 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Caldew  and 
Eden  rivers.  Pop.  (1911)  46,420. 

Carlisle,  borough  and  county-seat 
of  Cumberland  county,  Pa. ;  on  the 
Cumberland  Valley,  and  the  Gettys- 
burg and  Harrisburg  railroads;  18 
miles  W.  of  Harrisburg.  It  is  the 
site  of  Dickinson  College,  Metzger 
Female  College,  and  the  United  States 
Indian  Training  School.  It  was  the 
headquarters  of  Washington  during 
the  Whiskey  Rebellion  in  1794,  and 
was  bombarded  by  the  Confederates  in 
1863.  Pop.  (1910)  10,303. 

Carlisle,  John  Griffin,  an  Amer- 
ican statesman,  born  in  Kenton  coun- 
ty, Ky.,  Sept.  5,  1835;  received  a 
common-school  education,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  (1858). 
He  served  several  terms  in  the  lower 
house  of  the  State  Legislature.  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  actively  opposed 
secession,  and  in  1866  and  1869  was 
a  member  of  the  State  Senate.  He 
was  lieutenant-governor  of  Kentucky 
(1871-1875),  was  elected  to  Congress 
(1876),  and  five  times  reflected.  His 
ability  soon  made  him  one  of  the 
Democratic  leaders.  In  the  48th, 
49th,  and  50th  Congresses  he  was 
chosen  Speaker.  In  1890  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator,  but  re- 
signed in  March,  1893,  to  accept  the 


Carlists 


Carlstadt 


portfolio  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
At  the  close  of  his  term  he  settled  in 
New  York  City  to  practice  law.  He 
died  July  31,  1910. 

Carlists,  a  Spanish  political  fac- 
tion which  advocates  the  claims  of 
Carlos  of  Bourbon  and  his  descend- 
ants to  the  Spanish  throne.  In  1833 
they  revolted  and  held  the  advantage 
until  1836,  when  Espartero  inflicted 
on  them  a  terrific  defeat  at  Luchana. 
In  August,  1839,  their  commander, 
Maroto,  treacherously  made  peace, 
and  the  remaining  Carlists  soon  fled 
to  France.  In  1873  the  grandson  of 
the  first  pretender  raised  another  re- 
volt, but  after  several  sharp  conflicts 
was  defeated,  and  in  1876  with  his 
chief  supporters  fled  into  France. 

Carll,  John  Franklin,  an  Ameri- 
can geologist,  born  in  Long  Island,  N. 
Y.,  May  7,  1828.  He  became  identified 
with  coal  oil  development  early  in 
life,  and  has  perfected  many  oil  pump- 
ing devices.  After  1874  he  was  con- 
nected with  the  Pennsylvania  Geolog- 
ical Survey.  He  died  in  1904. 

Carlos,  Don,  Duke  of  Madrid, 
nephew  of  Don  Carlos  of  Montemolin, 
born  March  30,  1848.  On  the  death 
of  his  uncle  (1861)  he  became  head 
of  the  Carlist  party.  In  1872  he  is- 
sued a  manifesto  to  the  Carlist  party 
at  Madrid  and  appeared  in  the  Basque 
provinces,  but  was  badly  defeated  at 
Oroquieta  and  fled  back  to  France. 
In  1873  he  reappeared  in  the  N.  prov- 
inces of  Spain ;  captured  the  strong- 
hold Estella,  and  had  soon  overrun 
Navarre,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  and  Va- 
lencia, with  the  exception  of  the  great 
cities.  By  February,  1876,  the  rebels 
were  hemmed  in  along  the  N.  coast, 
and  the  majority  surrendered  at  Pam- 
plona. He  himself  fled  over  the  French 
border,  and  has  since  lived  in  exile 
and  comparative  poverty.  During  the 
Spanish-American  War  he  came  into 
notice  again,  and  on  April  13,  1898, 
from  his  retreat  in  Switzerland,  is- 
sued a  manifesto  to  his  supporters: 
but  he  accomplished  nothing  and 
again  went  into  retirement.  He  died 
July  8,  1909. 

Carlos  I.,  King  of  Portugal;  born 
in  1863,  formerly  known  as  Duke  of 
Braganza,  son  of  Louis  I.  He  mar- 
ried, in  1886,  Marie  Amelie  de  Bour- 
bon, daughter  of  the  Count  of  Paris. 


On  Feb.  1,  1908,  b9th  the  King  and 
Crown  Prince  Luiz  were  assassi- 
nated in  Lisbon.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  second  son,  Manuel  II.,  who 
was  dethroned  in  1910. 

Carlotta,  Ex-empress  of  Mexico, 
born  in  Brussels,  June  7,  1840,  the 
daughter  of  Leopold  I.  of  Belgium. 
She  was  married  to  Maximilian,  Arch- 
duke of  Austria  (1857).  She  accom- 
panied her  husband  to  Mexico  in  1864, 
but  in  18G6  returned  to  Europe  to  so- 
licit aid  from  the  French  Emperor 
and  from  the  Pope.  Her  failure  and 
the  news  of  her  husband's  overthrow 
unbalanced  her  mind.  She  still  lives 
near  Brussels. 

Carlovingians,  the  second  dynasty 
of  the  French  or  Franklin  kings, 
which  supplanted  the  Merovingians, 
deriving  the  name  from  Charles  Mar- 
tel  or  his  grandson  Charlemagne  (that 
is,  Karl  or  Charles  the  Great). 

Carlsbad,  a  town  in  Bohemia,  on 
the  Tepl,  near  its  influx  to  the  Eger, 
116  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Prague.  It  is 
widely  celebrated  for  its  hot  mineral 
springs,  and  is  frequented  in  summer 
by  visitors  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 
Pop.,  summer,  25,OCK>-30,000. 

Carlskrona,  the  capital  of  the 
Swedish  province,  built  on  five  rocky 
islets  in  the  Baltic,  240  miles  S.  S.  W. 
of  Stockholm.  It  has  a  magnificent 
harbor,  with  a  sufficient  depth  of 
water  to  float  the  largest  vessels.  The 
only  practicable  entrance  is  strongly 
defended.  Pop.  (1915)  28,127. 

Carlsruhe,  or  Karlsruhe,  the 
capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden, 
founded  in  1715,  and  built  in  the  form 
of  a  fan,  with  32  streets  radiating 
from  the  palace.  Before  the  palace 
stands  a  bronze  statue  of  the  city's 
founder,  the  Margrave  Charles  Wil- 
liam ;  and  in  the  market-place  is  a 
stone  pyramid  inclosing  his  remains. 
Pop.  (1910)  134,313. 

Carlstadt,  a  fortified  town  of 
Croatia,  Austro-Hungary,  on  the  Kul- 
pa,  32  miles  S.  W.  of  Agram  by  raiL 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishopric, 
and  has  a  large  transit  trade.  Carl- 
stadt, in  Bavaria,  on  the  Maine,  is  15 
miles  N.  N.  W.  of  Wurzburg. 

Carlstadt,  Andreas  Rudolf  Bo- 
denstein,  a  German  reformer,  born  in 
Carlstadt  in  1480.  He  \vas  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Wittenberg 


Carlyle 

in  1513.  About  1517  he  became  one  of 
Luther's  warmest  supporters.  He  was 
excommunicated  by  the  bull  against 
Luther,  and  was  the  first  to  appeal 
from  the  Pope  to  a  general  council. 
In  1524  he  declared  himself  publicly 
the  opponent  of  Luther,  and  com- 
menced the  controversy  respecting  the 
sacrament,  denying  the  bodily  pres- 
ence of  Christ  in  the  sacramental  ele- 
ments. This  controversy  ended  in 
the  separation  of  the  Calvinists  and 
Lutherans.  After  many  misfortunes 
he  settled  as  vicar  and  professor  of 
theology  at  Basel,  where  he  died,  Dec. 
25,  1541. 

Carlyle,  Jane  'Welsh,  wife  of 
Thomas  Carlyle;  born  in  Haddington, 
Scotland,  July  14,  1801.  She  claimed 
descent  from  William  Wallace  and 
John  Knox  and  was  from  youth  re- 
markable for  beauty,  wit  and  intellect. 
Her  "  Letters,"  edited  by  her  husband, 
were  published  in  1883,  the  work  being 

fiven  to  the  world  by  J.  A.  Froude. 
he  died  in  London,  April  21,  1866. 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  author,  born  in 
Ecclefechan,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland, 
Dec.  4,  1795.  lie  was  the  eldest  son 
of  James  Carlyle,  a  mason,  afterward 
a  farmer,  and  was  intended  for  the 
Church,  with  which  object  he  was 
carefully  educated.  His  first  literary 
productions  were  short  biographies  and 
other  articles  for  the  "  Edinburgh  En- 
cyclopaedia." His  career  as  an  author 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  the 
issue  in  monthly  portions  of  his  "  Life 
of  Schiller  "  in  the  London  Magazine, 
in  1823,  this  work  being  enlarged  and 
published  separately  in  1825.  The 
largest  and  most  laborious  work  of 
his  life  was  "  The  History  of  Fried- 
rich  II.  of  Prussia,  called  Frederick 
the  Great,"  the  last  two  volumes  of 
which  appeared  in  1865,  and  after 
this  time  little  came  from  his  pen. 
While  still  in  Scotland  the  sad  news 
reached  him  that  his  wife  had  died 
suddenly  in  London.  Toward  the  end 
of  his  life  he  was  offered  a  government 
pension  and  a  baronetcy,  but  declined 
both.  Carlyle  died  in  Chelsea,  Feb. 
5,  1881. 

Carman,  Elbert  S.,  an  American 
editor,  born  in  Hempstead,  N.  Y.,  in 
1836.  He  became  owner  and  editor 
of  the  "  Rural  New  Yorker  "  in  1876, 
in  connection  with  which  publication 


Carminative 

he  established  a  farm  at  River  Edge, 
N.  J.,  where  he  gave  much  of  his  time 
to  testing  new  plants,  vines  and  seeds. 
He  died  in  New  York  City,  Feb.  28, 
1900. 

Carman,  Ezra  Ayers,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer ;  born  in  Metuchen, 
N.  J.,  Feb.  27,  1834.  He  served 
through  the  Civil  War  in  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  and  the  Army  of  the 
Cumberland ;  became  a  Brigadier-Gen- 
tral,  U.  S.  V.  He  died  Dec.  25, 1909. 

Carmagnole  a  dance  accompanied 
by  singing.  Many  of  the  wildest  ex- 
cesses of  the  French  revolution  of 
1792  were  associated  with  this  dance. 
It  was  afterward  applied  to  the  bom- 
bastic reports  of  the  French  successes 
in  battle.  The  name  was  also  given 
to  a  sort  of  jacket  worn  as  a  symbol 
of  patriotism. 

Carmel,  a  range  of  hills  in  Pales- 
tine. It  has  a  length  of  about  16 
miles,  and  its  highest  point  is  1,850 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Carmelite,  an  order  of  mendicant 
friars.  They  claim  to  be  in  direct 
succession  from  Elijah,  but  their  real 
founder  was  Berthold,  a  Calabrian, 
who,  with  a  few  companions,  migrated 
to  Mount  Carmel  about  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century,  and  built  a  humble 
cottage  with  a  chapel,  where  he  and 
his  associates  led  a  laborious  and  soli- 
tary life.  The  order  is  divided  into 
two  branches,  viz.,  the  Carmelites  of 
the  ancient  observance,  called  mod- 
erate or  mitigated,  and  those  of  the 
strict  observance,  who  are  known  as 
the  barefooted  Carmelites. 

Carmen  Sylva,  the  pen-name  of 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Rumania,  born 
Dec.  29,  1843 ;  the  daughter  of  Prince 
Hermann  of  Wied  Neuwied,  and 
Maria  of  Nassau ;  married  King  (then 
Prince)  Charles  of  Rumania  in  1869. 
Her  only  child,  a  daughter,  died  in 
1874,  and  out  of  this  great  sorrow  of 
her  life  arose  her  literary  activity. 
In  the  war  of  1877-1878  she  endeared 
herself  to  her  people  by  her  devotion 
to  the  wounded  soldiers,  and  afterward 
diligently  fostered  the  national  wom- 
en's industries.  She  died  March  2, 1916. 

Carminative,  a  substance  which 
acts  as  a  stimulant  to  the  stomach, 
causing  expulsion  of  flatulence,  also 
allaying  pain  and  spasm  of  the  in- 
testines. Most  of  the  ordinary  condi- 


Carmine 

ments,  as  pepper,  mustard,  ginger, 
cinnamon,  cloves,  nutmeg,  oil  of  pep- 
permint, etc.,  are  carminative. 

Carmine,  the  fine  red  coloring  mat- 
ter or  principle  of  cochineal.  It  is 
used  in  dyeing. 

Carnac,  a  village  of  Brittany, 
Prance,  remarkable  for  the  so-caned 
Druidical  monuments  in  this  vicinity. 
These  consist  of  11  rows  of  unhewn 
stones,  which  differ  greatly  both  in 
size  and  height,  the  largest  being  22 
feet  above  ground,  while  some  are 
quite  small.  These  avenues  originally 
extended  for  several  miles,  but  many 
of  the  stones  have  been  cleared  away 
for  agricultural  improvements.  They 
are  evidently  of  very  ancient  date,  but 
their  origin  is  unknown. 

Carnatic,  a  region  on  the  E.  or 
Coromandel  coast  of  India,  now  in- 
cluded in  the  province  of  Madras.  The 
Carnatic  is  no  longer  an  administra- 
tive division,  but  is  memorable  as  the 
theater  of  the  struggle  betwen  France 
and  England  for  supremacy  in  India. 

Carnation,  in  the  fine  arts,  flesh 
color;  the  parts  of  a  picture  which 
are  naked  or  without  drapery,  exhibit- 
ing the  natural  color  of  the  flesh. 

Carnation,  the  popular  name  of 
the  clove-pink.  Carnations  are  much 
prized  for  the  beautiful  colors  of  their 
sweet-scented  double  flowers. 

Caraead.es,  a  Greek  philosopher, 
born  in  Gyrene,  in  Africa,  about  213 
B.  c.  He  studied  logic  at  Athens  un- 
der Diogenes,  but  became  a  partisan 
of  the  Academy,  and  an  enemy  of  the 
Stoics.  In  155  B.  c.,  along  with  Dio- 
genes and  Critolaus,  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Rome,  but  his  philoso- 
phy made  him  enemies  and  caused  his 
return.  He  died  at  Athens,  129  B.  c. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  an  American 
manufacturer  and  philanthropist,  born 
in  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  Nov.  25, 1835. 

The  elder  Carnegie  was  a  master 
weaver  of  Dunfermline,  Scotland.  But 
the  newly  invented  steam  machinery 
drove  him  and  his  four  hand  looms  out 
of  business,  and  in  1848  he  and  his 
wife  with  their  two  boys  decided  to 
follow  some  relatives  across  the  ocean 
to  America.  Here  Andrew  began  work 
in  a  steam  cotton  factory,  tending 
bobbins.  In  less  than  a  year  he  had 
been  taken  from  the  factory  by  one 
who  had  noticed  the  boy,  and,  in  the 


Carnegie 

new  works,  he  learned  how  to  run  the 
engine  and  was  promoted  to  this  work, 
his  salary  of  20  cents  a  day  not  being 
increased,  until  be  did  clerical  work 
for  his  employer  as  well  —  for  he  had 
some  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and 
wrote  a  good  hand.  He  next  became  a 
messenger  boy  in  the  Ohio  Telegraph 
Company,  shortly  after  which  his 
father  died,  and  at  the  age  of  14  he 
became  the  sole  support  of  his  mother 
and  younger  brother.  But  the  weight 
on  his  shoulders  was  merely  a  spur  to 
his  ambition.  He  had  not  been  in  the 
office  a  month  when  he  began  to  learn 
telegraphy,  and  a  little  friendly  in- 
struction soon  had  him  spending  all 
his  spare  minutes  at  the  key.  Char- 
acteristically, he  was  not  content  with 
the  general  custom  of  receiving  by  the 
tape,  but  doggedly  mastered  the  click- 
ing tongue  of  the  instrument,  until 
the  supposed  insecurity  of  taking  mes- 
sages by  sound  was  found  not  to  ap- 
ply to  him.  He  became  an  operator 
presently  at  a  salary  which  seemed 
to  him  princely,  though  he  augmented 
even  this  $25  a  month  by  copying  tele- 
graphic news  for  the  daily  papers. 

When  the  Pennsylvania  railroad 
needed  an  operator  he  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  vacancy.  A  little  later  Colonel 
Scott  selected  him  for  his  secretary; 
and  before  long,  when  Colonel  Scott 
advanced  to  the  vice-presidency  of  the 
road,  the  young  man  found  himself 
superintendent  of  the  Pennsylvania's 
Western  Division. 

One  day  as  the  young  superinten- 
dent was  examining  the  line  from  a 
rear  car,  a  tall,  thin  man  stepped  up 
to  him,  introduced  himself  as  T.  T. 
Woodruff,  an  inventor,  and  asked  if 
he  might  show  him  an  idea  he  had  for 
a  car  to  accommodate  passengers  at 
night.  Out  came  a  model  from  a  green 
baize  bag. 

"  He  had  not  spoken  a  minute  be- 
fore, like  a  flash,  the  whole  range  of 
the  discovery  burst  upon  me.  '  Yes,' 
I  said,  '  this  is  something  which  this 
continent  must  have.' 

'  Upon  my  return  I  laid  it  before 
Mr.  Scott,  declaring  that  it  was  one 
of  the  inventions  of  the  age.  He  re- 
marked :  '  You  are  enthusiastic,  young 
man,  but  you  may  tell  the  inventor  to 
come  and  let  me  see  it.'  I  did  so,  and 
arrangements  were  made  to  build  two 
trial  cars,  and  run  them  on  the  Penn- 


Carnegie  Institution 


Carnegie  Institution 


$ylvania  railroad.  I  was  offered  an 
interest  in  the  venture,  which,  of 
course,  I  gladly  accepted. 

"  The  notice  came  that  my  share  of 
the  first  payment  was  $217.50  —  as 
far  beyond  my  means  as  if  it  had  been 
millions.  I  was  earning  $50  per 
month,  however,  and  had  prospects,  or 
at  least  I  always  felt  that  I  had.  I 
decided  to  call  on  the  local  banker, 
and  boldly  ask  him  to  advance  the 
sum  upon  my  interest  in  the  affair. 
He  put  his  hand  on  my  shoulder  and 
Baid :  '  Why,  of  course,  Andie,  you  are 
all  right.  Go  ahead !  Here  is  the 
money.'  .  .  .  The  cars  paid  the 
subsequent  payments  from  their  earn- 
ings. I  paid  my  first  note  from  my 
savings,  so  much  per  month,  and  thus 
did  I  get  my  foot  upon  fortune's  lad- 
der. It  is  easy  to  climb  after  that. 
And  thus  came  sleeping-cars  into  the 
world." 

But  the  man  had  not  yet  struck  his 
true  vocation.  That  came  presently, 
when  his  attention  was  drawn  to  the 
wooden  bridges  universally  used  at 
that  time.  The  Pennsylvania  road 
was  experimenting  with  a  cast-iron 
bridge.  Andrew  Carnegie  went  out 
and  formed  a  company  to  build  iron 
bridges.  He  had  to  raise  $1,250,  but 
he  had  behind  him  the  confidence  of  a 
Pittsburg  banker,  and  this  proved 
easy. 

From  this  time  on  the  name  of  An- 
drew Carnegie  is  inseparably  associat- 
ed with  that  astonishing  development 
of  American  iron  and  steel,  which  is 
among  the  modern  wonders  of  the 
world.  The  Keystone  Company  built 
the  first  great  bridge  over  the  Ohio 
river ;  and  the  Union  Iron  Mills  ap- 
peared in  a  few  years  as  the  natural 
outgrowth  of  this  ramifying  industry. 
Then,  in  1868,  Carnegie  went  to  Eng- 
land. The  Bessemer  process  of  mak- 
ing steel  rails  had  lately  been  perfect- 
ed. The  English  railways  were  re- 
placing their  iron  rails  with  steel  ones 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  English 
manufacturers  were  beginning  to  whis- 
per to  each  other  that  they  had  a 
firm  grip  of  a  gigantic  revolutionizing 
idea.  The  young  Scotchman  went 
back  to  Pittsburg,  and  before  the  Eng- 
lishmen were  well  aware  of  his  ex- 
istence he  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
steel  works  which  have  now  finally 
beaten  them  at  their  own  game. 


The  iron-master  was  now  fairly 
launched  on  his  life  work.  He  bought 
up  the  Homestead  works,  his  most 
formidable  rival,  and  by  1888  he  con- 
trolled seven  huge  plants,  all  within 
five  miles  of  Pittsburg,  which  he  pro- 
ceeded to  forge  and  amalgamate  into 
a  steel-armored  giant,  called  the  Car- 
negie Steel  Company. 

Next  to  his  fame  as  the  "Steel  King," 
Carnegie  is  undoubtedly  most  wide- 
ly known  through  his  remarkable  list 
of  public  benefactions  in  the  shape  of 
libraries,  museums,  and  other  worthy 
public  objects,  the  total  amount  of 
which  was  estimated  in  1910  at  over 
$150,000,000.  His  most  noteworthy 
gifts  were  $30,000,000  for  public  li- 
braries in  the  United  States;  $16,- 
000,000  for  the  Carnegie  Institute  in 
Pittsburg,  Pa.;  $15,000,000  for  col- 
lege professors'  pensions;  $10,000,000 
for  the  Carnegie  Institute  in  Wash, 
ington,  D.  C.;  $10,000,000  for  li- 
braries in  foreign  countries;  $10,000,- 
000  for  Scotch  universities;  $5,000,- 
000  for  a  Hero  Fund  in  the  United 
States,  $1,250,000  for  one  in  Scot- 
land, and  $1,000,000  for  one  in 
France;  $5,000,000  for  Carnegie  Steel 
Company's  employes;  $5,000,000  for 
Dunfermline  (Scotland)  endowment; 
$7,500,000  for  Carnegie  Technical  In- 
stitute at  Pittsburg;  $1,750,000  for 
Temple  of  Peace  at  The  Hague; 
$1,500,000  for  the  Allied  Engineers* 
Societies  in  New  York;  $750,000  for 
a  building  for  the  Bureau  of  Ameri- 
can Republics  in  Washington,  D.  C.; 
$18,000,000  to  colleges  in  the  United 
States.  In  1911  the  Carnegie  Corpo- 
ration of  New  York  was  incorporated 
to  take  over  all  of  his  benefactions, 
and  received  from  him  $125,000,000 
for  its  work. 

Carnegie  Institution,  an  educa- 
tional body  incorporated  Jan.  4,  1902, 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  by  John  Hay, 
Secretary  of  State;  Edwin  D.  White, 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court;  Daniel 
C.  Oilman,  ex-president  of  Johns  Hop- 
kins University;  Charles  D.  Walcott, 
superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey;  Dr.  John  S.  Bill- 
ings, Director  of  the  New  York  Pub- 
lic Library;  and  Carroll  D.  Wright, 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor. 
The  aims  of  the  university,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  founder,  are:  (1)  To 
increase  the  efficiency  of  the  universi- 


Carnif ex  Ferry 

ties  and  other  institutions  of  learn- 
ing throughput  the  country  by  utiliz- 
ing and  adding  to  their  existing  facili- 
ties, and  by  aiding  teachers  in  the 
various  institutions  for  the  experi- 
mental and  other  work  in  these  insti- 
tutions as  far  as  may  be  advisable. 
(2)  To  discover  the  exceptional  man 
in  every  department  of  study,  when- 
ever and  wherever  found  to  enable 
him  by  financial  aid  to  make  the  work 
for  which  he  seems  especially  designed 
his  life  work.  (3)  To  promote  origi- 
nal research,  paying  great  attention 
thereto  as  being  one  of  the  chief  pur- 
poses of  this  institution.  (4)  To  in- 
crease the  facilities  for  higher  educa- 
tion. (5)  To  enable  such  students  as 
may  find  Washington  the  best  point 
for  their  special  studies  to  avail  them- 
selves of  such  advantages  as  may  be 
open  to  them  in  the  museums,  librar- 
ies, laboratories,  observatory,  meteoro- 
logical, piscicultural,  and  forestry 
schools  and  kindred  institutions  of  the 
several  departments  of  the  govern- 
ment. (6)  To  insure  the  prompt  pub- 
lication and  distribution  of  the  results 
of  scientific  investigation,  a  field  con- 
sidered to  be  highly  important. 

The  board  of  trustees  elected  by  the 
corporators  of  the  institution  was  as 
follows:  The  President  of  the  United 
States  (ex-officio),  the  President  of 
the  United  States  Senate,  the  Speak- 
er of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, the  President  of  the  Nation- 
al Academy  of  Sciences,  and  Grover 
Cleveland  (New  Jersey),  John  S.  Bill- 
ings (New  York),  William  N.  Frew 
(Pennsylvania),  Lyman  J.  Gage  (Illi- 
nois), Daniel  C.  Gilman  (Maryland), 
John  Hay  (District  of  Columbia), 
Abram  S.  Hewitt  (New  Jersey),  Hen- 
ry L.  Higginson  (Massachusetts), 
Henry  Hitchcock  (Missouri),  Charles 
L.  Hutchinson  (Illinois),  William 
Lindsay  (Kentucky),  Seth  Low  (New 
York),  Wayne  MacVeagh  (Pennsyl- 
vania), D.  O.  Mills  (California),  S. 
Weir  Mitchell  (Pennsylvania),  W. 
W.  Morrow  (California),  Elihu  Root 
(New  York),  John  C.  Spoon er  (Wis- 
consin), Andrew  D.  White  (New 
York),  Edward  D.  White  (Louis- 
iana), Charles  D.  Walcott  (District 
of  Columbia),  and  Carroll  D.  Wright 
(District  of  Columbia). 

The  trustees  assembled  in  Washing- 


Caraot 

ton  on  Jan.  29,  1902,  received  from 
Mr.  Carnegie  the  deed  of  gift  of  $10,- 
000,000,  and  elected  Daniel  C.  Gilman, 
LL.  D.,  president  of  the  Institution. 

Carnifex  Ferry,  a  place  on  the 
Gauley  river,  in  Nicholas  Co.,  Va.  A 
sharp  battle  occurred  here  Sept.  10, 
1861,  between  Federal  troops  under 
General  Rosecrans  and  Confederates 
under  General  Floyd.  After  nightfall 
Floyd  retreated  across  the  river. 

Carnival,  the  festival  celebrated  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries,  and  espe- 
cially in  Rome  and  Naples,  with  great 
mirth  and  freedom  during  the  week 
before  the  beginning  of  Lent.  In  the 
United  States  carnivals  are  annually 
celebrated  in  New  Orleans,  in  St. 
Louis  and  in  Memphis.  That  at  New 
Orleans  is  especially  spectacular,  the 
festivities  being  prolonged  three  days 
and  attracting  thousands  of  visitors. 

Carnivora.  All  animals  which 
prey  upon  other  animals  are  carniv- 
orous, but  the  term  Carnivora,  as  the 
designation  of  a  group,  is  now  restrict- 
ed to  that  order  of  mammals  to  which 
the  cat,  dog,  bear,  and  seal  belong. 

Carnivorous  Plants,  plants  which 
derive  nourishment  directly  from  the 
bodies  of  insects  or  other  small  crea- 
tures entrapped  by  them  in  various 
ways.  In  all  these  the  apparatus  for 
catching  insects  consists  of  a  modified 
leaf  or  portion  of  a  leaf,  and  in  some 
the  modifications  are  so  curious  and 
the  adaptations  so  perfect  that  the 
plant  seems  almost  endowed  with  in- 
telligence. 

Carnochan,  John  Murray,  an 
American  surgeon,  famous  for  his  bold 
and  skillful  operations ;  born  in  Sa- 
vannah, Ga.,  July  4,  1817;  studied 
at  Edinburgh  and  at  various  European 
universities;  and  began  his  practice 
in  New  York  city  in  1847.  In  1851 
he  became  professor  of  surgery  at  the 
New  York  Medical  College,  and  sur- 
geon-in-chief  to  the  State  Immigrant 
Hospital.  He  died  in  New  York,  Oct. 
28,  1887. 

Carnot,  Lazare  Hippolyte  a 
French  Democrat,  born  in  St.  Omer, 
April  6,  1801.  After  the  February 
Revolution  (1848)  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  but 
soon  resigned.  He  was  elected  a  sen- 
ator for  life  hi  1875,  and  died  March 
16,  1888. 


Carnot 


Caroline  Island* 


Carnot,    Lazare    Nicolas    Mar- 

guerite,  a  French  statesman,  general, 
and  strategist;  born  in  Burgundy, 
May  13,  1753.  In  1791  he  was  ap- 
pointed deputy  to  the  constituent  as- 
sembly. In  the  following  March  he 
was  sent  to  the  Army  of  the  North, 
where  he  took  command  and  success- 
fully repulsed  the  enemy.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  made  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety,  and  directed 
and  organized  the  French  armies  with 
great  ability  and  success.  In  1797 
Carnot  was  appointed  Minister  of 
War  by  Napoton  (1800).  But  he 
remained  in  principle  an  inflexible 
Republican,  voted  against  the  consul- 
ship for  life,  and  protected  against 
Napoleon's  assumption  of  the  imperial 
dignity.  For  seven  years  after  this 
Carnot  remained  in  retirement,  pub- 
lishing several  valuable  military 
works.  In  1814  Napoleon  gave  him 
the  chief  command  at  Antwerp,  and 
in  1815  the  post  of  Minister  of  the 
Interior.  After  the  Emperor's  sec- 
ond fall  he  retired  from  France.  He 
died  in  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  Aug.  3, 
1823. 

Carnot,  Marie  Francois  Sadi, 
President  of  the  French  Republic; 
born  in  Limoges,  Aug.  11,  1837 ;  a 
grandson  of  the  famous  war  minister 
of  the  Revolution.  During  the  siege 
of  Paris  in  1871  he  was  made  prefect 
of  the  Seine-Inferieure  and  showed 
great  ability  as  commissary-general. 
In  politics  he  was  an  earnest  Repub- 
lican. Elected  to  the  National  As- 
sembly in  1871  by  the  Cote  d'Or,  he 
soon  rose  to  prominence.  In  1876  he 
was  chosen  secretary  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies ;  in  1878  Secretary  of 
Public  Works.  He  was  Minister  of 
Public  Works  in  1881-1882  and  1886. 
In  December,  1887,  on  the  resignation 
of  M.  Grevy  he  was  chosen  President. 
His  policy  was  one  of  peace  with  for- 
eign nations,  careful  development  of 
the  army  and  navy,  and  economy  in 
all  departments.  While  attending  an 
exposition  at  Lyons,  June  24,  1894, 
he  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatical  Italian 
Anarchist,  from  the  effect  of  which 
he  died  the  next  day. 

Caro,  Miguel  Antonio,  a  Colom- 
bian prose-writer  and  poet;  born  in 
Bogota,  Colombia,  Nov.  10.  1843.  He 
became  an  editor  and  contributor  to 
periodicals.  He  died  Aug.  5,  1909. 


Carob,  a  tree,  native  of  the  Levant. 
It  is  an  evergreen,  and  produces  long 
horn-like  pods  filled  with  a  mealy,  suc- 
culent pulp  of  sweetish  taste,  used  for 
food  for  horses,  and  sometimes  even 
for  human  beings,  and  called  St. 
John's  bread. 

Carol,  a  song  of  praise  sung  at 
Christmastide.  It  originally  meant  a 
song  accompanied  with  dancing,  in 
which  sense  it  is  frequently  'used  by 
the  old  poets. 

Caroline,  Queen  of  England; 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel ;  born  May  17,  1768.  In 
1795  she  was  married  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  George  IV.  The 
marriage  was  not  to  his  liking,  and 
after  the  birth  of  the  Princess  Char- 
lotte he  separated  from  her.  Many 
reports  were  circulated  against  her 
honor,  and  a  ministerial  committee 
was  formed  to  inquiie  into  her  con- 
duct. But  the  people  in  general  sym- 
pathized with  her,  regarding  her  as  an 
ill-treated  wife.  When  the  Prince  of 
Wales  ascended  the  throne  in  1820 
he  offered  her  an  income  of  £50,000  on 
condition  that  she  would  never  return 
to  England.  She  refused,  and  in 
June  of  the  same  year  entered  Lon- 
don amid  public  demonstrations  of 
welcome.  The  government  now  insti- 
tuted proceedings  against  her  for  adul- 
tery, but  the  public  feeling  and  the 
splendid  defense  of  Brougham  obliged 
the  ministry  to  give  up  the  divorce 
bill  after  it  had  passed  the  lords. 
Though  banished  from  the  court,  the 
queen  then  assumed  a  style  suitable 
to  her  rank.  She  died  Aug.  7,  1821. 

Caroline  Islands,  a  group  in  the 
Western  Pacific,  lying  between  the 
Marshall  and  Pelew  islands,  with  an 
area  of  about  390  square  miles,  and  a 
population  (1911)  of  58,000;  but  the 
Pelew  group  Is  now  generally  in- 
cluded in  the  Caroline  Archipelago 
(area,  560  square  miles;  population 
36,000),  which  thus  stretches  across 
32°  of  Ion.  and  9°  of  lat  There  are 
some  500  small  atolls  in  the  archi- 
pelago, but  three-fourths  of  both'  area 
and  population  are  included  In  the 
five  volcanic  islands  of  Babeltnouap, 
Yap,  Rouk,  Ponape  (Ascension),  and 
Kusari  (Strong  Island)  ;  these  are  all 
fertile  and  well  watered,  and  many 
of  the  low-lying  lagoons,  though  less 
so,  are  well  wooded  and  to  some  ex- 


Carolns 

tent  inhabited.  The  climate  is  moist, 
but  not  unhealthy,  and  is  tempered 
by  cooling  breezes.  The  people  belong 
to  the  brown  Polynesian  stock.  The 
islands  were  discovered  in  1527  by  the 
Portuguese,  and  called  Sequeira;  in 
1686  they  were  annexed  and  rechrist- 
ened  in  honor  of  Charles  II.  by  the 
Spaniards,  who,  however,  shortly 
changed  the  name  to  New  Philippines. 
After  the  failure  of  several  missionary 
attempts  in  the  18th  century,  Spain 
took  little  active  interest  in  the  group 
until  August,  1885,  when  the  German 
flag  was  hoisted  on  Yap.  The  sharp 
dispute  which  followed  was  submitted 
to  the  Pope  as  arbitrator,  who  decided 
in  favor  of  Spain,  but  reserved  to 
Germany  special  trade  privileges.  In 
1887  disturbances  broke  out  at  Po- 
nape,  in  which  the  governor,  who  had 
arrested  one  of  the  American  Protes- 
tant missionaries,  was  killed  by  the 
natives;  but  the  rising  was  shortly 
put  down.  In  February,  1899,  Ger- 
many purchased  from  Spain  the  Caro- 
line and  Pelew  islands,  and  all  of  the 
Ladrones  excepting  Guam,  which  had 
been  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  the 
treaty  of  peace. 

Carolinium,  an  element  possess- 
ing radio-active  powers  of  great  inten- 
sity. With  another  named  Berzelium, 
it  was  discovered  in  1904,  by  Prof.  C. 
Baskerville  of  North  Carolina. 

Carotid,  the  great  arteries  of  the 
neck. 

Carp,  a  fresh-water  fish.  It  is  a 
native  of  Asia,  but  has  been  extensive- 
ly introduced  into  the  United  States. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  (Ger- 
man, Karpathen),  a  range  of  moun- 
tains in  Southern  Europe,  chiefly  in 
Austria,  nearly  800  miles  in  length. 
The  Carpathians  form  the  water-part- 
ing between  the  basins  of  the  Baltic 
and  Black  Seas,  and  a  mountain  bul- 
wark from  Pressburg  on  the  Danube 
to  Orsova  on  the  Rumanian  frontier, 
a  sweep  of  nearly  800  miles.  Early  in 
the  great  war  this  entire  region  be- 
came a  section  of  strategic  impor- 
tance, and  on  Aug.  30,  1916,  the  Ru- 
manians seized  the  five  principal 
passes,  forcing  the  Austro-Hungarians 
to  retire.  See  APPENDIX  :  World  War. 

Carpeauz,  Jean  Baptirte,  a 
French  sculptor,  born  in  Valenciennes, 
May  14,  1827 ;  died  Oct.  11,  1875. 


Carpenter 

Carpel,  the  leaf  forming  the  pistiL 
Several  carpels  may  enter  into  the 
composition  of  one  pistil. 

Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  a  large 
gulf  on  the  N.  coast  of  Australia. 

Carpenter,  Charles  Carroll,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Green- 
field, Mass.,  Feb.  27,  1834.  He  was 
promoted  rear-admiral  Nov.  11,  1894; 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  United 
States  Asiatic  squadron  from  Aug.  27, 
1894,  till  Nov.  9,  1895;  and  was  re- 
tired on  reaching  the  age-limit,  Feb. 
28,  1896.  During  the  summer  of  1895 
he  rendered  invaluable  service  in 
China  in  protecting  American  mission- 
aries and  in  cooperating  with  United 
States  Minister  Charles  Denby  and  the 
British  and  Chinese  authorities  to 
preserve  peace,  particularly  after  the 
Kucheng  massacre.  He  died  April  1, 

JEOIWli 

Carpenter,  Esther  Bernon,  an 

American  prose  writer,  born  in  Wake- 
field,  R.  I.,  1848;  died  in  1893. 

Carpenter,  Francis  Bicknell, 
an  American  painter,  born  in  Homer, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  6,  1830.  In  1852  he  be- 
came an  associate  of  the  National 
Academy.  Among  his  works  are  a 
portrait  of  President  Lincoln,  in  the 
capitol  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  the 
"Emancipation  Proclamation"  (1864), 
in  the  capitol  at  Washington.  He 
died  in  New  York  city,  May  23,  1900. 

Carpenter,  Gilbert  Saltonstall, 
an  American  military  officer,  born  in 
Medina,  O.,  April  17,  1836;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  1861,  and  imme- 
diately afterward  entered  the  Union 
army.  He  served  through  the  Civil 
War,  in  which  he  received  the  brevet 
of  captain  for  gallantry  in  the  battle 
at  Stone  river.  Subsequently  he  ren- 
dered service  in  various  Indian  cam- 
paigns ;  was  commissioned  a  brig- 
adier-general of  volunteers  in  the  war 
with  Spain  in  1898;  and  became  col- 
onel of  the  18th  United  States  In- 
fantry, June  20,  1899.  His  volunteer 
appointment  was  for  his  gallantry  at 
El  Caney,  Cuba.  Died  Aug.  12,  1904. 

Carpenter,  Louis  G.,  an  Ameri- 
can engineer;  born  in  Orion,  Mich., 
March  28,  1861.  In  1888  he  became 
Professor  of  Engineering  at  the  Colo- 
rado Agricultural  College,  where  he 
organized  the  first  course  in  irriga- 
tion engineering  given  in  any  Amer- 


Carpenter 

ican  college.  He  founded  the  Amer- 
ican Society  of  Irrigation  Engineers 
to  1891. 

Carpenter,  Louis  H.,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  Glass- 
boro,  N.  J.,  Feb.  11,  1829.  He  served 
in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  through 
numerous  engagements,  was  an  aide- 
de-camp  to  General  Sheridan,  was 
commissioned  colonel  of  volunteers 
in  1865,  subsequently  served  in  var- 
ious Indian  campaigns,  became  col- 
onel of  the  Fifth  United  States  Cav- 
alry in  1897,  and  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers  in  1898,  and  brigadier-gen- 
eral, U.  S.  A.,  Oct.  18,  1899,  for  ser- 
vices in  the  Spanish-American  war, 
and  particularly  as  commander  of  the 
Department  of  Porto  Principe,  Cuba. 
He  died  Jan.  21,  1916. 

Carpenter,  Mary,  an  English 
philanthropist,  born  in  Exeter,  April 
3,  1807.  Trained  as  a  teacher,  and 
afterwards  a  governess,  she  took  an 
active  part  in  the  movement  for  the 
reformation  of  neglected  children,  and 
besides  advocating  their  cause  in  her 
writings,  she  founded  a  ragged  school 
and  several  reformatories  for  girls. 
She  founded  in  1835  a  "working  and 
visiting  society,"  of  which  she  was  sec- 
retary for  more  than  20  years.  She 
promoted  the  Industrial  Schools  Act 
of  1857,  and  some  of  her  proposals 
were  adopted  in  the  amended  Acts  of 
1861  and  1866.  In  the  prosecution 
of  her  philanthropic  labors  she  vis- 
ited India  four  times,  and  in  1870  in- 
stituted the  National  Indian  Associa- 
tion, whose  journal  she  edited.  She 
attended  a  congress  on  women's  work 
at  Darmstadt  as  a  guest  of  the  Prin- 
cess Alice,  and  visited  the  United 
States  in  1873.  She  died  June  14, 
1877.  She  was  the  author  of  a  num- 
ber of  popular  books. 

Carpenter,  Matthew  Hale,  an 
American  legislator,  born  in  More- 
town,  Vt.,  Dec.  22,  1824.  He  studied 
at  West  Point,  and  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1845.  He  removed  in  1848 
to  Wisconsin  and  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  Senate  from  that  State 
in  1869  and  in  1879.  He  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb.  24,  1881. 

Carpenter,  Stephen  Cutter,  an 
American  journalist,  born  in  England. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1803, 
and  settled  in  Oharleston,  S.  C.,  where 


Carr 

he  founded  and  published  with  John 
Bristed  the  "Monthly  Register  Maga- 
zine and  Review  of  the  United  States." 
His  works  included:  "Memoirs  of 
Jefferson,  Containing  a  Concise  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  from  the 
Acknowledgment  of  Their  Indepen- 
dence, with  a  View  of  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  French  Influence  and 
French  Principles  in  that  Country." 
He  died  about  1820. 

Carpenter,  William  Benjamin, 
an  American  physiologist,  born  in  Ex- 
eter, Oct.  29,  1813;  died  Nov.  13, 
1885. 

Carpenter,  William  Henry,  an 
American  philologist,  born  in  Utica, 
New  York,  July  15,  1853.  He  re- 
ceived a  university  education  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe.  Became 
professor  of  Germanic  Philology  in 
Columbia  University.  He  has  pub- 
lished numerous  works  in  the  line  of 
his  specialty. 

Carpentry,  the  art  of  combining 
pieces  of  timber  to  support  a  weight 
or  sustain  pressure. 

Carpet,  a  thick  fabric,  generally 
composed  wholly  or  principally  of 
wool,  for  covering  floors.  They  were 
originally  introduced  from  the  East, 
where  they  were  fabricated  in  pieces, 
like  the  modern  rugs. 

Carpet-bagger,  a  political  ad- 
venturer, who  goes  about  the  country 
pandering  to  the  prejudices  of  the  ig- 
norant with  the  view  of  getting  into 
place  or  power,  so  called  because  re- 
garded as  having  no  more  property 
than  might  fill  a  carpet-bag.  Orig- 
inally applied  to  needy  adventurers 
of  the  Northern  States,  who  tried  in 
this  way  to  gain  the  votes  of  the 
negroes  of  the  Southern  States  after 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War. 

Carr,  Engene  Asa,  an  American 
army  officer,  born  in  Concord,  N.  Y., 
March  20,  1830;  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in 
1850.  He  was  in  active  service 
throughout  the  Civil  War,  command- 
ing the  4th  Division  of  the  Army  of 
the  Southwest,  and  subsequently  act- 
ing as  commander  of  the  same  army. 
In  December,  1863,  he  was  assigned  to 
the  Army  of  Arkansas.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  was  promoted  to  Brig- 
adier-General, U.  S.  A.,  and  brevetted 
Major-General  of  volunteers.  In  1868- 


Carr 


Carrillo 


1869  he  was  engaged  against  the  Sioux 
and  Cheyenne  Indians,  and  afterward 
took  part  in  other  expeditions  against 
hostile  Indians.  He  fought  in  13  en- 
gagements with  Indians,  was  four 
times  wounded  in  action,  and  received 
a  Congressional  Medal  of  Honor  and 
the  thanks  of  the  Legislatures  of  Ne- 
braska, Colorado,  and  New  Mexico. 
He  died  Dec.  2,  1910. 

Carr,  Joseph  Bradford,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Aug.  16,  1828.  He  joined 
the  militia  in  1849.  Was  later  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  28th  New 
York  Volunteers,  and  led  them  at 
the  battle  of  Big  Bethel  and  in 
McClellan's  Peninsular  campaign.  He 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Chancellors- 
ville  and  Gettysburg,  and  for  his  brav- 
ery throughout  the  war  he  was  bre- 
vetted  a  Major-General  of  volunteers. 
After  the  war  he  became  prominent  in 
Republican  politics  in  New  York  State 
and  was  elected  Secretary  of  State  in 
1879,  1881,  and  1883.  In  1885  he 
was  defeated  for  lieutenant-governor. 
He  died  Feb.  24,  1895. 

Carr,  Laden,  an  American  arch- 
aeologist, born  in  Missouri  in  1829 ; 
died  Jan.  27,  1915. 

Carr,  Sir  Robert,  a  British  com- 
missioner in  New  England.  In  1664 
he  was  appointed  commissioner  by 
Charles  II.,  with  Nicolls,  Cartwright,  i 
and  Maverick.  On  Aug.  27,  Carr  and 
Nicolls  captured  New  Amsterdam  and 
named  it  New  York.  They  took  Fort 
Orange  Sept.  24,  and  named  it  Albany. 
He  died  June  1,  1667. 

Carranza,  Venustiano,  a  Mex- 
ican military  officer,  born  in  Cuatro 
Cienegas,  Coahuila,  about  1858;  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education ;  studied 
law ;  and  acquired  large  wealth  in 
the  wheat,  cattle,  and  rubber  indus- 
tries. After  serving  several  years  in 
the  Mexican  Senate  and  as  governor 
of  Coahuila,  he  became  an  active  op- 
ponent of  President  Diaz;  later  af- 
filiated with  the  Madero  party ;  took 
the  field  against  Victoriana  Huerta ; 
became  chief  of  the  Constitutionalist 
party,  and  Provisional  President,  Aug. 
14,  1914.  See  APPENDIX:  Mexican 
Campaign. 

Carrara,  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
in  the  province  of  Massa-Carrara.  It 
is  celebrated  for  the  famous  Carrara 
marble,  a  white  saccharine  limestone, 


which  derives  its  value  from  its  tex- 
ture and  purity.  The  quarries  have 
been  wrought  from  the  age  of  Augus- 
tus, and  seem  to  be  now  as  inexhaus- 
tible as  ever.  Pop.  (1911)  49,492. 

Carreno,  Teresa,  a  Venezuelan 
pianist,  born  in  Caracas,  Dec.  22, 
1853.  After  successful  tours  in  Eng- 
land, the  United  States  and  Germany, 
she  was  appointed,  in  1893,  court 
pianist  to  the  King  of  Saxony. 

Carriage,  a  general  name  for  any 
vehicle  intended  for  the  conveyance  of 
passengers  either  on  roads  or  rail- 
ways. Mounted  on  wheels. 

Carrier,  a  person,  corporation,  or 
vehicle  regularly  employed  in  carrying 
goods,  messages,  or  other  articles. 

Carrier,  Jean  Baptiste,  an  infa- 
mous character  of  the  first  French 
revolution,  born  in  1746.  Though  an 
obscure  attorney  at  the  beginning  of 
the  revolution,  he  was  chosen,  in  1792, 
member  of  the  National  Convention. 
In  October,  1793,  he  was  sent  to  Nan- 
tes to  suppress  the  civil  war,  and  to 
finally  put  down  the  Vendeans.  The 
prisons  were  full ;  there  was  dearth  of 
provisions,  and  Carrier  determined  to 
lessen  the  "useless  mouths"  by  sum- 
mary measures.  He  first  caused 
priests  to  be  conveyed  to  a  boat  with 
a  perforated  bottom,  under  pretense  of 
transporting  them,  but  instead  they 
were  drowned  by  night.  Carrier  also 
caused  multitudes  of  prisoners  to  be 
shot  without  any  pretense  of  trial. 
Some  months  before  the  fall  of  Robes- 

§5erre,  Carrier  was  recalled.  On  the 
th  Thermidor  (July  27),  1794,  he 
was  apprehended  and  brought  before 
the  revolutionary  tribunal,  which  con- 
demned him  to  the  guillotine. 

Carriere,  Eugene,  a  French  genre 
painter,  born  in  1849;  was  awarded 
several  medals,  and  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  1889.  Died  March  27,  1906. 

Carriere,  Moriz,  a  German  phi- 
losopher, born  in  Griedel,  Hesse, 
March  5,  1817;  died  in  Munich,  Jan. 
19,  1895. 

Carrier  Pigeon,  a  variety  of  the 
common  domestic  pigeon  used  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  messages. 

Carrillo,  Branlio,  a  statesman  of 
Costa  Rica,  born  in  Cartago  in  1800. 
He  was  twice  president  of  the  repub- 
lic (1835-1837  and  1838-1842),  and 
greatly  promoted  its  material  prosper- 


•Carrington 

ity.  Carrillo's  government  was  over- 
turned by  Morazan  in  1842.  He  was 
assassinated  in  Salvador  in  1845. 

Carrington,  Edward,  an  Ameri- 
can military  officer,  born  in  Virginia, 
Feb.  11,  1749;  was  lieutenant-colonel 
of  General  Harrison's  artillery  re-i- 
inent,  quartermaster-general  under 
General  Greene,  a  delegate  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress,  and  foreman  of  the 
jury  in  Aaron  Burr's  trial  for  trea- 
son. He  died  Oct  28,  1810. 

Carrington,  Henry  Beebe,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in 
Wallingford,  Conn.,  March  2,  1824. 
He  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Co- 
lumbus, O.,  in  1848,  and  took  an  ac- 
tive part  in  the  anti-slavery  movement. 
In  the  convention  which  met  in  1854 
to  organize  the  Republican  Party, 
Carrington  was  on  the  committee  ap- 
pointed to  correspond  with  the  dif- 
ferent States  and  make  the  movement 
National.  In  1861  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  18th  United  States  in- 
fantry, served  through  the  war,  and 
afterward  was  in  service  on  the  plains 
till  1869;  Professor  of  Military  Sci- 
ence and  Tactics  in  Wabash  College, 
Ind.,  after  1870.  He  died  Oct.  26, 1912. 

Carrington,  Paul,  an  American 
statesman,  born  in  Charlotte  county, 
Va.,  Feb.  24,  1733;  was  graduated  at 
William  and  Mary  College.  He  was 
a  member  of  various  conventions  dur- 
ing the  Revolution,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  and  in 
the  Virginia  convention  voted  for  the 
adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 
He  died  June  22,  1818. 

Carrington,  Richard  Christo- 
pher, an  English  astronomer,  born  in 
Chelsea,  May  26,  1826.  Died  in  Sur- 
rey, Nov.  26,  1876. 

Carrion  Crow,  a  name  given  to 
a  small  species  of  vulture  called  the 
Black  Vulture. 

Carroll,  Charles,  the  last  surviv- 
ing signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Amer- 
ican Independence,  born  in  Annapolis, 
Md..  Sept.  20,  1737.  He  studied  at 
Paris,  became  a  member  of  the  Inner 
Temple  at  London,  returned  to  his 
native  country  in  1764,  was  elected  to 
Congress  in  1775,  and,  along  with  the 
other  members,  signed  the  Declaration 
on  Aug.  2  of  the  following  year.  In 
1804,  he  withdrew  to  private  life  at 
Carrollton,  his  patrimonial  estate.  He 


Carty 

survived  by  six  years  all  the  other 
signers  of  the  Declaration,  and  died  in 
Baltimore,  Nov.  14,  1832. 

Carroll,  Henry  King,  an  Amer- 
ican religious  editor,  born  in  Dennis- 
ville,  N.  J.,  Nov.  15,  1848.  He  super- 
vised the  compilation  of  religious  sta- 
tistics for  the  Eleventh  Census,  and  in 
1898  was  chosen  by  President  MeKin- 
ley  to  prepare  a  report  on  the  internal 
conditions  of  Porto  Rico. 

Carroll,  John,  cousin  of  Charles 
Carroll,  and  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  in  the  United  States;  born  in 
Upper  Marlboro,  Md.,  Jan.  8,  1735. 
In  1775  he  engaged  in  the  duties  of 
a  parish  priest,  and  in  1786  he  was 
appointed  vicar-general,  and  settled  at 
Baltimore.  In  1790  he  was  conse- 
crated, in  England,  Catholic  bishop 
of  the  United  States,  and  returned 
with  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Baltimore. 
A  few  years  before  his  death  he  was 
created  archbishop.  He  died  in 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  Dec.  3,  1815. 

Carrot,  a  biennial  umbelliferous 
plant,  cultivated  for  the  table  and  as  a 
food  for  cattle. 

Carson,  Christopher,  commonly' 
called  Kit,  an  American  trapper  and 
scout,  born  in  Kentucky,  Dec.  4,  1809. 
He  served  under  General  Fremont  in 
his  Rocky  Mountain  expeditions,  and 
fought  in  the  Mexican  and  Civil 
Wars,  attaining  the  rank  of  brevet 
Brigadier-General.  He  died  at  Fort 
Lynn,  Col.,  May  23,  1868. 

Carson,  Hampton  Lawrence,  an 
American  publicist,  born  in  Philadek 
phia,  Pa.,  Feb.  21,  1852.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania  (1871),  and  is  now  a  Lec> 
turer  on  Law  at  that  University. 

Carson  City,  the  capital  of  tha 
State  of  Nevada.  The  city  is  the  seat 
of  a  United  States  mint.  Pop.  (1910) 
2,466. 

Carty,  John  J.,  an  American  elec> 
trician,  born  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
April  14,  1861 ;  entered  the  telephone 
business  in  1879 ;  laid  the  longest  un  • 
derground  telephone  cable  in  the 
world,  connecting  Boston  with  New 
York  and  Washington ;  became  chief 
engineer  of  the  American  Telephony 
and  Telegraph  Company  in  1907 ;  and 
in  1915  perfected  a  transcontinental 
line  between  Washington  and  Hawaii* 
nearly  5,000  miles.  . 


Cartagena 

Cartagena,  capital  of  the  State  of 
Bolivar,  Republic  of  Colombia.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  with  high  houses, 
but  the  place  is  well  built,  and  possess- 
es a  university,  a  handsome  cathedral, 
and  several  churches.  Pop.  about  20,- 
000. 

Cartagena,  or  Carthagena,  a 
fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Spain, 
with  a  harbor  which  is  one  of  the  lar- 
gest and  safest  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Pop.  (1910)  102,542. 

Cart  ago,  (1)  a  river  and  almost 
landlocked  bay  or  lagoon,  communi- 
cating with  the  Caribbean  Sea,  near 
the  N.  extremity  of  the  Mosquito 
Coast.  (2)  A  town  of  Costa  Rica, 
12  miles  E.  of  the  present  capital,  San 
Jose,  on  a  plain  to  the  S.  of  the  con- 
stantly smoking  volcano  of  Irazu 
;( 11,500  feet).  Founded  in  1522,  the 
place  had  23,000  inhabitants  in  1823, 
and  was  capital  of  the  State  till  1841, 
when  it  was  all  but  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.  (3)  A  town  of  Cauca, 
in_  Colombia,  founded  in  1540,  on  the 
Rio  Viejo,  three  miles  above  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Cauca,  and  producing 
cocoa,  tobacco,  and  coffee. 

Carte-blanche,  a  blank  sheet  of 
paper  to  be  filled  up  with  such  con- 
ditions as  the  person  to  whom  it  is 
given  may  think  proper;  hence  abso- 
lute freedom  of  action. 

Carte-de-visite,  a  small  likeness 
affixed  to  a  card,  so  called  from  photo- 
graphs of  very  small  size  having  been 
originally  used  as  visiting  cards. 

Cartel,  an  agreement  for  the  deliv- 
ery of  prisoners  or  deserters ;  also,  a 
written  challenge  to  a  duel.  Cartel- 
ship,  a  ship  commissioned  in  time  of 
war  to  exchange  prisoners. 

Carter,  Franklin,  an  American 
educator,  born  in  Waterbury,  Conn., 
Sept.  30,  1837;  was  president  of  Wil- 
liams College  in  1881-1901. 

Carter,  Samuel  Powhatan,  an 
American  naval  and  military  officer, 
born  in  Elizabethtown,  Tenn.,  Aug. 
6,  1819.  He  fought  in  the  Mexican 
War  in  coast  attack,  and  in  1856  took 
part  in  the  capture  of  the  Barrier 
forts,  Canton,  China.  All  through  the 
Civil  War  he  was  of  great  service  to 
the  government,  and  for  his  gallantry 
was  brevetted  Major-General  of  volun- 
teers. In  1882  he  was  promoted  to 
Rear-Admiral  on  the  retired  list.  He 


Carthage 

died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  May  26, 
1891. 

Carter,  Sir  Frederic  Bowker 
Terrington,  a  Canadian  jurist,  born 
in  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  Feb.  12, 
1819.  He  served  in  the  Newfoundland 
Assembly  from  1855  to  1878,  and  two 
years  later  became  Chief  Justice  of 
Newfoundland.  He  was  knighted  in 
1878.  He  died  in  St  John's,  Feb. 
28,  1900. 

Carter,  Thomas  Henry,  nil 
American  politician,  born  in  Scioto 
county,  Ohio,  Oct.  30,  1854.He  re- 
moved to  Montana  in  1882,  was  Mon- 
tana's first  representative  in  Congress 
(1891),  became  United  States  Senator 
from  that  State  in  1892,  and  was 
chairman  of  the  National  Republican 
Committee  in  1892-96.  D.  in  1911. 

Carteret,  Sir  George,  one  of  the 
proprietors  of  New  Jersey,  born  on 
the  island  of  Jersey  in  1599.  He  early 
manifested  an  interest  in  coloniza- 
tion, and  became,  with  Sir  John  Ber- 
keley, one  of  the  proprietors  of  New 
Jersey.  He  died  Jan.  14,  1679. 

Carteret,  Philip,  an  English  nav- 
igator. As  commander  of  the  "Swal- 
low," he  joined  an  exploring  expe- 
dition to  the  Southern  seas,  discover- 
ing Pitcairn,  Osnaburg,  Queen  Char- 
lotte, Sandwich  and  Solomon  Islands, 
besides  correcting  several  errors  of 
former  surveys.  He  retired  from  the 
navy  in  1794,  with  the  honorary  rank 
of  Rear-Admiral,  and  died  in  South- 
ampton, July  21,  1796. 

Carthage,  the  most  famous  city  of 
Africa  in  antiquity,  capital  of  a  rich 
and  powerful  commercial  republic,  sit- 
uated in  the  territory  now  belonging  to 
Tunis.  The  policy  of  Rome  in  en- 
couraging the  African  enemies  of 
Cartnage  occasioned  the  third  Punic 
war,  in  which  Rome  was  the  aggres- 
sor. This  war,  begun  B.  C.  150,  ended 
B.  C.  1*6,  in  the  total  destruction  of 
Carthage.  After  the  destruction  of 
Carthage  her  territory  became  the 
Roman  province  of  Africa.  Twenty- 
four  years  after  her  fall  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  was  made  to  rebuild  Carth- 
age by  Caius  Gracchus.  This  was 
finally  accomplished  by  Augustus,  and 
Roman  Carthage  became  one  of  the 
most  important  cities  of  the  empire. 
It  was  ta^en  and  destroyed  by  th« 
Arabs  in  638. 


Carthage 

Carthage,  city  and  capital  of 
Jasper  county,  Mo.;  near  Spring  river 
and  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and  other 
railroads;  150  miles  S.  of  Kansas 
City;  is  the  center  of  an  extensive 
lead  region;  and  has  zinc  mines, 
stone  and  lime  works,  flour  mills, 
canneries,  woolen  mills,  and  machine 
and  furniture  plants.  It  was  the 
scene  of  a  Civil  War  battle,  July  5. 
1861.  Pop.  (1910)  9,483. 

Cartier,  Sir  George  Etienne,  a 
Canadian  statesman,  born  in  St.  An- 
toine,  Quebec,  Sept.  6,  1814.  He  was 
active  in  bringing  about  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
in  1867.  He  died  May  20,  1873. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  a  French  navi- 
gator, born  in  St.  Malo,  Dec.  31,  1494. 
He  commanded  an  expedition  to  North 
America  in  1534,  entered  the  Straits 
of  Belle  Isle,  and  took  possession  of 
the  mainland  of  Canada  in  the  name 
of  Francis  I.  He  subsequently  went 
to  found  a  settlement  in  Canada,  and 
built  a  fort  near  the  site  of  Quebec. 
He  died  about  1554. 

Cartilage,  a  texture  or  substance 
possessed  of  elasticity,  flexibility,  and 
considerable  cohesive  power.  Tem- 
porary cartilage  is  present  in  place  of 
bone  in  very  early  life,  afrd  as  develop- 
ment goes  on  ossifies.  Permanent  car- 
tilage, on  the  contrary,  retains  its 
character  to  the  last,  never  ossifying. 

Cartilaginous  Fishes,  a  general 
designation  for  those  fishes  whose 
skeleton  consists  of  cartilage  instead 
of  bone,  and  which  comprise  the  sharks 
and  skates  or  rays. 

Cartoon,  in  painting,  a  drawing 
intended  to  be  used  as  a  model  for  a 
large  picture  in  fresco.  In  modern 
times  the  term  is  also  applied  to  a  pic- 
torial sketch  relating  to  some  notable 
character  or  events  of  the  day. 

Cartoons  have  become  a  leading  fea- 
ture of  American  journalism  and  of 
political  campaigns,  and  some  "  car- 
toonists "  receive  large  salaries. 

Cartouch,  a  tablet  intended  to  re- 
ceive an  inscription  which  resembles 
a  scroll  of  paper  rolled  up  at  the  ends. 
It  is  also  applied  to  the  modillion  that 
supports  the  corona  of  a  cornice  used 
in.  interior  decoration. 

In  military  language  it  is  a  canvas 
or  leather  cartridge-box ;  a  case  for 
holding  musket-balls  and  powder;  a 
-  E.«0. 


Carver 

wooden  bomb;  a  ticket  of  leave,  or 
dismissal,  given  to  a  soldier. 

Cartridge,  a  case  of  paper,  parch- 
ment, metal,  or  flannel  suited  to  the 
bore  of  firearms,  and  holding  the  exact 
charge,  including,  in  the  case  of  small 
arms,  both  powder  and  bullet. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  an  English 
inventor,  born  in  Marnham,  April  24, 
1743.  In  1785  he  brought  his  inven- 
tion, the  first  power-loom,  into  action. 
He  died  in  Hastings,  Oct.  30, 1823. 

Cartwright,  Peter,  an  American 
clergyman,  born  in  Virginia,  Sept.  1, 
1785;  ordained  in  Kentucky  in  1806, 
and  in  1823  removed  to  Illinois,  where 
he  labored  for  nearly  a  century.  He 
also  sat  in  the  State  Legislature  there, 
and  in  1846  was  defeated  by  Abraham 
Lincoln  in  an  election  for  Congress- 
man. He  died  near  Pleasant  Plains, 
111.,  Sept.  25,  1872. 

Cartwright,  Sir  Richard  John, 
a  Canadian  statesman,  born  in  King- 
ston, Ont.,  Dec.  4,  1835.  He  was 
Minister  of  Finance  from  1873  until 
1878 ;  an  able  speaker  and  authority 
on  finance ;  in  1897  was  a  member  of 
a  commercial  commission  to  the  Unit- 
ed States.  He  died  Sept.  24,  1912. 

Carupano,  a  growing  port  of  the 
Venezuelan  State  of  Bermudez,  on  the 
N.  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Paria, 
with  a  lighthouse  and  good  roadstead. 
Pop.  12,389. 

Cams,  Marcus  Aurelius,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  born  in  222,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  282  A.  D.,  after  the  as- 
sassination of  Probus.  He  was  a  good 
and  able  ruler  and  conquered  the  Sar- 
matians,  wrested  Mesopotamia,  Seleu- 
cia,  and  Ctesiphon  from  the  Persians, 
and  was  about  to  make  an  invasion  be- 
yond the  Tigris  when  he  was  killed  in 
283. 

Carver,  John,  a  "Pilgrim 
Father,"  the  first  governor  of  the  Ply- 
mouth colony,  born  in  England  about 
1575.  He  joined  the  Leyden  colony  of 
English  exiles  about  1608,  and  assisted 
in  securing  a  charter  from  the  Virginia 
Company  and  in  selecting  and  equip- 
ping the  "Mayflower."  He  was  elected 
governor  after  the  "Mayflower" 
reached  Provincetown,  and  established 
by  a  treaty  with  the  Indians  peaceful 
relations.  He  was  re-elected  in  March, 
1621,  but  died  a  few  days  afterward. 


Cary 

His  chair  and  sword  are  still  preserved 
as  Pilgrim  relics. 

Cary,  Alice,  an  American  poetess, 
born  near  Cincinnati,  O.,  April  20, 
1820.  In  1852  she,  with  her  sister, 
Phoebe,  removed  to  New  York  City. 
where  they  lived  during  the  rest  of 
their  lives.  She  died  in  New  York 
City,  Feb.  21,  1871. 

Cary,  Annie  Louise,  an  Ameri- 
can singer;  born  in  Wayne,  Me.,  Oct. 
22,  1842;  studied  in  Milan,  made  her 
operatic  d6but  in  Copenhagen  in  1868, 
and  returned  in  1870  to  the  United 
States,  where  she  remained  until  1882, 
when  she  married  Charles  M.  Ray- 
mond, and  retired  from  the  stage  while 
her  voice  was  still  unimpaired. 

Cary,  Edward,  an  American  jour- 
nalist ;  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  June 
5,  1840.  He  has  long  been  connected 
with  the  "New  York  Times." 

Cary,  George  Lovell,  an  Amer- 
ican theologian ;  born  in  Medway, 
Mass.,  May  10,  1830.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  College  in  1852 ;  and 
from  1862  was  Professor  of  New  Tes- 
tament Literature  in  Meadville  The- 
ological Seminary,  of  which  he  also 
became  president.  He  died  in  1910. 

Cary,  Phoebe,  an  American  poetess 
and  prose-writer,  sister  of  Alice ;  born 
in  Cincinnati,  O.,  Sept.  4,  1824.  She 
died  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  July  31,  1871. 
Cary,  Samuel  Fenton,  an  Ameri- 
can politician ;  born  in  Cincinnati,  O., 
Feb.  18,  1814;  represented  Ohio  in 
Congress  in  1867-1869 ;  was  the  only 
Republican  representative  to  vote 
against  the  impeachment  of  President 
Johnson  ;  and  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  vice-president  in  1876,  on 
the  "Greenback"  ticket,  headed  by 
Peter  Cooper.  He  died  in  1900. 

Caryatides,  or  Caryates,  a  term 

used  to  signify  the  figures  which  are 
sometimes  introduced  to  support  a 
cornice  instead  of  columns. 

Caryocar,  large  trees,  natives  of 
the  hottest  parts  of  South  America, 
much  esteemed  for  their  timber.  The 
separated  portions  of  the  fruit  consti- 
tute the  Souari  or  Suwarrow  nuts  of 
commerce,  the  kernels  of  which  are  de- 
licious. 

Caryophyllus,  the  Clove-tree,  a 
native  of  the  Moluccas.  The  cloves  of 
commerce  are  the  unexpanded  flower- 


Case 

buds  dried.     They  form  a  well-known 
spice. 

Carysf ort  Reef,  a  coral  reef  near 
the  S.  extremity  of  Florida. 

Casablanca,  Louis,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  in  Bastia  about 
1755,  and  in  1798  was  captain  of  the 
gship  "L'Orient"  in  the  expedition 
to  Egypt.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  Aug.  1, 1798; 
the  ship  caught  fire ;  his  10-year-old 
son  would  not  leave  him,  and  both 
were  floating  on  the  wreck  of  the 
ship's  mast  when  the  final  explosion 
took  place. 

Casanare,  a  river  of  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  which  flows  through  a  re- 
gion called  by  the  same  name,  and 
after  an  easterly  course  of  180  miles 
empties  into  the  Meta. 

Casareep,  or  Cassiripe,  a  sauce 
or  condiment  made  from  the  juice  of 
the  Bitter  Cassava  or  Manioc  root, 
which  also  furnishes  tapioca. 

Casas  Grandes,  an  old  Indian 
town  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of  Chi- 
huahua, 125  miles  S.  W.  of  El  Paso. 
Casati,  Gaetano,  an  Italian  ex- 
plorer, born  in  Monza,  in  1838.  He 
explored  Bahr-el-Ghazel,  and,  after 
long  captivity  among  African  tribes- 
men, was  rescued  by  Stanley.  He  died 
in  Rome,  Italy,  March  7,  1902. 

Casca,  Publius  Servilius,  a  Ro- 
man conspirator,  assisting  in  the  as- 
sassination of  Julius  Caesar,  44  B.  C. 

Cascade  Range,  a  chain  of  mount- 
ains in  the  States  of  Oregon  and 
Washington.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  cascades  formed  by  the  Columbia 
river  breaking  through  the  mountains. 
Casco  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  S.  W. 
coast  of  Maine ;  is  about  20  miles  wide 
and  so  deep  as  to  constitute  one  of  the 
best  harbors  of  the  world. 

Case,  in  grammar,  a  modification 
or  inflection  of  a  noun,  pronoun,  or 
adjective,  by  which  a  different  shade 
of  meaning  is  communicated  to  the 
word. 

Case,  Augustus  Ludlow,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  New- 
burg,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3,  1813;  entered  the 
navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1828,  served 
in  the  Mexican  war.  He  was  a  light- 
house inspector  in  1867;  chief  of  bu- 
reau of  ordnance,  1869 ;  and  command- 
er of  the  European  squadron  in  1873. 


Case-hardening 

Ee  was  retired  in  1875,  and  died  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Feb.  17,  1893: 

Case-hardening,  the  process  of 
converting  the  surface  of  malleable- 
iron  goods  into  steel,  thereby  making 
them  harder,  less  liable  to  rust,  and 
capable  of  taking  on  a  better  polish. 

Casein,  or  Caseine,  an  albuminoid 
substance  found  in  milk,  soluble  in 
alkali. 

Casey,  Silas,  an  American  officer, 
born  in  East  Greenwich,  R.  I.,  July 
12,  1807 ;  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1826; 
served  in  the  Mexican  and  Civil  Wars. 
Was  given  charge  of  organizing  the 
volunteers  near  Washington ;  brevetted 
Major-General  U.  S.  A.,  1865;  and 
retired  in  1868.  He  died  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  22,  1882. 

Casey,  Thomas  Lincoln,  an 
American  military  engineer,  born  in 
Madison  Barracks,  Sackett's  Harbor, 
N.  Y.,  May  10,  1831;  the  oldest  son 
of  Gen.  Silas  Casey.  He  graduated 
from  West  Point  in  1852,  and  entered 
the  Engineer  Corps  of  the  army.  Was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  construction 
of  various  National  buildings;  was 
president  of  the  Board  of  Engineers 
for  fortifications  at  New  York.  He 
died  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  March  25, 
1896. 

Casgrain,  Abbe  Henry  Ray- 
mond, a  Canadian  historical  writer ; 
born  in  Riviere  Quelle,  Quebec,  Dec. 
16,  1831 ;  ordained  a  priest  Oct.  5, 
1856 ;  was  professor  at  St.  Anne's 
College  till  1859,  and  vicar  at  Quebec 
Cathedral  in  1860-73. 

Cashel,  a  town  in  Tipperary 
county,  Ireland,  about  49  miles  N.  E. 
of  Cork ;  containing  the  most  interest- 
ing ruins  in  Ireland.  These  consist  of 
a  cathedral,  founded  in  1169 ;  a  stone- 
roofed  chapel,  built  in  1127 ;  Hore 
Abbey,  founded  in  1260 ;  the  palace  of 
the  Munster  Kings  ;  and  a  round  tower 
56  feet  in  circumference.  Pop.  (1911) 
2,813. 

Casignran  Bay,  a  considerable  in- 
let on  the  E.  coast  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pine Islands,  reached  through  Casig- 
uran  Sound. 

Casimir-Perier,Jean  Paul  Pierre, 
a  President  of  the  French  Republic, 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  8,  1847;  was 
chosen  successor  of  President  Carnot 
on  the  first  ballot  (June,  1894).  He 


Cassel 

resigned  the  office  of  President,  Jan. 
16,  1895,  and  was  succeeded  by  Felix 
Faure.  He  died  March  11,  1907. 

Caspian  Gates,  a  name  given  to 
the  Russian  fortress  Dariel,  situated  in 
a  narrow  defile  of  the  Caucasus,  on  the 
Terek,  80  miles  N.  of  Tiflis. 

Caspian  Sea,  a  great  salt  lake  of 
Western  Asia,  wholly  enclosed,  hav- 
ing no  outlet  whatever  to  the  ocean, 
and  surrounded  by  Tartary,  Persia, 
the  Caucasian  countries,  and  the  Rus- 
sian governments  of  Orenburg  and 
Astrakhan.  Its  greatest  length  from, 
N.  to  S.  is  760  miles ;  average  breadth, 
200 ;  area,  about  120,000  square  miles. 

Cass,  Lewis,  an  American  states- 
man, diplomatist,  and  soldier,  born  in 
Exeter,  N.  H.,  Oct.  9,  1782 ;  served  in 
the  War  of  1812;  was  governor  of 
Michigan  Territory  (1813-1831)  ;  Sec- 
retary of  War  (1831-1836)  ;  minister 
to  France  (1836-1842)  ;  United  States 
Senator  (1845-1848)  ;  Presidential 
candidate  (1848)  ;  United  States  Sen- 
ator (1849-1857)  ;  Secretary  of  State 
(1857-1860).  He  died  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  June  17,  1866. 

Cassation,  Court  of,  a  French 
institution  which  gives  the  national 
jurisdiction  coherency  and  uniformity 
without  endangering  the  independence 
of  the  courts. 

Cassatt,  Alexander  Johnston, 
railroad  president ;  b.  Pittsburg,  Dec. 
8,  1839.  He  was  educated  at  Heidel- 
berg Univ.  and  the  Rensselaer  Poly- 
technic Institute ;  became  a  railroad 
rodman  in  1861,  and  rose  through  suc- 
cessive positions  to  president  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  in  1899. 
He  died  Dec.  28,  1906. 

Cassatt,  Mary,  an  American  figure- 
painter,  born  in  Pittsburg,  Pa. ;  stud- 
ied art  in  Europe ;  and  lived  some 
time  in  Spain  and  France.  As  an 
etcher  she  ranks  among  the  best.  Her 
studio  is  at  Paris. 

Cassava,  a  South  American  shrub, 
about  8  feet  in  height,  with  broad, 
shining,  and  somewhat  hand-shaped 
leaves,  and  beautiful  white  and  rose- 
colored  flowers.  From  Cassava  the 
tapioca  of  commerce  is  prepared. 

Cassel,  or  Kassel,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cas- 
sel,  is  now  the  chief  town  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hesse-Nassau,  Prussia,  on  the 
Fulda,  91  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Frank- 


Cassia 

fort-on-the-Main.  There  are  many 
fine  walks  and  public  gardens  in  the 
vicnity ;  among  the  latter  are  the 
gardens  of  Wilhelmshohe,  in  which  is 
situated  the  ex-elector's  summer  pal- 
ace, the  residence  of  the  late  Emper- 
or Napoleon  III.,  after  his  being  taken 
prisoner  at  Sedan,  from  Sept.  5,  1870, 
to  March  19,  1871.  Pop.  (1910), 
153,196. 

Cassia,  a  genus  of  plants.  Be- 
tween 200  and  300  species  are  known. 
They  are  trees,  shrubs,  or  herbs.  They 
are  found  in  India,  Africa  and  the 
warmer  parts  of  this  country.  Sev- 
eral furnish  Senna. 

Cassianus,  Joannes  Eremita,  or 
Joannes  Massiliensis,  an  early 
monk  and  theologian,  born  about  360. 
He  died  about  448,  and  was  afterward 
canonized. 

Cassicus,  an  American  genus  of 
insessorial  birds,  the  Cassicans.  The 
crested  oriole,  a  South  American  bird, 
constructs  a  pouch-shaped  nest  of  the 
length  of  30  inches. 

Cassini,  Count,  a  Russian  diplo- 
matist, born  in  St.  Petersburg.  He 
was  the  first  Russian  ambassador  to 
the  United  States. 

Cassiquiari,  or  Cassiquiare,  a 
large  river  of  South  America,  in  Ven- 
ezuela, which  branches  off  from  the 
Orinoco  and  joins  the  Rio  Negro,  a 
tributary  of  the  Amazon. 

Cassius,  full  name,  Cains  Cassius 
Longimis,  one  of  the  assassins  of 
Julius  Csesar ;  killed  himself  42  B.  C. 

Cassock,  a  close  garment  resem- 
bling a  long  frock  coat,  worn  by 
clergymen  under  the  surplice  or  gown. 
In  the  Church  of  Rome  they  vary  in 
color  with  the  dignity  of  the  wearer ; 
those  of  priests  being  black,  bishops 
pu»ple,  cardinals  scarlet,  and  Popes 
white. 

Cassowary,  a  family  of  birds.  The 
shortness  of  their  wings  totally  unfits 
them  for  flying,  and  it  would  seem 
impossible  for  nature  to  have  furnished 
muscular  power  sufficient  to  move 
wings  large  enough  to  sustain  their 
great  weight  in  the  air.  The  wings 
of  the  ostrich  are  of  some  assistance 
to  it  in  running,  but  those  of  the  cas- 
sowary are  too  short  even  to  be  of 
service  in  this  way.  Its  whole  plum- 
age IB  so  poorly  supplied  with  feathers 


Castilla 

as  to  resemble,  at  a  little  distance,  a 
coat  of  coarse  or  hanging  hair.  The 
cassowaries  have  three  toes,  all  pro- 
vided with  nails. 

Cast,  in  the  fine  arts,  an  impres- 
sion taken  by  means  of  wax  or  plaster 
of  Paris  from  a  statue,  bust,  bas-relief 
or  any  other  model,  animate  or  inani- 
mate. 

Castanet,  a  small,  slightly  concave, 
spoon-shaped  instrument  of  ivory  or 
hard  wood,  of  which  a  pair  are  fas- 
tened to  the  thumb  and  beaten  to- 
gether with  the  middle  finger. 

Caste,  an  hereditary  class  of  society 
in  India,  the  members  of  which  are 
theoretically  equal  in  rank,  and,  as  a 
rule,  follow  the  same  profession  or 
occupation.  Through  the  long  ages 
during  which  Indian  caste  has  existed, 
the  original  four  castes  have  split  into 
an  immense  multitude.  Different 
castes  refuse  to  eat  together  or  inter- 
marry. 

Castellon,  Francisco,  a  Nicara- 
guan  revolutionist,  born  about  1815. 
He  was  the  leader  in  a  revolt  at  Leon 
in  1853,  which  was  unsuccessful,  and 
fled  to  Honduras,  whence  he  returned 
in  June  of  the  next  year.  It  was  by 
his  invitation  that  the  filibustering  ex- 
pedition under  William  Walker  went 
from  the  United  States  in  1854.  He 
died  Sept.  2,  1855. 

Castile,  Spain  an  ancient  kingdom 
comprising  Old  Castile  and  v  New  Cas- 
tile, the  former  extending  from  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  southward  to  New  Cas- 
tile, divided  into  8  provinces ;  area 
25,405  square  miles;  pop.  (1910)  2,- 
150,518.  New  Castile  occupied  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula,  and  is  now  di- 
vided into  5  provinces ;  area,  28.010 
square  miles;  pop.  (1910)  1,851,286. 
The  Kingdom  of  Castile  was  united 
to  that  of  Leon  in  1230. 

Castilla,  Ramon,  a  Peruvian 
statesman ;  born  in  Tarapaca,  Aug. 
30,  1796.  Early  in  life  he  served  in 
the  Spanish  army,  but  in  1821  he 
joined  the  insurrectionists  in  Peru  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  successful 
struggle  of  that  country  for  independ- 
ence. In  1845  he  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Peru.  On  the  expiration  of 
his  term  he  retired  to  private  life; 
but  as  the  new  President  proved  tyran- 
nical, Castilla  led  a  revolt  against  him, 
drove  him  into  exile,  and  in  1855  was 


Castillon 


Castle  Garden 


himself  re-elected  President.  He 
served  till  1862.  He  died  in  Tarapaca, 
May  30,  1867. 

Castillon,  a  town  in  the  French 
department  of  Gironde,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dordogne,  33  miles  E.  of 
Bordeaux  by  rail.  Beneath  its  walls, 
on  June  13,  1453,  the  English  met 
with  a  signal  defeat,  their  leader,  Earl 
Talbot  of  Shrewsbury,  and  his  son, 
being  slain.  Part  of  the  battle  is  de- 
scribed in  the  fourth  act  of  Shake- 
speare's "  King  Henry  VI.,"  Part  I. 

Casting,  the  running  of  melted 
metal  into  a  mold  prepared  for  the 


them  in  being  designed  for  military 
purposes  only,  and  not  as  places  of 
permanent  residence. 

Castlebar,  the  capital  town  of 
County  Mayo,  Ireland.  It  is  on  the 
Castlebar  river,  10  miles  N.  E.  of 
Westport.  In  1641  occurred  here  the 
massacre  of  the  English  Parliamentary 
army  in  the  Irish  rebellion ;  in  1789 
Castlebar  was  held  for  a  fortnight  by 
the  French  general,  Humbert;  and  in 
1846-1847  it  suffered  greatly  from 
famine. 

Castle  Garden,  the  former  immi- 
grant depot  in  New  York,  at  the  point 


'""*» 


A  FEUDAL  CASTLE  AT  BOUEN,  FBANCE. 


purpose,  so  as  to  produce  an  article 
of  a  certain  shape. 

Cast-iron,  the  name  given  to  the 
iron  obtained  from  the  blast-furnace 
by  running  the  fused  metal  into  molds 
prepared  for  the  purpose. 

Castle,  a  building  constructed  for 
the  purpose  of  repelling  attack.  The 
castella  left  by  the  Romans  were  con- 
structed on  the  general  model  of  their 
stationary  encampments,  and  though 
they  may  have  suggested  the  castles 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  they  differed  from 


of  Manhattan  Island,  in  Battery  Park. 
In  the  early  days  of  the  city  the  place 
was  a  small,  fortified  island  a  few  feet 
from  the  main-land ;  later  it  became  a 
public  hall  for  assemblies  and  con- 
certs. Here  Jenny  Lind  made  her 
American  debut.  Many  years  ago  the' 
island  was  incorporated  with  the  gen- 
eral area  of  the  Battery  by  filling  the 
intervening  space  with  earth  and  rock ; 
new  buildings  were  erected,  and  the 
place  was  devoted  to  the  purpose  of 
landing  steerage  immigrants.  In  1890 
it  ceased  to  be  used  as  an  immigrant 


Castletowu 

depot,  and  was  turned  over  to  the 
Park  Commissioners  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  and  is  now  an  aquarium. 

Castletown,  a  seaport  and  former 
capital  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  on  Castle- 
town  Bay,  11  miles  S.  W.  of  Douglas. 
Castle  Kushen,  now  a  prison,  occupies 
the  site  of  a  Danish  fortress  of  the 
10th  century,  which  was  almost  wholly 
demolished  by  Robert  Bruce  in  1313. 
The  grounds  of  Rushen  Abbey  (llth 
century),  near  the  station,  are  now 
market  gardens.  Near  by  is  the  small 
building  where  the  House  of  Keys  as- 
sembled for  about  170  years. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  two  demi- 
gods known  by  the  ancients  under  the 
joint  name  of  Dioscuri,  that  is,  sons 
of  Zeus  or  Jupiter.  Mythology  makes 
Jupiter  reward  their  affection  by 
translating  the  two  brothers  into  con- 
stellations, under  the  name  of  Gemini 
—  stars  which  never  appear  together, 
but  when  one  rises  the  other  sets,  and 
so  on  alternately. 

Castor  Oil,  a  fixed  oil  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  the  castor  oil  plant. 
Given  in  doses  or  one  or  two  teaspoon- 
fuls,  with  a  little  peppermint  water,  it 
forms  a  gentle  laxative  for  habits  eas- 
ily acted  on  by  medicine ;  while  a  dose 
of  a  tablespoonful,  or  a  little  more, 
will  almost  always  succeed. 

Castro,  Inez  de,  a  lady  of  noble 
birth,  secretly  married  to  Pedro,  son 
of  Alphonso  IV.,  King  of  Portugal, 
after  the  death  of  his  wife  Constantia 
(1345).  The  old  King  Alphonso, 
fearful  that  this  marriage  would  in- 
jure the  interests  of  his  grandson 
Ferdinand,  resolved  to  put  Inez  to 
death.  Three  noblemen,  Diego  Lopez 
Pacheco,  Pedro  Coelho,  and  Alvarez 
Gonsalvez,  were  his  counsellors,  and 
carried  it  out  themselves  by  stabbing 
Inez  within  the  convent  where  she 
lived.  Two  years  after  King  Alphon- 
so died,  and  Pedro,  inducing  the  King 
of  Castile  to  give  up  to  him  two  of 
the  murderers,  who  had  taken  refuge 
there  (the  third,  Diego  Lopez,  man- 
aged to  escape),  put  them  to  death 
with  cruel  tortures.  The  king  then 
made  public  declaration  of  the  mar- 
riage that  had  taken  place  between 
him  and  the  deceased  Inez ;  and  had 
her  corpse  disinterred  and  placed  on 
a  throne,  adorned  with  the  diadem  and 
royal  robes,  to  receive  the  homage  of 


Cat 

the  nobility.  The  body  was  then  buried 
with  honors.  The  story  of  Inez  is  one 
of  the  finest  episodes  in  Camoens's 
"  Lusiad." 

Castro,  Cipriano,  President  of 
Venezuela,  b.  1858  near  Capacho,  of 
peasant  parents.  3e  .became  a  coffee 
grower  and  politician,  and  in  1890 
took  Caracas  with  a  few  troops  and 
was  elected  President.  He  em- 
broiled his  country  with  almost  every 
civilized  Power;  was  especially  ar- 
rogant towards  the  United  States; 
and  in  1908-1909  fled  the  country 
and  was  deposed. 

Castro,  Jose  Maria,  a  Costa 
Rican  statesman,  born  in  San  Jose, 
Sept.  1,  1818;  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leon,  Nicaragua,  and  held 
positions  under  the  government  of 
Costa  Rica.  In  1846  he  was  Vice- 
President  ;  in  1847  elected  President. 
After  Costa  Rica  withdrew  from  the 
Central  American  States,  he  resigned 
the  presidency,  but  held  diplomatic  po- 
sitions. From  1866  to  the  rise  of  the 
Jimenez  government  (1868),  he  was 
again  President.  He  died  in  1893. 

Casuistry,  that  branch  of  ethical 
science  which  professes  to  deal  with 
cases  of  conscience.  It  lays  down 
rules  or  canons  directing  us  how  to 
act  in  all  matters  of  moral  doubt. 

Caswell,  Richard,  an  American 
lawyer,  born  in  Maryland,  Aug.  3, 
1729;  removed  to  North  Carolina  in 
1746 ;  was  president  of  the  Provincial 
Congress  which  framed  the  State  Con- 
stitution (1776),  and  first  governor 
of  the  State,  three  times  re-elected; 
was  also  a  delegate  to  the  convention 
which  framed  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion in  1787.  He  died  in  Fayette- 
ville,  N.  C.,  Nov.  20,  1789. 

Cat.  The  cat  is  originally  from 
the  European  forests.  In  its  wild 
state  it  differs  from  the  domestic  ani- 
mal in  having  a  shorter  tail,  a  Hatter 
and  larger  head,  and  stronger  limbs. 
At  what  period  cats  became  inmates 
of  human  habitations,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  determine,  but  there  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  they  were 
at  first  domesticated  in  Egypt  The 
varieties  of  this  animal  in  a  domestic 
state  are  very  numerous.  Of  all  the 
varieties  the  Persian,  the  Angora,  and 
the  new,  tall  and  gray  Malta  variety 
are  the  most  remarkable. 


Catacombs 


Catamarca 


Catacombs,  caverns,  grottoes,  sub- 
terraneous caves,  destined  for  the  se- 
pulture of  the  dead.  The  name  of 
catacombs,  according  to  Gregory,  was 
at  first  applied  to  designate  exclusively 
the  cave  in  which  the  bodies  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  were  buried,  and 


A   CATACOMB   GRAVE. 

it  was  only  at  a  later  period  that  it 
came  to  be  given  to  all  the  subterran- 
eous passages  which  were  used  as  pub- 
lic burying-places.  It  is  now  regarded 
as  certain  that  in  times  of  persecution 
the  early  Christians  frequently  took 
refuge  in  the  catacombs ;  but  it  is  not 
less  certain  that  the  catacombs  served 
also  as  places  of  burial  to  the  early 
Christians,  and  that  in  spite  of  the 
contrary  opinion  which  prevailed  for 
two  centuries,  the  catacombs  were  not 
for  the  most  part  abandoned  quarries, 
but  were  excavated  by  the  Christians 
themselves. 

The  catacombs  of  Paris,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Seine  river,  are 
almost  equally  celebrated.  By  the 
light  of  wax  tapers,  a  person  may  de- 
scend about  70  feet  to  a  world  of  si- 
lence, over  which  the  Parisian  police 
keeps  watch  as  strictly  as  over  the 
world  of  noise  and  confusion  above. 
He  will  then  enter  a  gallery  where 
only  two  can  go  abreast.  A  black 
streak  on  the  stones  of  the  walls  points 
out  the  way,  which,  from  the  great 
number  of  by-passages,  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult for  the  visitor  to  retrace  with- 
out this  aid  or  without  guides. 

Catafalque,  a  temporary  and  or- 
namental structure,  placed  over  the 
coffin  of  a  distinguished  person  or  over 
a  grave. 

Catalan,  a  blast  furnace  for  re- 
ducing ores,  extensively  used  in  the  N. 
of  Spain,  particularly  in  the  province 
of  Catalonia. 

Catalan!,  Angelica,  an  Italian 
singer,  born  in  Sinigaglia,  near  An- 
cona,  in  October,  1779 ;  in  her  seventh 


year  she  displayed  such  wonderful  vo- 
cal powers  that  strangers  flocked  from 
all  quarters  to  hear  her.  She  made 
her  debut  at  Venice  in  1797  and  ex- 
perienced a  succession  of  triumphs  in 
every  country  in  Europe  for  upwards 
of  30  years.  The  Italian  Opera  in 
Paris  was  twice  under  her  •  direction ; 
but  her  husband's  interference  and  ex- 
travagance brought  her  into  much 
trouble.  She  died  in  Paris,  June  13, 
1849. 

Catalepsy,  a  form  of  mental  disor- 
der, akin  to  hysteria,  which  is  charac- 
terized by  the  person  affected  falling 
down  suddenly  in  a  state  of  real  or 
apparent  unconsciousness,  and,  save 
for  some  occasional  muscular  twitch- 
ings  of  the  face  and  body,  remaining 
rigid  and  statue-like  for  a  period  of 
time  which  varies  from  one  minute  to 
some  hours  or  even  days,  and  then  all 
at  once  recovering  consciousness  as  if 
aroused  from  sleep. 

Catalonia,  an  old  province  of 
Spain,  bounded  N.  by  France,  E.  and 
S.  E.  by  the  Mediterranean,  S.  by  Va- 
lencia, and  W.  by  Arragpn.  The 
country  is  mountainous,  but  intersect- 
ed with  fertile  valleys,  while  the 
mountains  themselves  are  covered  with 
valuable  woods  and  fruit-trees.  Wheat, 
wine,  oil,  flax,  hemp,  vegetables,  and 
almost  every  kind  of  fruit  are  abund- 
ant. There  *>re  mines  of  lead,  iron, 
alum,  etc.  Catalonia  stands  preemi- 
nent for  the  industry  of  its  inhabi- 
tants, who  speak  the  Catalan  dialect. 
It  comprises  the  modern  provinces  of 
Tarragona,  Gerona,  Serida,  and  Bar- 
celona ;  area,  12,427  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1913)  2,084,792. 

Cat  alp  a,  (from  the  native  Indian 
name  in  Carolina,  where  it  was  dis- 
covered by  Catesby  in  1726),  a  genus 
comprising  four  or  five  species  of  trees, 
natives  of  North  America,  the  West 
Indies,  Japan,  and  China. 

Catamaran,  a  kind  of  boat  used 
by  the  Hindoos  of  Madras,  Ceylon,  and 
the  parts  adjacent.  It  is  formed  of 
three  logs  of  timber,  secured  together 
by  means  of  three  spreaders  and  cross 
lashings  through  small  holes. 

Catamarca,  a  W.  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  sinking  S.  E. 
from  the  Andes  to  the  Salt  Marshes, 
which  separate  it  from  Cordoba.  Area, 
36,800  square  miles;  pop.  (1915) 


Catamount 

112,955.    Catamarca,  the  capital,  lies 
82  miles  N..E.  of  Rioja. 

Catamount,  the  North  American 
tiger. 

Catanduanes,  a  small  island  in 
the  Philippine  archipelago,  E.  of  Lu- 
zon, about  90  miles  long  and  50  miles 
wide.  It  is  mountainous  and  said  to 
have  rich  gold  deposits.  Pop.  (1903) 
39,288,  all  civilized. 

Catania,  a  city  on  the  E.  coast  of 
Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Catania,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Etna.  It  has  been 
repeatedly  visited  by  tremendous 
earthquakes,  one  of  the  worst  of  which 
was  in  1093,  when  18,000  people  were 
destroyed.  Pop.  (1915)  217,389. 

Catapult,  a  machine  of  the  an- 
cients for  projecting  missiles,  chiefly 
Arrows.  They  may  be  described  as  a 
kind  of  gigantic  cross-bows. 

Cataract,  in  medicine,  an  opacity 
of  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye,  or  of 
its  capsule,  or  both.  In  cataract  the 
lens  becomes  opaque,  loses  its  trans- 
parency, and  is  no  longer  capable  of 
transmitting  the  light.  The  causes  of 
cataract  are  numerous.  The  treat- 
ment of  cataract  is  by  a  surgical  oper- 
ation on  the  eye,  and  different  opera- 
tions have  been  tried  and  recommend- 
ed. They  all  consist  in  removing  the 
diseased  lens  from  its  situation  oppo- 
site the  transparent  cornea. 

Cataract,  in  geography,  a  water- 
fall, called  in  America  briefly  "  falls." 
Many  cataracts  are  remarkable  for 
their  sublimity,  the  grandest  be'ng  the 
Falls  of  Niagara,  on  the  Niagara 
river,  between  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario. The  river,  more  than  a  mile 
above  the  falls,  is  divided  by  Grand 
and  Navy  islands,  and  has  a  gradual 
descent  of  57  feet  from  this  place. 
The  banks  preserve  the  level  of  the 
country,  and  in  some  parts  rise  100 
feet  from  the  water.  At  the  falls  the 
river  is  %  of  a  mile  broad,  and  the 
precipice  which  breaks  its  course 
curves  irregularly  so  as  to  form  nearly 
a  semicircle  on  the  Canadian  side,  but 
is  straighter  on  the  American  side.  An 
island,  called  Goat  island,  divides  the 
cataract  into  two  principal  portions  — 
the  American  fall  on  the  E.  and  the 
Horseshoe  on  the  W.,  or  Canada  side. 
The  American  fall  descends  almost 
perpendicularly  from  a  height  of  162 
feet,  and  is  about  1,000  feet  in  width. 


Cataract 

The  Horseshoe  fall  is  4  feet  less  in 
height,  but  is  wider  and  surpasses  the 
other  much  in  grandeur.  The  water 
rushes  over  the  precipice  with  such 
force  that  it  forms  a  curled  sheet, 
which  strikes  the  river  below  50  feet 
from  the  base  of  the  precipice,  and  vis- 
itors can  pass  behind  the  falling  sheet 
of  water. 

The  Montmorency  river,  which  joins 
the  St.  Lawrence  a  few  miles  below 
Quebec,  forms  a  magnificent  cataract, 
250  feet  in  height.  The  Missouri,  in 
the  upper  part  of  its  course,  descends 
357  feet  in  16*£  miles.  There  are  four 
cataracts,  one  of  87,  one  of  19,  one  of 
47,  and  one  of  26  feet  in  height.  The 
Yosemite  river,  in  California,  forms  a 
series  of  magnificent  falls,  with  a  total 
descent  of  2,600  feet.  The  first  of 
them  is  a  plungfe  of  1,500  feet,  and  is 
followed,  after  a  series  of  beautiful 
cascades,  by  a  final  plunge  of  about 
400  feet.  Fully  200  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Hamilton  river  in  Lab- 
rador there  is  a  magnificent  series  of 
cataracts  known  as  the  Grand  Falls, 
the  largest  cataract  having  a  height  of 
over  300  feet.  In  the  republic  of  Co- 
lombia, South  America,  a  magnificent 
cataract,  called  that  of  Tequendama, 
is  formed  by  the  Bogota  river.  The 
river  precipitates  itself  through  a  nar- 
row chasm,  about  36  feet  broad,  to 
the  depth  of  over  600  feet.  On  the 
Potaro  river  in  British  Guiana,  is  a 
grand  fall  known  as  the  Kaieteur  Fall, 
740  feet  high,  and  about  370  broad,  a 
second  fall  of  88  feet  occurring  imme- 
diately below  the  principal  one. 

The  most  remarkable  waterfall  of 
Africa  is  a  cataract  on  the  Zambesi 
ailed  Victoria  Falls.  The  stream, 
about  1,860  yards  broad,  flowing  over 
a  bed  of  basaltic  rock,  is  suddenly  pre- 
ipitated  into  a  tremendous  fissure  to 
the  depth  of  about  370  feet.  The 
Breadth  of  this  fissure  or  crack  is  only 
from  80  to  90  yards,  and  the  pent-up 
waters  are  then  hurried  through  a 
prolongation  of  the  chasm  to  the  left 
with  furious  violence.  The  so-called 
!ataracts  of  the  Nile  are  not,  properly 
speaking,  cataracts.  A  more  correct 
designation  for  them  would  be  "  rap- 
"ds."  The  Stanley  Falls  on  the  Kon- 
jo  comprise  seven  cataracts.  On  the 
Tugela  river,  in  Natal,  there  are  the 
Tugela  Falls.  On  the  Umgeni  river, 
"n  the  same  country,  are  the  falls  of 


Catarrh. 

the  Great  Umgeni  (304  feet)  and  the 
Kar  Kloof  Falls  (350).  There  seem 
to  be  no  waterfalls  of  more  note  in 
Asia  than  those  of  the  Cavery  river 
of  India. 

One  of  the  grandest  falls  in  Europe 
is  that  of  the  Ruikanfoss  ( "  smoking 
fall"),  on  the  Maan  river,  in  Nor- 
way. The  height  of  the  cataract  is  805 
feet.  In  Sweden,  on  the  Gotha  river, 
a  few  miles  below  its  outlet  from 
Lake  Wener,  are  the  celebrated  falls 
of  Trollhatta,  which  have  a  height  of 
over  100  feet.  The  cascade  of  Gavar- 
nie,  in  the  Pyrenees,  is  reputed  the 
loftiest  in  Europe,  being  over  1,300 
feet  in  height.  Its  volume  of  water, 
however,  is  so  small  that  it  is  con- 
verted into  spray  before  reaching  the 
bottom  of  the  fall.  Another  water 
fall  in  the  Pyrenees  is  that  of  Secu- 
lejo,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bagneres- 
de-Luchon.  It  ascends  from  the  Lac 
d'Espingo,  into  the  Lac  -de  Seculejo, 
or  d'Oo,  a  singularly  romantic  moun- 
tain reservoir,  from  a  height  of  820 
feet,  and  is  the  most  copious  of  the 
Pyrenean  waterfalls.  The  Swiss  Alps 
likewise  contain  some  falls  of  great 
sublimity. 

Catarrh,  a  running  or  discharge 
which  takes  place  from  the  various 
outlets  of  the  body. 

Cat  Bird,  a  species  of  American 
thrush,  which  during  the  summer  is 
found  throughout  the  Middle  and  New 
England  States,  frequenting  thickets 
and  shrubberies.  Its  note  is  striking- 
ly similar  to  the  plaint  of  a  kitten  in 
distress.  The  plumage  is  a  deep  slate- 
color  above  and  lighter  below,  and  it 
is  about  9  inches  in  length.  During 
the  winter  it  inhabits  the  extreme  S. 
of  the  United  States.  The  cat  bird 
frequently  attacks  the  common  black 
snake,  which,  in  the  absence  of  the 
bird,  rifles  its  nest. 

Catechism,  any  compendious  sys- 
tem of  teaching  drawn  up  in  the  form 
of  question  and  answer.  The  first 
Christian  catechisms  are  said  to  have 
been  composed  in  the  8th  or  9th  cen- 
tury. Luther  published  a  short  cate* 
chism  in  1520,  and  his  larger  and 
smaller  ones  in  1529.  The  Geneva 
Catechism  was  sent  forth  in  1536.  The 
Church  of  England  Catechism  was  first 
published  in  1549  or  1551,  but  in  a 
shorter  form  than  now.  The  cate- 
chism of  the  "  orthodox "  Greek 


Catharine 

Church  was  published  in  1542.  In 
1566  the  Council  of  Trent  produced  a 
catechism ;  the  Rakovian  Catechism, 
wjiich  is  Socinian,  was  put  forth  in 
1574,  and  the  shorter  and  larger  cate- 
chisms of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
of  Divines  appeared,  the  former  in 
1647,  and  the  latter  in  1648.  Cate- 
chisms of  other  sects  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

Catechu,  a  gum,  is  soluble  in 
water ;  on  exposure  to  the  air  the  so- 
lution turns  red.  Catechu  has  been 
used  to  prevent  the  formation  of  boiler 
incrustations. 

Catechumen,  he  who  learns  the 
elements  of  any  science ;  one  who  is 
undergoing  a  course  of  religious  in- 
struction with  a  view  to  his  admission 
into  the  Church. 

Caterpillar,  the  larvae  of  butter- 
flies, moths,  and  hawk-moths. 

Cat-fish,,  the  sea-wolf,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indian  seas,  so  called  from 
its  round  head  and  large,  glaring  eyes ; 
also  a  fresh-water  fish  of  different  spe- 
cies, the  common  cat-fish,  called  also 
horned  pout,  and  bull-head. 

Cat-gut,  the  name  given  to  the 
material  of  which  the  strings  of  many 
musical  instruments  are  formed.  It  is 
made  from  the  intestines  of  the  sheep, 
and  sometimes  from  those  of  the  horse, 
but  never  from  those  of  the  cat. 

Cathari,  a  name  akin  to  "  Puri- 
tans," applied  at  different  times  to 
various  sects  of  Christians.  It  be- 
came a  common  appellation  of  several 
sects  which  first  appeared  in  the  llth 
century  in  Lqmbardy  and  other  coun- 
tries, and  which  were  violently  perse- 
cuted for  their  tenets  and  usages. 
They  had  many  other  local  names. 
The  Cathari  proper  held  a  community 
of  goods,  abstained  from  war,  mar- 
riage, and  the  killing  of  animals,  and 
rejected  water  baptism. 

Catharine  I.,  Empress  of  Russia. 
The  early  history  of  this  remarkable 
woman  is  uncertain.  According  to 
some  accounts  she  was  the  daughter 
of  a  Swedish  officer  named  Rabe,  who 
died  shortly  after  she  was  born ;  ac- 
cording to  others  her  father  was  a 
Catholic  peasant  in  Lithuania,  by 
name  Samuel.  It  is  said  that  she  was 
born  in  1686,  named  Martha,  and 
placed  by  her  parents  in  the  service 
of  a  Lutheran  clergyman.  She  re- 


Catharine 

moved  to  Marienburg,  and  entered  the 
service  of  a  clergyman  named  Gluek, 
who  caused  her  to  be  instructed  in  the 
Lutheran  religion.  Here  she  was  mar- 
ried to  a  Swedish  dragoon.  But  a  few 
days  after  he  was  obliged  to  repair  to 
the  field,  and  the  Russians,  within  a 
short  period,  took  Marienburg  in  1702. 
Martha  fell  into  the  hands  of  General 
Tcheremetieff,  who  relinquished  her  to 
Prince  Menzikoff.  While  in  his  pos- 
session she  was  seen  by  Peter  the 
Great,  who  made  her  his  mistress.  She 
became  a  proselyte  to  the  Greek 
Church,  and  assumed  the  name  of 
Catharine  Alexiewna.  In  1712  the  em- 
peror publicly  acknowledged  Catharine 
as  his  wife.  Upon  the  death  of  Peter 
she  was  proclaimed  empress  and  auto- 
crat of  all  the  Russias.  Catharine  died 
suddenly  on  May  17,  1727,  in  the  42d 
year  of  her  age. 

Catharine  II.,  Empress  of  Russia ; 
born  in  Stettin,  May  2,  1729,  where 
her  father,  Christian  Augustus,  Prince 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  and  Prussian  field- 
marshal,  was  governor.  The  empress 
Elizabeth  of  Russia,  daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  Catharine  I.,  selected 
her  for  wife  of  Peter,  her  nephew 
and  heir,  and  the  marriage  took 
place,  September  1,  1745.  It  was 
not  a  happy  one.  Among  the  friends 
of  her  husband  Count  Soltikoff  was 
distinguished  for  talent  and  the  graces 
of  his  person.  He  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Catharine,  and  an  intimate  con- 
nection between  them  was  the  conse- 
quence. When  Soltikoff  grew  indiffer- 
ent a  young  Pole,  Stanislaus  Augustus 
Poniatowski,  celebrated  both  for  his 
good  and  ill  fortune,  gained  the  affec- 
tions of  the  grand  princess.  Their  in- 
timacy was  known  to  the  empress,  but 
did  not  appear  to  displease  her ;  and  it 
was  at  her  recommendation  that  Au- 
gustus III.  appointed  Poniatowski  his 
ambassador  at  the  court  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. This  connection  created  alarm 
at  Paris.  In  January,  1762,  Elizabeth 
died,  and  Peter  III.  ascended  the 
throne.  The  emperor  now  became  still 
more  alienated  from  his  wife.  Peter 
lived  in  the  greatest  dissipation,  and 
on  such  intimate  terms  with  a  lady  of 
the  court,  named  Elizabeth  Woronzoff, 
that  it  was  generally  thought  that  he 
would  repudiate  Catharine  and  marry 
his  mistress.  Peter  was  imprisoned 
and  murdered  by  the  Orloffs,  and  Cath- 


Catharine 

arine  became  empress.  A  fit  of  apo- 
plexy ended  her  life  on  Nov.  17,  1796. 
Apart  from  her  debauchery  she  was 
an  enlightened  and  progressive  ruler, 
and  deserves  to  be  remembered  grate- 
fully by  Americans  for  having  refused 
to  sell  her  subjects  to  George  III.  to 
fight  in  the  Revolution. 

Catharine  de'  Medici,  wife  of 
Henry  II.,  King  of  France ;  born  in 
Florence  in  1519,  the  only  daughter  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Duke  of  Urbino, 
and  the  niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII. 
Francis  I.  consented  that  his  son 
Henry  should  marry  her  only  because 
he  did  not  believe  she  ever  would 
ascend  the  throne,  and  because  he  was 
in  great  want  of  money,  with  which 
Lorenzo  could  furnish  him.  The  mar- 
riage was  celebrated  at  Marseilles  in 
1533.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew was  her  work.  She  had  two 
daughters,  Elizabeth,  married  to  Philip 
II.  of  Spain -in  1559,  and  Margaret  of 
Valois,  married  to  Henry  of  Navarre, 
afterward  Henry  IV.  She  died  in 
1589. 

Catharine  of  Arragon,  Queen  of 
England,  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  of  Arragon  and  Isabella  of 
Castile;  born  in  1483  or  1485.  In 
1501  she  was  married  to  Arthur, 
Prince  of  Wales.  Her  husband  dying 
about  five  months  after,  the  king 
caused  her  to  be  contracted  to  his  re- 
maining son,  Henry,  and  a  dispensa- 
tion was  procured  from  the  Pope  for 
that  purpose.  In  his  15th  year  the 
prince  made  a  public  protest  against 
the  marriage;  but  yielding  to  the  rep- 
resentations of  his  council,  he  con- 
sented to  ratify  the  contract,  and  on 
his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1509 
was  crowned  with  her.  The  want  of 
male  issue  proved  a  source  of  disquie- 
tude to  him,  and  scruples,  real  or  pre- 
tended, at  length  arose  in  his  mind 
concerning  the  legality  of  their  union, 
which  were  enforced  by  a  growing  pas- 
sion for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of  the 
queen's  maids  of  honor.  He  made  ap- 
plication to  Rome  for  a  divorce  from 
Catharine.  An  encouraging  answer 
was  returned,  and  a  dispensation 
promised.  Overawed,  however,  by  the 
power  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V., 
Catharine's  nephew,  the  conduct  of  the 
pontiff  became  embarrassed  and  hesi- 
tating. Catharine  could  not  be  in- 
duced to  consent  to  an  act  which 


Catharine 

would  render  her  daughter  illegiti- 
mate. Being  cited  before  the  papal 
legates,  Cardinals  Wolsey  and  Cam- 
peggio,  she  declared  that  she  would 
not  submit  her  cause  to  their  judg- 
ment, but  appealed  to  the  court  of 
Rome.  The  subterfuges  of  the  Pope 
induced  the  king  to  decide  the  affair 
for  himself ;  and  the  resentment  ex- 
pressed on  this  occasion  by  the  court 
of  Rome  provoked  him  to  throw  off  his 
submission  to  it,  and  declare  himself 
head  of  the  English  Church  —  an  act 
of  royal  caprice  more  important  than 
most  in  history.  In  1532  he  married 


r 


Cathedral 

married  Charles  II.,  but  her  hus- 
band's infidelities  and  neglect,  and  her 
childlessness  were  a  source  of  mortifi- 
cation to  her.  In  1693  she  returned  to 
Portugal,  where,  in  1704,  she  was 
made  regent,  and  in  the  conduct  of 
affairs  during  the  war  with  Spain 
showed  marked  ability.  She  died  in 
1705. 

Cathartic,  having  the  property  or 
power  of  cleasing  the  bowels  by  pro- 
moting the  evacuations  of  excrements, 
etc.,  purgative. 

Cathedral.  The  principal  church 
of  a  diocese,  and  the  Cathedral  city  is 


CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  JOHN  THE 

Anne  Boleyn ;  upon  which  Catharine 
retired  to  Ampthill.  Cranmer,  now 
raised  to  the  primacy,  pronounced  the 
sentence  of  divorce.  She  died  in 
January,  1536.  Shortly  before  her 
death  she  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king, 
recommending  their  daughter  (after- 
ward Queen  Mary)  to  his  protection, 
praying  for  the  salvation  of  his  soul, 
and  assuring  him  of  hei'  forgiveness 
and  unabated  affection. 

Catharine  of  Braganza,  wife  of 
Charles  II.,  King  of  England,  and 
daughter  of  John  IV.,  King  of  Portu- 
gal, was  born  in  1638.  In  1662  she 


DIVIDE,    NTW    TOBY    CITY. 

the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
and  his  throne  is  placed  in  the  Cathe- 
dral church,  which  is  the  parish 
church  of  the  whole  diocese.  The  dis- 
tinction between  Cathedral  and  colle- 
giate churches  consists  principally  in 
the  see  of  the  bishop  being  at  the  for- 
mer. The  governing  body  of  a  Cathe- 
dral is  called  the  dean  and  chapter. 
St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  is  unequaled  hi 
magnitude  and  splendor  by  any  other 
Christian  fane  in  the  world.  St. 
Peter's  was  begun  in  1503,  and  was 
consecrated  in  1626.  Milan  Cathedral 
was  commenced  in  1387,  but  is  still 


Cathedral  Peak 


Catorce 


unfinished.  The  Duomo,  Florence,  was 
begun  in  1298,  and  was  finished  in 
1444.  The  Cathedral  at  Cologne  was 
begun  in  the  middle  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  only  partly  finished  in  1509, 
after  which  work  was  not  resumed  on 
it  till  1830.  In  1863  the  interior  was 
thrown  open  to  the  public.  In  1880 
it  was  finished.  The  Cathedral  at 
Strasburg  was  completed  in  1601,  and 
is  one  of  the  grandest  Gothic  struc- 
tures in  Europe.  Notre  Dame,  Paris, 
was  begun  about  1163.  St.  Paul's, 
London  (the  present  edifice,  the  first 
having  been  destroyed  in  the  great  fire 
of  1666),  was  begun  in  1675,  and  was 
finished  in  1710.  It  is  built  in  the 
form  of  a  Latin  cross.  The  Cathedral 
of  Mexico  was  begun  in  1573,  and  was 
finished  in  1667.  The  Cathedral  of 
St.  John  the  Divine  (P.  B.),  in  New 
York,  will,  when  completed,  be  the 
most  splendid  structure  of  the  kind  on 
this  continent. 

Cathedral  Peak,  a  peak  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Range,  situated  in 
Mariposa  county,  Cal.  Height,  11,000 
feet 

Catherine  Harbor,  a  Russian 
port  in  the  far  N.  on  the  Murman 
poast  of  the  Kola  peninsula.  It  was 
formally  opened  in  1900,  the  city  hav- 
ing been  built  by  imperial  command. 

Catheter,  a  term  applied  in  sur- 
gery to  a  tube,  usually  of  silver  or  in- 
dia-rubber, which  is  introduced  into 
the  bladder  through  the  urethra,  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  off  the  urine 
when  it  cannot  be  discharged  in  the 
natural  way. 

Catholic  Benevolent  Union,  an 
organization  of  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  United  States,  founded  in  1881  as 
a  fraternal  and  protective  order. 

Catholic  Church,  the  universal 
Church,  the  whole  body  of  true  be- 
lievers in  Christ ;  but  the  term  is  often 
used  as  equivalent  to  the  Roman  or 
Papal  Church. 

Catholic  Epistles,  the  epistles  in 
the  New  Testament  addressed  not  to 
individual  men  or  to  individual 
churches,  but  to  the  general  body  of 
Christians.  They  are  James,  I  and  II 
Peter,  I  John  and  Jude. 

Catholic  Knights  of  America, 
an  organization  of  Roman  Catholics 
in  the  United  States,  founded  in  1887 
as  a  fraternal  and  protective  order. 


Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, an  institution  in  Washington,  D. 
C.,  founded  in  1889,  under  the  auspi- 
ces of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  for 
postgraduate  study  exclusively. 

Catiline  (Lucius  Sergins  Cati- 
lina),  a  Roman  conspirator;  born 
about  108  B.  c.  Disappointed  in  his 
ambition  he  plotted  a  massacre  of  his 
political  antagonists,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Republic.  Cicero 
exposed  ^the  conspiracy,  and  executed 
the  leading  conspirators,  except  Cati- 
line, who  fell  in  battle,  January  5,  62 
B.  C.,  together  with  his  whole  army. 

Cat  Island,  or  Gnanahani,  an 
island  of  the  Bahama  group  for  cen- 
turies supposed  to  be  identical  with 
the  San  Salvador  of  Columbus,  a  sur- 
mise now  disproved.  Length,  36 
miles;  breadth,  3  to  7  miles;  popula- 
tion, 2,378. 

Catlin,  George,  an  American  au- 
thor and  painter,  born  in  Wilkes- 
barre,  Pa.,  June  26,  1796.  From  1832 
till  1839  he  traveled  and  lived  among 
the  Indians  of  America,  of  whom  he 
painted  hundreds  of  portraits.  He  died 
in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1872. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcins,  a  great 
Roman  statesman,  called  (to  distin- 
guish him  from  the  censor,  his  great 
grandfather)  Cato  of  Utica,  the  place 
of  his  death;  born  95  B.  c.  He  op- 
posed Caesar,  and  upon  the  triumph 
of  the  latter,  he  killed  himself  at 
Utica,  Africa,  46  B.  C. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcins,  the  Cen- 
sor, surnamed  Priscus;  born  in  Tus- 
culum,  234  B.  C.  He  served  his  first 
campaign,  at  the  age  of  17,  under 
Fabius  Maximus,  when  he  beseiged 
Capua.  Five  years  after  he  fought 
under  the  same  commander  at  the 
siege  of  Tarentum.  After  the  capture 
of  this  city  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  Pythagorean  Nearchus,  who  ini- 
tiated him  into  the  suLlime  doctrines 
of  his  philosophy,  with  which,  in  prac- 
tice, he  was  already  conversant.  After 
tie  war  was  ended  Cato  returned  to 
his  farm.  Cato  was  poor  and  un- 
known ;  but  his  eloquence  and  the  in- 
tegrity and  strength  of  his  character, 
soon  drew  the  public  attention  to  him, 
and  he  was  chosen  to  the  highest  of- 
fices. He  died  in  149  B.  c. 

Catorce,  a  mining  town  of  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  which  received  its 


ABERDEEN  ANGU3 


DUTCH  9ELTEO 


COPYRIGHT,    191U,    BY    F.    E.    WRIG.lT 

STANDARD      CATTLE 


Catskill  Mountains 


Caucus 


name,  signifying  14,  from  a  gang  of 
robbers,  formerly  a  constant  menace 
to  its  inhabitants.  When  the  French 
invaded  Mexico,  a  mint  was  started 
here,  and  worked  until  1867.  The 
amount  coined  was  about  $52,000,000. 
The  population  is  variable,  ranging 
from  8,000  to  15,000,  according  to  the 
state  of  mining. 

Catskill  Mountains,  a  chain  of 
the  Appalachian  system,  beginning  in 
Greene  county,  N.  Y.,  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  Hudson  river.  The  scenery  of 
these  mountains  is  remarkably  pic- 
turesque and  beautiful,  while  from  the 
higher  points  may  be  seen  extensive 
and  interesting  views,  taking  in  a  rad- 
ius from  the  Green  Mountains  of  Ver- 
mont to  the  West  Point  Highlands. 

Cattegat,  or  Kattegat,  the  bay 
or  arm  of  the  sea  between  the  E.  coast 
of  Jutland  and  the  W.  coast  of 
Sweden,  to  the  N.  of  the  Danish  is- 
lands. It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic 
Sea  by  the  Great  and  Little  Belt,  and 
by  the  Sound,  and  the  Skager  Rack 
connects  it  with  the  North  Sea.  The 
length  of  the  Cattegat  is  about  150 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breath  85 
miles.  What  has  been  pronounced  the 
greatest  naval  battle  in  history  was 
fought  here  on  May  31  and  June  1, 
1916,  between  the  German  High  Sea 
Fleet,  that  for  a  long  time  had  been 
inactive  at  Kiel,  and  the  British 
Grand  Fleet,  which  included  the  Brit- 
ish Battle  Cruiser  Squadron.  The  lat- 
ter was  first  engaged,  and  when  its 
support  rushed  into  sight  the  German 
ships  that  were  left  returned  hurriedly 
to  Kiel.  The  British  losses  were 
three  battle  cruisers,  two  armored 
cruisers  and  eight  destroyers.  The 
German  losses  were  reported  as  three 
battleships,  five  light  cruisers,  six  tor- 
pedo boat  destroyers,  and  one  subma- 
rine. 

Cattel,  James  McKeen,  an 
American  psychologist,  born  in  Easton, 
Pa.,  May  25,  1860,  graduated  at  La- 
fayette College  and  studied  at  Leipsic, 
Paris,  Geneva,  and  Gottingen,  and  be- 
came Professor  of  Experimental  Psy- 
chology in  Columbia  University,  1891. 

Catubig,  a  small  town  in  the  island 
of  Samar,  Philippine  Islands.  The 
place  is  garrisoned  by  United  States 
troops,  who,  in  June,  1900,  withstood 


an  attack  by  600  insurgents.  Pop. 
(1903)  9,563. 

Catullus,  Valerius  (whose  •pras- 
nomen  is  stated  by  some  to  be  Caius, 
by  other  Quintus),  a  famous  Roman 
poet ;  born  86  B.  c.  The  common  opin- 
ion is  that  he  died  57  B.  c.,  in  the  30th 
year  of  his  age,  but  this  is  no  doubt 
erroneous,  as  there  are  allusions  in  his 
own  works  which  prove  him  to  have 
been  alive  in  the  consulship  of  Vatin- 
ius  as  late  as  47  B.  c. 

Catnlns,  Quintus  Lutatius.  a 
Roman  general,  historian,  and  poet, 
born  about  152  B.  c.,  died  8.  B.  c. 

Cauca,  a  river  of  Colombia,  in 
South  America,  which,  after  a  N. 
course  of  600  miles,  falls  into  the  Mag- 
dalena.  Its  valley  is  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  populous  districts  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  it  gives  name  to  the  second 
largest  Colombian  State ;  area,  20,- 
403  square  miles;  population  (1912) 
211,756.  It  possesses  the  most  pro- 
ductive platinum  mine  in  America. 
Capital,  Popayan ;  pop.  18,724. 

Caucasia,  a  province  of  the  Rus- 
sian Empire,  between  the  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas,  and  extending  from  the 
frontier  of  Persia  on  the  S.  to  the 
Kuma-Manych  depression  on  the  N. 
The  Caucasus  Mountains  divide  the 
territory  into  Cis-caucasia  and  Trans- 
caucasia. The  total  area  of  Caucasia, 
the  two  parts  being  nearly  equal,  is 
181,173  square  miles,  and  the  popula- 
tion, in  1914,  Trans-caucasia  being  the 
most  thickly  settled,  12,921,800. 

Caucasian  Race,  the  white  man, 
one  of  the  three  more  remarkable  va- 
rieties of  the  species  Man,  the  two 
others  being  the  Yellow,  or  Mongolian, 
and  the  Black,  or  Ethiopian.  The 
Caucasian  Race  occupies  all  Europe 
and  Western  Asia  as  far  as  the  Gan- 
ges, likewise  Northern  Africa  and  the 
greater  part  of  America. 

Caucasus,  a  chain  of  mountains  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  extending 
from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  and  occupying 
the  isthmus  between  the  Black  and 
Caspian  seas.  The  length  is  computed 
at  700  miles,  the  breadth  is  various; 
from  Mosdok  to  Tiflis  it  may  be  esti- 
mated at  184  miles. 

Caucus,  in  the  political  nomencla- 
ture of  the  United  States,  a  gathering 
preliminary  to  a  public  meeting  of 


Candex 

citizens  for  election  or  for  other  pur- 
poses, generally  political. 

Candex,  in  botany,  the  stem  of  a 
tree,  more  especially  the  scaly  trunk 
of  palms  and  tree-ferns. 

Caudine  Forks,  a  pass  of  South- 
ern Italy,  in  the  form  of  two  lofty 
fork-shaped  defiles,  in  the  Apennines 
(now  called  the  valley  of  Arpaia), 
Into  which  a  Roman  army  was  enticed 
by  the  Samnites,  321  B.  c.,  and  being 
hemmed  in  was  forced  to  surrender. 

Caul,  a  popular  name  for  a  mem- 
brane investing  the  viscera,  such  as  the 
peritoneum  or  part  of  it,  or  the  peri- 
cardium ;  also  a  portion  of  the  amnion 
or  membrane  enveloping  the  fetus, 
sometimes  encompassing  the  head  of  a 
child  when  born. 

Cauliflower,  an  esculent  vegetable 
for  which  a  very  rich,  light,  warm  soil 
is  required.  The  Cauliflower  is  light, 
easily  digested,  and  nutritious. 

Caulking,  of  a  ship,  driving  a 
quantity  of  oakum  into  the  seams  of 
the  planks  in  the  ships'  decks  or  sides 
in  order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of 
water.  After  the  oakum  is  driven 
very  hard  into  these  seams  'it  is  cov- 
ered with  hot  melted  pitch  to  keep  the 
water  from  rotting  it. 

Canra,  a  river  of  Venezuela,  rises 
among  the  sierras  of  the  frontier,  and 
flows  N.  N.  W.  to  the  Orinoco.  On 
both  sides  stretches  the  territory  of 
Caura  (22,485  square  miles-),  with  im- 
mense forests  of  tonka  beans. 

Cans,  Canlx,  or  Canls,  Salomon 
de,  a  French  engineer,  born  in  Dieppe 
in  1576.  At  Frankfort,  in  1615,  ap- 
peared his  "Causes  of  Kinetic  En- 
ergy." which  contains  a  description  of 
a  machine  for  forcing  water  to  a  high 
level  by  steam,  being  the  forerunner  of 
the  modern  steam  engine.  He  died  in 
Paris,  June  6,  1626. 

Canse,  that  which  produces  an 
effect.  In  law,  suit  or  action. 

Caustic,  a  name  given  to  substances 
which  have  the  property  of  burning, 
corroding,  or  disintegrating  animal 
matter;  or  of  combining  with  the 
principles  of  organized  substances  and 
destroying  their  texture. 

Cantin, a  river  in  Chile:  flows  W. 
through  a  province  named  after  it, 
nnd  empties  into  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Its  length  is  about  200  miles.  The 


Cavaignao 

province  of  Cautin  has  an  area  of 
3,127  square  miles ;  pop.  78,221 ;  capi- 
tal, Temuco;  pop.  7,078. 

Cautionary  Towns,  four  towns 
in  Holland  (the  Uriel,  Flushing,  Ram- 
mekins,  and  Walcheren),  so  named  be- 
cause they  were  given  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth in  1585  as  security  for  their  re- 
paying her  for  assistance  in  their 
struggle  with  Spain.  They  were  re- 
stored to  Holland  by  James  I. 

Cavaignac,  Jacqnes  Marie  En- 
gene  Godefroy,  a  French  politician, 
son  of  Louis  Eugene  Cavaignac,  born 
Way  22,  1853.  In  August,  1898,  he 
added  to  the  excitement  over  the  Drey- 
fus prosecution  by  forcing  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Henry  to  confess  to  a  forgery 
of  certain  letters  bearing  on  the  case, 
that  officer  committing  suicide  shortly 
after.  C.  died  Sept.  25,  1905. 

Cavaignac,  Louis  Eugene,  a 
French  general  who  became  famous  in 
connection  with  the  events  of  1848; 
born  in  Paris,  Oct.  15,  1802.  Cavaig- 
nac was  in  Africa  when  the  revolution 
of  February,  1848,  took  place.  He 
was  offered  the  portfolio  of  the  minis- 
ter of  war,  and  accepted  it.  The  meas- 
ures which  he  adopted  to  guard  against 
the  crisis  which  was  evidently  ap- 

? reaching  were  prompt  and  decisive, 
n  a  few  days  an  army  of  nearly  30,- 
000  men  was  assembled  in  and  around 
Paris.  On  June  23  the  terrible  Com- 
munist insurrection  burst  forth,  and 
for  three  days  Paris  presented  the 
most  dreadful  scene  of  tumult  and 
bloodshed  which  had  been  witnessed 
there  since  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. About  15,000  persons  per- 
ished, and  property  was  destroyed  to 
the  value  of  upward  of  $1,000,000.  By 
the  energy  of  General  Cavaignac,  aided 
by  the  loyalty  of  the  army  and  the  na- 
tional guard,  the  insurrection  was  sup- 
pressed on  June  26.  On  that  day  the 
National  Assembly  delegated  the  en- 
tire executive  power  to  Cavaignac  as 
dictator,  who  resigned  it  again  into 
its  hands  on  the  29th,  and  received  it 
anew  on  the  same  day.  He  was  de- 
feated in  the  elections  for  the  presi- 
dencv  hi  the  month  of  December  fol- 
lowing, and  Louis  Napoleon  was  pre- 
ferred to  the  office.  On  Dec.  20  he  re- 
signed his  dictatorship.  The  last  years 
of  his  life  were  spent  at  his  country- 
seat,  where  he  expired  suddenly  of 
heart  disease  on  Oct.  28,  1857. 


Cavaille-Coll 


Cavendish 


Cavaille-Coll,  Aristide,  a  French 
organ  builder,  born  in  Montpelier,  Feb. 
2,  1811.  He  invented  the  pressure 
method  ror  sounding  tones  of  different 
depths  and  heights.  He  died  in  Paris, 
Oct.  13,  1899. 

Cavalier, a  horse-soldier;  an  armed 
horseman ;  a  knight ;  the  name  given 
to  the  supporters  of  King  Charles  L, 
during  the  Great  Civil  War  in  Eng- 
land. 

Cavalier,  Jean,  a  leader  of  the 
Camisards,  or  Protestants  of  Cevennes, 
•when  forced  into  rebellion  against 
Louis  XIV.,  by  the  persecutions  of  the 
Catholics,  born  in  Cevennes,  1679.  He 
defeated  the  best  generals  that  came 
against  him,  and  compelled  Marshal  de 
Villars  to  make  a  treaty  with  him.  He 
died  in  1740. 

Cavalotti,  Felice,  an  Italian 
statesman,  born  in  Milan,  Nov.  6, 
1842.  He  fought  under  Garibaldi  and 
gained  celebrity ;  was  a  political  jour- 
nalist. He  fought  32  duels,  in  the  last 
of  which  he  was  killed  in  Rome, 
March  6,  1898. 

Cavalry,  one  of  the  three  great 
classes  of  troops.  The  use  of  cavalry 
is  probably  nearly  as  ancient  as  war 
itself ;  but  some  nations  used  chariots 
in  war  before  they  became  accustomed 
to  fight  on  horseback.  The  Egyptians 
are  said  to  have  had  cavalry  before  the 
time  of  Moses.  The  Israelites  often 
had  to  encounter  cavalry,  but  had  none 
themselves  till  the  time  of  Solomon. 
Cavalry  are  usually  armed  with 
straight  swords  or  sabers,  pistols,  and 
carbines.  In  the  United  States  army 
a  cavalry  regiment  consists  of  six 
squadrons  of  two  troops  or  companies, 
containing  63  men  each. 

Cave,  or  Cavern,  an  opening  pro- 
duced by  nature  in  the  solid  crust  of 
the  earth.  Caves  are  principally  met 
with  in  limestone  rocks,  in  gypsum, 
sometimes  in  sandstone,  and  in  vol- 
canic rocks  (basalt,  lava,  tufa,  etc.). 

The  most  celebrated  caverns  in  the 
United  States  are  Madison's  Cave,  in 
Rockingham  Co.,  Va. ;  Weyer's  Cave, 
in  the  same  county;  Luray  Cave,  in 
Page  Co.,  Va. ;  and  the  Mammoth 
Cave,  in  Edmondson  Co.,  Ky.,  which 
incloses  an  extent  of  about  40  miles  of 
subterraneous  windings.  One  of  its 
chambers,  called  the  Temple,  is  said  to 
cover"  a  space  of  nearly  5  acres,  and  to 


be  surmounted  by  a  dome  of  solid  rock 
120  feet  in  height.  The  Cumberland 
mountains,  in  Tennessee,  contain  some 
curious  caverns,  in  one  of  which,  at  a 
depth  of  400  feet,  a  stream  was  found 
with  a  current  sufficiently  powerful  to 
turn  a  mill.  Another  cave  in  the  same 
State  is  named  Big  Bone  Cave,  from 
the  bones  of  the  mastodon  which  have 
there  been  discovered.  In  the  Rac- 
coon mountains,  near  the  N.  W.  ex- 
tremity of  Georgia,  is  a  cave  called 
Nickojack  Cave,  which  has  been  ex- 
plored to  the  distance  of  3  miles.  A 
stream  of  considerable  size  runs 
through  it,  which  is  interrupted  by  a 
fall.  Caves  are  sometimes  found 
which  exhale  poisonous  vapors.  The 
most  remarkable  known  is  the  Grotto 
del  Cane,  a  small  cave  near  Naples. 
In  Iceland  there  are  many  caves, 
formed  by  the  lava  from  its  volcanoes. 
In  the  volcanic  country  near  Rome 
there  are  many  natural  cavities  of 
great  extent  and  coolness,  which  are 
sometimes  resorted  to  as  a  refuge  from 
the  heat.  In  South  America  is  the 
cavern  of  Guacharo,  which  is  said  to 
extend  for  leagues. 

Caveat.  In  the  United  States  this 
name  is  given  to  a  notice  lodged  in 
the  patent-office  by  a  person  who 
wishes  to  patent  an  invention,  but  de- 
sires to  be  protected  till  he  has  per- 
fected it.  It  stands  good  for  a  year. 

Cave  Dwellers,  prehistoric  men 
dwelling  in  caves,  and  cave-dwelling 
animals  of  corresponding  periods ;  also 
cave-dwelling  men  of  more  recent  his- 
toric times.  In  America,  caves  with 
human  remains  have  been  investigated 
in  a  number  of  States.  There  are  re- 
mains that  have  been  deposited  within 
the  period  of  authentic  history.  There 
are  still  cave-dwelling  Indians  in 
Northern  Mexico. 

Cavendish,  Frederick  Charles, 
Lord,  second  son  of  the  Duke  of  De- 
vonshire, an  English  statesman ;  born 
in  Eastbourne,  Nov.  30,  1836.  He  sat 
in  Parliament  from  1865  till  1882, 
when  he  succeeded  Mr.  Forster  as 
chief  secretary  for  Ireland.  On  May 
6,  he  and  Mr.  Burke  were  stabbed  to 
death  in  the  Phoenix  Park.  Eight 
months  later,  twenty  "Irish  Invinci- 
bles"  were  tried  for  the  murder,  and, 
Carey  and  two  others  having  turned 
Queen's  evidence,  five  of  the  rest  were 
hanged,  three  sentenced  to  penal  servi- 


Cavendish 

tude  for  life,  and  the  remaining  nine 
to  various  terms  of  imprisonment. 
Carey  disappeared ;  but  in  July  news 
came  from  the  Cape  that  he  had  been 
shot  dead  by  an  Irishman  .named 
O'Donnell.  O'Donnell  was  taken  back 
to  London  and  hanged. 

Cavendish,  or  Candish,  Thomas, 
an  English  circumnavigator  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth ;  born  about  1555. 
Having  collected  three  small  vessels  for 
the  purpose  of  making  a  predatory 
voyage  to  the  Spanish  colonies,  he 
sailed  from  Plymouth  in  1586,  took 
and  destroyed  many  vessels,  ravaged 
the  coasts  of  Chile,  Peru,  and  New 
Spain,  and  returned  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  having  circumnavigated 
the  globe  in  2  years  and  49  days,  the 
shortest  period  in  which  it  had  then 
been  effected.  In  1591  he  set  sail  on 
a  similar  expedition,  during  which  he 
died,  in  1592. 

Cave  Temple,  a  cave  used  as  a 
temple,  but  the  name  is  especially  ap- 
plied to  temples  excavated  in  the  solid 
rock. 

Caviare,  a  prepared  article  of  food 
consisting  of  the  salted  roes  of  several 
kinds  of  large  fish,  chiefly  of  the  com- 
mon sturgeon.  It  is  prepared  chiefly 
in  Russia,  where  it  is  greatly  esteemed 
as  food.  It  is  used  also  in  America. 

Cavite,  a  small  seaport  of  Luzon, 
Philippine  Islands;  about  11  miles  S. 
IW.  of  Manila  and  fronting  directly  on 
the  bay;  pop.  (1903)  4,494.  The  town 
dates  almost  from  the  first  occupa- 
tion of  the  Spaniards  and  was  elab- 
orately fortified  with  docks  and  arse- 
nals in  the  18th  century.  On  May  1, 
1898,  Admiral  Dewey  won  his  great 
victory  off  Cavit6.  The  Americans 
immediately  occupied  the  arsenal,  and 
upon  the  arrival  of  American  troops 
Cavite  was  fortified  and  made  a  naval 
and  military  base.  The  province  of 
the  same  name  has  an  area  of  2,188 
sauare  miles,-  DQD.  (1903)  134,779. 
""  Cavonr,  Count  Camillo  Benso 
di,  an  Italian  statesman,  born  in 
Turin,  Aug.  10,  1810.  He  became  a 
member  of  the  Sardinian  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1849.  In  1852  he  became 
premier,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
cementing  an  alliance  with  Great  Brit- 
ain and  France,  and  making  common 
cause  with  these  powers  against  Rus- 
sia during  the  Crimean  War.  This 


Caxias 

caused  a  war  with  Austria,  in  which 
Sardinia  was  aided  by  France  (1859). 
In  1860  Garibaldi's  expedition  to 
Sicily  took  place;  but  toward  this 
Count  Cavour  was  forced  to  maintain 
an  apparent  coldness.  He  lived  to  see 
the  meeting  of  the  first  Italian  Parlia- 
ment, which  decreed  Victor  Emman- 
uel king  of  Italy.  He  died  June  6, 
1861. 

Cavy,  a  genus  of  South  American 
rodents.  It  includes  the  guinea  pig. 
All  have  a  short  tail,  or  none  at  all, 
and  bear  a  slight  resemblance  to  a  pig. 

Cawnpnr,  a  town,  India,  North- 
west Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  which  is  here  about  a  mile 
wide,  130  miles  N.  W.  from  Allahabad, 
628  miles  N.  W.  of  Calcutta,  and  206 
miles  S.  E.  of  Delhi.  Pop.  (1911)  178,- 
557.  In  1857  the  native  regiments  sta- 
tioned here  mutinied  and  marched  off, 
placing  themselves  under  the  command 
of  the  notorious  Nana  Sahib.  General 
Wheeler,  the  commander  of  the  Euro- 
pean forces,  defended  his  position  for 
some  days,  but  was  induced  to  surren- 
der to  the  rebels  on  condition  of  his 
party  being  allowed  to  quit  the  place 
uninjured.  This  was  agreed  to ;  but 
after  the  European  troops,  with  the 
women  and  children,  had  been  em- 
barked in  boats  on  the  Ganges,  they 
were  treacherously  fired  on  by  the 
rebels ;  many  were  killed,  and  the  re- 
mainder conveyed'  back  to  the  city, 
where  the  men  were  massacred  and  the 
women  and  children  placed  in  confine- 
ment. The  approach  of  General  Hav- 
elock  to  Cawnpur  roused  the  brutal  in- 
stincts of  the  Nana,  and  he  ordered 
his  hapless  prisoners  to  be  slaughtered, 
and  their  bodies  to  be  thrown  into  a 
well.  The  following  day  he  was 
obliged  to  retreat  to  Bithoor. 

Caxamarca,  or  Cajamarca,  a  de- 
partment and  town  of  Peru ;  area  of 
the  department  12.538  square  miles; 
pop.  (1906,  est.)  333,310.  The  town 
is  situated  about  70  miles  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  280  N.  of  Lima.  Pop. 
10,000.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  im- 
prisonment and  murder  of  Atahualpa, 
the  last  of  the  Incas. 

Caxias,  (1),  a  town  of  Brazil,  in 
the  State  of  Maranhao,  on  the  navi- 
gable Itapicuru,  190  miles  from  its 
mouth,  with  an  active  trade  in  cotton. 
Pop.  10,000.  (2)  an  Italian  agricul- 


Cazton 

tural  colony  in  the  Brazilian  State  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  founded  in  1875. 
Pop.  13,680. 

Cazton,  William,  an  English 
printer  and  scholar,  born  in  the  Weald 
of  Kent,  about  1422.  His  "  Recuyell 
(collection)  of  the  Histories  of  Troy," 
translated  by  him  from  the  French, 
appears  to  have  been  printed  in  1474, 
most  probably  at  Bruges  in  Belgium. 
It  was  the  first  book  in  English  repro- 
duced by  typography.  He  set  up  a 
printing-office  in  Westminster,  1477 ; 
and  on  Nov.  18  of  that  year  issued 
"  The  Dictes  and  Sayings  of  the  Phil- 
osophers," folio,  a  work  ever  memor- 
able as  the  first  book  printed  in  Eng- 
land. He  printed  in  all  71  separate 
works.  He  died  in  1491. 

Cayenne,  a  fortified  seaport,  capi- 
tal of  French  Guiana,  on  an  island  at 
the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name. 
Cayenne  is  chiefly  known  as  a  great 
French  penal  settlement.  The  climate 
is  extremely  unwholesome  for  Euro- 
peans, large  numbers  of  the  convicts 
having  been  carried  off  by  various  ma- 
lignant fevers.  The  name  of  the  capi- 
tal is  sometimes  used  for  the  whole 
of  French  Guiana.  Pop.  13,527. 

Cayenne  Pepper,  or  Capsicum, 
the  name  given  to  the  powder  formed 
of  the  dried  and  ground  fruits,  and 
more  especially  the  seeds,  of  various 
species  of  Capsicum. 

Cayes,  or  Aux  Cayes,  a  seaport 
of  Haiti,  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  95  miles 
W.  S.  W.  of  Port-au-Prince.  Pop. 
12,000. 

Cayley,  Arthur,  an  English  math- 
ematician, born  in  Richmond,  Surrey 
Co.,  England,  Aug.  16,  1821.  In  1882 
he  gave  a  course  of  mathematical  lec- 
tures at  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
He  died  Jan.  26,  1895. 

Cayman  Islands,  three  islands  sit- 
uated about  140  miles  N.  W.  of  Ja- 
maica, of  which  they  are  dependencies. 
Grand  Cayman,  the  largest  and  the 
only  one  inhabited,  is  20  miles  long 
and  from  7  to  10  broad,  and  has  two 
towns  or  villages.  Pop.  about  5,560. 
The  other  two  islands  are  Little  Cay- 
man and  Cayman  Brae. 

Cayuga  Indians,  a  tribe  of  In- 
dians dwelling  in  New  York  State,  one 
of  those  forming  the  six  Nations. 
They  lived  around  Cayuga  Lake, 
where  less  than  200  of  them  remain. 

E.  31. 


Cecil 

Cayuga  Lake,  a  lake  of  Central 
New  York,  noted  for  the  picturesque 
scenery  of  its  surroundings. 

Cayuse,  or  Willetpoo,  a  tribe  of 
North  American  Indians  who  formerly 
inhabited  the  region  between  the  Des 
Chutes  river  and  the  Blue  Mountains, 
Oregon,  and  also  parts  of  Washington, 
S.  of  the  Yakima  river. 

Cazauran,  Angnstns  R.,  a 
Franco-American  author  and  play- 
wright, born  in  Bordeaux,  France,  Oct. 
31,  1820.  In  1848  he  became  impli- 
cated in  an  Irish  rebellion,  fled  to  the 
United  States,  and  obtained  employ- 
ment as  a  reporter.  During  the  Cri- 
mean War  he  acted  as  war  correspon- 
dent to  a  London  daily.  When  Lin- 
coln was  shot  he  was  at  the  theater  as 
dramatic  critic,  and  wrote  the  first  ac- 
count of  the  assassination.  He  died 
in  New  York,  Jan.  27,  1889. 

Ceara,  a  State  of  Brazil,  on  the  N. 
coast,  with  an  area  of  40,247  miles, 
pop.  (1900)  849,127.  The  interior 
presents  a  succession  of  wooded  hills 
and  wide  plateaus.  The  capital, 
Ceara,  had  formerly  only  an  open 
roadstead,  but  extensive  harbor  im- 
provements, with  breakwater  and  via- 
duct, have  been  provided.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  a  railway  to  Baturite  and 
has  a  large  trade.  Pop.,  33,000. 

Cebn,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
between  Luzon  and  Mindanao,  135 
miles  long,  with  an  extreme  width  of 
30  miles.  Sugar  cultivation  and  the 
manufacture  of  abaca  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. Pop.  (1903)  592,242.  The 
town  of  Cebu,  on  the  E.  coast,  the 
oldest  Spanish  settlement  in  the  Phil- 
ippines, is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade.  It  is  about  60  miles  from  Ma- 
nila and  has  a  population  of  31,079. 

Cebus,  a  genus  of  American 
monkeys,  characterized  by  a  round 
head  and  short  muzzle,  long  thumbs, 
and  a  long,  prehensile  tail,  entirely 
covered  with  hair. 

Cecil,  Robert,  Earl  of  Salisbury, 
an  English  statesman,  second  son  of 
William  Cecil,  born  about  1563.  He 
went  to  France  as  assistant  to  the 
English  ambassador.  On  the  death  of 
Sir  Francis  Walsingham  he  succeeded 
him  as  principal  secretary.  Having 
secretly  supported  the  interests  of 
James  I.  previous  to  his  accession  to 
the  crown  he  was  continued  in  office 


Cecropia  Moth 


Celebes 


under  the  new  sovereira  and  raised  to 
the  peerage.  In  1008  he  was  made 
Lord  High-Treasurer,  an  office  which 
he  held  till  his  death,  in  1612. 

Cecropia  Moth,  the  largest  moth 
of  the  United  States.  It  belongs  to  the 
silk  worm  family,  and  its  caterpillar 
spins  a  large  cocoon  from  which  a 
coarse  silk  may  be  prepared. 

Cedar,  a  tree  which  forms  large 
forests  on  the  mountains  of  Syria  and 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  an  evergreen,  grows 
to  a  great  size,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  durability.  Of  the  famous  cedars 
of  Lebanon  comparatively  few  now  re- 
main, and  the  tree  does  not  grow  in 
any  other  part  of  Palestine.  Cedar 
timber  was  formerly  much  prized,  but 
in  modern  times  is  not  regarded  as  of 
much  value,  perhaps  from  the  trees 
not  being  of  sufficient  age.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  many  trees  which 
have  no  relation  to  the  true  cedar,  as 
the  Bermuda  cedar,  used  for  making 
pencils,  the  red  or  Virginian  cedar,  the 
Honduras  cedar,  and  the  red  cedar  of 
Australia. 

Cedar  Bird,  a  name  given  to  the 
American  wax-wing,  from  its  fondness 
for  the  berries  of  the  red  cedar. 

Cedar  Creek,  scene  of  a  memorable 
battle  between  Union  and  Confederate 
armies  in  the  American  Civil  War,  at 
Alacken,  Shenandoah  Co.,  Va.  On 
Oct.  19,  1864,  at  daylight,  during  Gen. 
Sheridan's  absence,  his  army  was  sur- 
prised by  the  Confederates  under 
Early,  who  turned  the  left  flank  and 
took  the  camps  of  the  8th  and  19th 
corps,  with  20  guns  and  some  prison- 
ers. Gen.  Wright,  in  command  of  the 
Federals,  retreated  and  reformed  their 
line.  Gen.  Sheridan  arriving  10  A.  M., 
after  a  famous  "ride,"  celebrated  in 
T.  B.  Read's  poem,  repelled  an  assault, 
routing  the  Confederates,  retaking 
what  had  been  lost,  capturing  30  guns 
and  2,000  prisoners.  The  cavalry  pur- 
sued next  day,  and  in  the  night  Early 
retreated. 

Cedar  Lake,  a  lake  of  Canada,  in 
the  Saskatchewan  district,  a  sort  of 
expansion  of  the  Saskatchewan  river, 
receiving  the  waters  of  this  large 
stream  to  pour  them  over  the  Grand 
Rapids  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  Between 
Grand  Rapids  and  Cedar  lake  is  an- 
other expansion,  known  as  Cross  lake. 
Cedar  lake  is  nearly  30  miles  long,  and 


where  widest  25  broad ;  area  about  312 
square  miles. 

Cedar  Mountain,  an  elevation  in 
Culpepper  Co.,  Va.,  where,  in  the 
American  Civil  War,  on  Aug.  9,  1862, 
Gen.  Banks  was  defeated  by  a  superior 
Confederate  force  under  General  Jack- 
son, and  retired  for  reenforcement* 
from  General  Pope,  with  a  loss  of 
1,400  killed  and  wounded,  400  prison- 
ers, and  many  missing.  The  Confed- 
erates, who  held  the  field  two  days  and 
then  fell  back  to  meet  Lee  at  Gordons- 
ville,  lost  1,314. 

Cedar  Rapids,  a  city  in  Lynii 
county,  la.;  on  the  Cedar  river,  here 
spanned  by  a  handsome  bridge,  and 
on  the  Burlington,  Cedar  Rapids  & 
Northern  and  other  railroads;  89 
miles  S.  W.  of  Dubuque;  has  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  corn,  oats,  hay, 
dairy  products,  poultry,  horses,  cat- 
tle, and  swine;  manufactures  cereal 
foods,  farming  implements,  wind- 
mills, cutlery,  and  furniture;  and 
contains  the  shops  of  the  Burlington, 
Cedar  Rapids  &  Northern  railroad, 
large  pork-packing  plants,  Coe  Col- 
lege (Presb.),  and  College  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  (R.  C.).  Pop.  (1910) 
32,811. 

Celandine,  a  name  given  to  two 
plants,  the  greater  celandine  and  the 
lesser  celandine. 

Celaya,  a  town  in  the  Mexican 
State  of  Guanajuato,  on  the  Rio  Laja, 
about  150  miles  N.  W.  of  the  City  of 
Mexico.  The  burning  of  its  bull-ring, 
on  Easter  Sunday,  1888,  caused  con- 
siderable loss  of  life.  Population, 
(1912)  23,062. 

Celebes,  one  of  the  larger  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  between 
Borneo  on  the  W.  and  the  Moluccas  on 
the  E.  It  consists  mainly  of  four 
large  peninsulas  separated  by  three 
deep  gulfs;  total  area,  72,070  square 
miles.  No  part  of  it  is  more  than  70 
miles  from  the  sea.  Celebes  is  moun- 
tainous and  has  several  active  vol- 
canoes. It  has  also  broad  grassy 
plains  and  extensive  forests.  Gold  is 
found  in  all  the  valleys  of  the  N. 
peninsula.  Copper  occurs  at  various 
points,  and  tin  also.  Diamonds  and 
other  precious  stones  are  found.  The 
island  is  entirely  desitute  of  feline  or 
canine  animals,  insectivora,  the  ele- 
phant, rhinoceros,  and  tapir,  etc.  The 


Celery 

inhabitants  may  be  classed  into  two 
groups:  the  Mohammedan  semi-civil- 
ized tribes,  and  the  pagans,  who  are 
more  or  less  savages.  The  capital  is 
Macassar,  in  the  S.  W.  of  the  island. 
Pop.  (1912,  official  est.)  2,677,691. 

Celery,  the  common  English  name 
of  a  species  of  parsley.  The  blanched 
leaf-stalk  of  the  cultivated  varieties  is 
used  extensively  for  salads,  etc. 

Celeste,  Madame,  a  French  dancer, 
born  in  Paris,  Aug.  6,  1814,  early 
showed  remarkable  talent.  She  made 
her  d6but  in  1827  at  New  York,  and 
during  her  residence  in  the  United 
States  married  a  Mr.  Elliott.  She  re- 
tired from  the  stage  in  1874,  and  died 
at  Paris,  Feb.  12,  1882. 

Celestial  Empire,  The,  a  popular 
name  for  the  Chinese  Empire,  taken 
from  the  Chinese  words  "  Tien  Chao  " 
(Heavenly  Dynasty).  Hence  'the 
name  "Celestials,"  applied  to  natives 
of  China. 

Celestial  Sphere,  the  background 
of  sky  on  which  we  see  all  celestial  ob- 
jects projected.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
»f  indefinite  radius  with  the  observer 
at  the  center. 

Celestine  V.,  (Pope  Pietro  di  Mon- 
rone),  a  Benedictine  monk,  who 
founded  the  order  of  the  Celestines, 
which  was  suppressed  by  Pope  Pius 
VI.,  1776-78.  He  was  elected  Pope  in 
1294,  after  an  interregnum  of  six 
years.  A  few  months  after,  he  re- 
signed his  office  and  was  succeeded  by 
Boniface  VIII.,  who  confined  him  in 
the  castle  of  Fumone,  where  he  died. 
Celestine  was  canonized  in  the  year 
1313  by  Clement  V. 

Celibacy,  the  state  of  being  celi- 
bate or  unmarried ;  specially  applied  to 
the  voluntary  life  of  abstinence  from 
marriage  followed  by  many  religious 
devotees  and  by  some  orders  of  clergy, 
as  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Cell,  a  term  of  various  applications : 
'(1)  the  compartments  of  a  honey- 
comb, (2)  one  of  the  small  structures 
composing  the  substance  of  plants, 
generally  indistinguishable  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  each  at  least,  for  a 
time,  being  a  whole  complete  in  itself. 
(3)  A  term  often  applied  to  any  small 
cavity  bat  properly  restricted  to  a 
microscopical  anatomical  element  with 
a  nucleus  cell-wall  and  cell-contents 


Celt 

when  typically  formed.  (4)  The  space 
between  the  two  ribs  of  a  vault,  or  the 
space  inclosed  within  the  walls  of  an. 
ancient  temple.  (5)  A  structure  in  a 
wrought-iron  beam  or  girder;  a  tube 
consisting  of  four  wrought-iron  plates 
riveted  to  angle-iron  at  the  corners. 
(6)  In  electricity,  a  single  jar,  con- 
taining a  couple  of  plates,  generally 
copper  and  zinc,  united  to  their  oppo- 
site or  to  each  other  usually  by  a  wire. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  Italian 
sculptor,  born  in  Florence,  1500;  died 
there  1571.  His  chief  works  are :  the 
"  Perseus  "  at  Florence  ;  the  colossal 
"  Mars "  at  Fontainebleau ;  and  a 
"  Christus  "  in  the  Escurial  Palace. 

Cellular  Tissue,  a  kind  of  tissue 
made  of  a  number  of  separate  cells  of 
minute  bags  adherent  together.  It  is 
found  filling  interstices  between  the 
various  organs  in  man  and  the  verte- 
brated  animals. 

Celluloid,  an  ivory-like  compound, 
which  can  be  molded,  turned,  or  other- 
wise manufactured  for  various  pur- 
poses t  for  which,  before  its  introduc- 
tion, ivory  and  bone  were  emnloyed. 

Cellulose,  a  substance  of  general 
occurrence,  and  constituting  the  basis 
of  vegetable  tissues.  Corn  pith  cellu- 
lose is  an  American  preparation  used 
as  a  packing  in  warships  to  protect 
them  from  sinking  when  pierced  by 
shot  or  shell.  This  packing  is  placed 
like  a  belt  three  feet  in  thickness,  in- 
side the  steel  hull  along  the  water  line. 

Celsius,  the  name  of  a  Swedish 
family,  several  members  of  which  at- 
tained celebrity  in  science  and  liter- 
ature. The  best  known  is  Anders  Cel- 
sius, born  in  1701,  died  in  1744.  After 
being  appointed  Professor  of  Astron- 
omy at  the  University  of  Upsal  he 
traveled  in  Germany,  England,  France, 
and  Italy,  and  in  1736  he  took  part  in 
the  expedition  of  Maupertuis  and 
others  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  a 
degree  of  the  meridian  in  Lapland.  He 
is  best  known  as  the  constructor  of  the 
Centigrade  thermometer. 

Celt,  the  longitudinal  and  grooved 
instrument  of  mixed  metal  often  found 
in  Scotland,  also  a  stone  instrument  of 
a  wedgelike  form  found  in  barrows  and 
other  repositories  of  Celtic  antiquar- 
ian remains.  Though  the  primary  ap- 
plication of  the  word  celt  was  to  the 
metallic  implement,  yet  the  stone  celt 


Celtiberl 

is  believed  by  archaeologists  and  geolo- 
gists to  be  the  older  of  the  two. 

Celtiberi,  a  people  of  ancient 
Spain  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  a 
union  of  the  aborigines,  the  Iberians, 
and  their  Celtic  invaders.  Various 
limits  have  been  assigned  to  their 
country,  which  included  probably  all 
the  N.  of  Spain  as  far  S.  as  the 
sources  of  the  Guadalquivir.  After 
72  B.  c.  they  do  not  appear  in  history. 

Celts,  the  earliest  Aryan  settlers  in 
Europe  according  to  common  theory. 
They  appear  to  have  been  driven  west- 
ward by  succeeding  waves  of  Teutons, 
Slavonians,  and  others.  Herodotus 
mentions  them  as  mixing  with  the 
Iberians  who  dwelt  round  tne  river 
Ebro  in  Spain.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  historic  period  they  were  the  pre- 
dominant race  in  Great  Britain,  Ire- 
land, France,  and  elsewhere.  The 
Romans  called  them  generally  Galli. 
They  appear  to  have  reached  the  zenith 
of  their  power  in  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies B.  c.  Some  tribes  of  them  set- 
tled in  a  part  of  Asia  Minor  to  which 
the  name  of  Galatia  was  given.  They 
finally  went  down  before  the  power  of 
Rome.  At  an  early  date  the  Celts  di- 
vided into  two  great  branches,  speak- 
ing dialects  widely  differing  from  each 
other,  but  belonging  to  the  same  stock. 
One  of  these  branches  is  the  Gadhelic 
or  Gaelic,  represented  by  the  High- 
landers of  Scotland,  the  Celtic,  Irish, 
and  the  Manx;  the  other  is  the  Cym- 
ric, represented  by  the  Welsh,  the  in- 
habitants of  Cornwall,  and  those  of 
Brittany.  The  sun  seems  to  have  been 
the  principal  object  of  worship  among 
the  Celts,  and  groves  of  oak  and  the 
remarkable  circles  of  stone  commonly 
called  "Druidical  Circles,"  their  tem- 
ples of  worship. 

Cements,  substances  capable  of 
uniting  bodies  closely.  They  are  va- 
riously composed  according  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  surfaces  to  unite,  and  their 
exposure  to  heat  or  moisture.  Build- 
ing cement  is  a  strong  mortar  con- 
sisting of  hydraulic  limes  which  con- 
tain silica,  and  set  quickly. 

Cenci,  Beatrice,  called  the  beau- 
tiful parricide,  the  daughter  of  Fran- 
cesco Cenci,  a  noble  Roman,  who,  after 
his  second  marriage,  behaved  toward 
the  children  of  his  first  marriage  in  the 
most  shocking  manner,  procured  the 


Censor 

assassination  of  two  of  his  sons,  on 
their  return  from  Spain,  and  abused 
his  youngest  daughter  Beatrice.  She 
planned  and  executed  the  murder  of 
her  father  and  was  beheaded  in  1599. 
She  is  the  alleged  subject  of  a  painting 
by  Guido,  and  is  the  heroine  of  one  of 
Shelley's  most  powerful  plays.  Recent 
researches  have  deprived  the  story  of 
its  romantic  elements,  and  have  shown 
Beatrice  to  be  a  very  commonplace 
criminal.  Her  stepmother  and  brother, 
who  were  equally  guilty  with  her,  were 
also  executed. 

Cenis,  a  mountain  belonging  to  the 
Graian  Alps,  between  Savoy  and  Pied- 
mont, 11,755  feet  high.  It  is  famous 
for  the  winding  road  constructed  by 
Napoleon  I.,  which  leads  over  it  from 
France  to  Italy,  and  for  an  immense 
railway  tunnel,  which,  after  nearly 
fourteen  years'  labor,  was  finished  in 
1871.  The  Mount  Cenis  Pass  is  6,765 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  where- 
as the  elevation  of  the  entrance  to  the 
tunnel  on  the  side  of  Savoy  is  only 
3,801  feet,  and  that  on  the  side  of 
Piedmont  4,246  feet.  The  total  length 
of  the  tunnel  is  nearly  8  miles.  The 
total  cost  amounted  to  about  $12,000,- 
000. 

Cenotaph,  an  empty  monument, 
that  is,  one  raised  to  a  person  buried 
elsewhere. 

Censer,  a  vase  or  pan  in  which  in- 
cense is  burned,  or  a  bottle  with  a  per- 
forated cap,  used  for  sprinkling  odors. 
Censers  were  much  used  in  the 
Hebrew  service,  but  their  form  is  not 
accurately  ascertained.  Josephus  tells 
us  that  King  Solomon  made  20,000 
gold  censers  for  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem to  offer  perfumes  in,  and  50,000 
others  to  carry  fire  in.  The  censer 
used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
at  mass,  vespers,  and  other  offices,  is 
suspended  by  chains,  which  are  held  in 
the  hand,  and  is  tossed  in  the  air,  so  as 
to  throw  the  smoke  of  the  incense  in 
all  directions. 

Censor,  the  title  of  two  Roman 
magistrates  originally  appointed  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  the  census.  But 
their  powers  were  much  increased 
when  they  had  the  inspection  of  pub- 
lic morals,  and  authority  to  remove 
citizens  from  their  tribes,  depriving 
them  of  all  their  privileges  except  lib- 
erty. The  Censors  had  also  the  power 
of  making  contracts  for  public  build- 


Census 

ings,  and  the  supply  of  victims  for  sac- 
rifices. There  is  in  some  countries  a 
censor  whose  duty  it  is  to  inspect  and 
examine  books,  plays,  etc.,  before  they 
are  published,  to  insure  that  they  shall 
contain  nothing  to  offend  against  pub- 
lic morality  or  decency.  In  Russia 
the  office  is  one  of  unlimited  authority 
over  all  publications.  An  official  ap- 
pointed in  time  of  war,  at  military 
headquarters,  to  supervise  and  endorse 
all  press  dispatches. 

In  China  there  is  a  Board  of  Cen- 
sors whose  members  are  theoretically 
superior  to  the  central  administration, 
and  have  a  right  to  present  any  remon- 
strance to  the  sovereign.  It  is  under- 
stood that  experience  with  the  present 
empress  dowager  has  made  them 
cautious. 

Census,  a  periodical  enumeration 
of  the  people  of  any  State  or  country, 
with  such  information  on  other  sub- 
jects as  may  be  desired.  The  United 
States  census  of  1910  was  authorized 
June  29,  1909,  by  Congress,  which 
limited  the  inquiries  to  population, 
agriculture,  manufactures,  mines  and 
mining,  and  directed  that  it  should  be 
taken  as  of  April  15,  and  that  all  re- 
ports be  completed  within  three  years 
from  July  1,  1909.  This  census  had 
at  its  head  E.  Dana  Durand,  Director 
of  the  Permanent  Census  Bureau,  who 
was  assisted  by  330  district  super- 
visors, 1,600  special  agents,  70,000 
enumerators,  and  3,500  clerks  for 
combining  and  tabulating  the  enumer- 
ators' returns.  The  total  cost,  in- 
cluding publications,  was  estimated  at 
$13,000,000.  The  compilation  and 
tabulation  were  done  by  means  of 
cards,  one  for  each  of  the  approxi- 
mately 90,000,000  persons  enumerated, 
which  were  punched  in  spaces  to  show 
inquiry  answers  by  machines  resem- 
bling typewriters  or  adding  machines, 
and  run  through  automatic  electrical 
tabulating  machines  to  record  the 
facts.  The  Bureau  of  the  Census  is- 
sued elaborate  reports  (1917)  on 
Manufactures  in  1914. 

Cent,  or  Centime,  the  name  of  e, 
small  coin  in  various  countries,  so 
called  as  being  equal  to  a  100th  part 
of  some  other  coin.  In  the  United 
States  and  in  Canada  the  cent  is  the 
100th  part  of  a  dollar.  In  France  the 
centime  is  the  100th  part  of  a  franc. 


Centipede 

Similar  coins  are  the  centavo  of  Chili, 
and  the  centesimo  of  Italy,  Peru,  etc. 

Centaur,  a  mythical  creature,  half 
man,  half  horse,  said  to  have  sprung 
from  the  union  of  Ixion  and  a  Cloud ; 
the  most  celebrated  was  Chiron.  They 
inhabited  Thessaly,  and  were  also 
called  Hippocentaurs.  The  myth  prob- 
ably arose  from  some  herdsman  on 
horseback,  who,  being  seen  by  indi- 
viduals unacquainted  with  the  uses  of 
the  horse,  was  supposed  to  form,  to- 
gether with  his  steed,  one  integral 
body.  It  is  also  the  name  of  a  con- 
stellation in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

Centennial  Exhibition,  an  inter- 
national exposition  held  in  Philadel- 
phia from  May  10  to  Nov.  10,  1876, 
to  celebrate  the  100th  anniversary  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
various  contributions  of  money  amount- 
ed to  $6,800,000.  The  total  attend- 
ance was  9,910,966,  of  which  8,004,- 
274  were  paid.  The  largest  attendance 
was  on  Pennsylvania  Day  (Sept.  28,), 
when  274,919  persons  were  on  the 
grounds. 

Centennial  State,  Colorado;  it 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1876, 
the  100th  year  of  American  indepen- 
dence. 

Center-Board,  a  contrivance  used 
in  yachts  or  shallow  keelless  vessels  to 
counteract  the  tendency  to  drift  to  lee- 
ward, caused  by  the  absence  of  a  keel. 
It  is  lowered  through  a  prepared  slit, 
in  the  bottom  of  the  craft. 

Center  of  Population,  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  population  of  a  coun- 
try, each  individual  being  assumed  to 
have  the  same  weight.  The  center  of 
population  in  the  United  States  has 
clung  to  the  parellel  of  39°  lat.  and 
86°  long,  for  many  years.  In  1910  it 
was  at  Bloomington,  Ind. 

Centigrade  Thermometer,  a 
thermometer  scaled  to  represent  the 
interval  between  the  freezing  and  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  divided  into 
100  equal  parts,  the  freezing-point 
being  taken  as  zero. 

Centipede,  a  worm  having  a  long 
slender,  depressed  body,  protected  by 
coriaceous  plates,  21  pairs  of  legs,  dis- 
tinct eyes,  4  on  each  side,  and  antennae 
with  17  joints.  The  name  is,  how- 
ever, popularly  extended  to  species  of 
nearly  allied  genera.  Centipedes  run 


Central  America 


Central  America 


nimbly,   feed   on   insects,    and   pursue 
them  into  their  lurking-places. 


GIANT   CENTIPEDE. 


Central  America,  the  narrow  tor- 
tuous strip  of  land  which  unites  the 
continents  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica, extending  from  about  lat.  7°  to 
18°  N.  The  limits  assigned  to  it  in- 
clude the  six  republics  of  Panama, 
Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salva- 
dor, Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  with 
British  Honduras.  It  thus  has  Mex- 
ico on  the  N.  W.,  Colombia  or  New 
Granada  on  the  S.  E.,  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  Caribbean  Sea  on  either 
side.  Its  entire  length  is  about  800 
miles,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  be- 
tween 20  and  30  miles  to  350  miles. 
The  area  was  estimated  (1916)  212,- 
968  square  miles ;  the  pop.  at  5,284,864. 

Guatemala  is  remarkable  for  con- 
taining, with  exception  of  the  island 
of  Java,  the  greatest  number  of  active 
volcanoes  known  to  exist  within  simi- 
lar limits.  The  highest  in  Central 
America,  is  Agua,  which  is  said  to 
attain  an  elevation  of  15,000 
feet  This  volcano  has  obtained 
its  name  from  its  emitting  tor- 
rents of  water  and  stone  instead  of 
fire.  The  mountains  of  Central  Amer- 
ica do  not  generally  attain  an  eleva- 
tion equal  to  those  of  the  two  adjoin- 
ing continents,  with  exception  of  the 
volcanoes.  The  coast  lands  are  gen- 
erally narrow,  and  in  some  places  the 
mountains  and  high  lands  come  close 
down  to  the  water's  edge.  The  rivers 
of  this  territory  are  small,  and  have 
short  courses,  the  longest  not  exceed- 
ing from  200  to  300  miles,  while  many 
of  them  are  not  more  than  50.  The 
principal  lake  is  that  of  Nicaragua, 
which  is  upward  of  100  miles  in 


length,  and  about  50  miles  in  breadth. 
The  other  considerable  lakes  are  those 
of  Managua  or  Leon,  Golfo  Dolce, 
Golfete,  Peten,  Atitlan,  Amatitlan, 
Guija,  and  Cojutepeque. 

The  climate  is  exceedingly  various, 
owing  to  the  inequality  of  the  surface. 
The  low  grounds  on  the  coast  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  are  exposed  to  violent 
tropical  heats,  and  are  generally  un- 
healthy; but  on  the  table-lands  any 
temperature,  according  to  altitude, 
may  be  obtained  all  the  year  round, 
with  a  salubrious  climate.  The  dry 
season  lasts  from  about  October  to 
May ;  the  rest  of  the  year  is  called  the 
wet  season,  although  the  rain  falls 
during  the  night  only,  the  days  being 
fair  and  cloudless,  and  the  air  pure 
and  refreshing.  The  vegetable  produc- 
tions are  as  various  as  the  climate. 
Various  creepers  and  parasitic  plants, 
and  among  them  beautiful  orchids, 
adorn  the  forests.  The  zoology  of 
Central  America  differs  little  from 
that  of  other  parts  of  tropical  Amer- 
ica. Serpents  are  numerous,  some  of 
them  dangerous.  Alligators  infest 
some  of  the  streams  and  lakes,  and 
often  attack  domestic  animals.  The 
rivers,  lakes,  and  seas  abound  with 
fish.  Of  the  geology  little  is  known 
with  accuracy.  Gold,  silver,  iron, 
lead,  and  mercury  are  found;  but 
none  are  worked  to  any  great  extent. 
Jasper  and  marble  are  worked  in 
Honduras ;  and  sulphur  is  collected 
near  the  volcano  of  Quezaltenango. 
There  are  also  many  salt  springs ;  and 
salt  is  procured  in  large  quantities  on 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

The  population  consists  of  three 
classes  —  whites;  mestizoes,  or  the  off- 
spring of  whites  and  Indians ;  and 
pure-blooded  Indians  or  aboriginal  na- 
tives. The  proportions  of  this  popula- 
tion have  been  estimated  at  one- 
twelfth  whites,  four-twelfths  mixed 
races,  and  seven-twelfths  Indians.  The 
Roman  Catholic  religion  is  professed 
by  all.  The  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  is  agriculture.  The  chief  ex- 
port is  coffee;  others  include  cocoa, 
fruits,  hides,  indigo,  sugar. 

The  Spaniards  in  1524  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  city  of  Guatemala. 
After  the  subjugation  of  the  Quiches, 
the  remaining  tribes  were  subdued 
with  comparative  facility,  and  the  do- 
minion of  the  conquerors  was  perma- 


(Central  Falls 


Century 


nently  established.  The  government  of 
this  country,  as  constituted  by  Spain, 
was  subject  to  the  Mexican ;  but  the 
dependence  was  far  from  being  close. 
It  was  denominated  the  kingdom  of 
Guatemala,  and  governed  by  a  cap- 
tain-general. Its  inhabitants  re- 
mained true  to  Spain  till  1821  when 
they  declared  their  independence ;  and 
although  for  a  time  a  large  part  of  the 
country  was  joined  to  Mexico  under 
the  rule  of  Iturbide,  yet  on  his  down- 
fall they  recurred  to  their  original 
purpose  of  forming  a  separate  repub- 
lic. A  constituent  congress  was  con- 
voked, which  on  July  1,  1823,  pub- 
lished a  decree  declaring  the  five  States 
already  mentioned  a  republic  under  the 
title  of  the  United  States  of  Central 
America.  Civil  dissensions  were  not 
long  in  making  themselves  felt,  how- 
ever, and  in  1839  the  union  between 
the  States  was  formally  dissolved. 
Guatemala,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 
San  Salvador  again  formed  a  union  in 
1842,  but  this  lasted  only  till  1845. 
Since  that  time  several  atempts  (one 
in  1898)  have  been  made  to  unite  the 
States,  but  without  permanent  suc- 
cess. 

Central  America  contains  antiqui- 
ties of  a  very  interesting  nature,  which 
indicate  that  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  Jbhe  country  had  even  attained 
a  very  Respectable  proficiency  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  arts  of  life.  Ruins 
of  large  cities  exist  in  various  places, 
with  remains  of  temples,  altars,  and 
ornamental  stones,  statues  of  deities, 
and  other  works  of  sculpture. 

Central  Falls,  a  town  in  Provi- 
dence county,  R.  I.;  on  the  Black- j 
stone  river  and  the  New  York,  New| 
Haven  &  Hartford  railroad;  5  miles 
N.  of  Providence;  is  in  a  farming 
section;  has  a  laige  trade  in  dairy 
products;  and  manufactures  cotton, 
woolen,  and  hair  goods,  leather,  and 
trachinery,  having  fine  power  from 
the  river.  Pop.  (1910)  22,754. 

Central  India,  the  official  term  for 
a  group  of  feudatory  States  in  India. 
The  total  area  is  about  77,281  square 
miles;  pop.  (1901)  8,628,781. 

Centralization,  a  term  in  a 
specific  sense  applied  to  a  system  of 
government  where  the  tendency  is  to 
administer  by  the  central  government 
matters  which  had  been  previously,  or 


might  very  well  be,  under  the  man- 
;  agement  of  local  authorities. 

Central  Park,  the  most  noted  park 
in  New  York  City,  and  contains  840 
acres.  It  was  laid  out  under  the  di- 
rection and  management  of  Hon.  An- 
drew H.  Green,  who  for  thirteen  years 
had  absolute  control  of  the  work,  and 
who  is  known  as  "  The  Father  of  New 
York."  It  contains  among  other  ob- 
jects of  interest,  the  Mall,  the  Croton 
Reservoirs,  Cleopatra's  Needle,  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  the  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History,  and  several 
lakes. 

Central  Powers,  a  designation  as- 
sumed by  Germany  and  her  allies  in 
the  world  war. 

Central  Provinces,  an  extensive 
British  territory  in  India.  They  be- 
came a  separate  administration  in 
1861,  and  are  under  the  authority  of  a 
chief  commissioner.  Their  total  area 
is  130,997  square  miles,  of  which  99,- 
823  square  miles  are  British  territory, 
and  31,174  the  territory  of  native  pro- 
tected states.  Pop.  (1911)  16,035,043, 
including  2,177,406  in  native  States. 
Berar,  leased  to  the  Government,  is 
attached  for  administration. 

Central  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  in  Pella,  la.,  organ- 
ized in  1853,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Baptist  Church. 

Central  University,  an  educa- 
tional institution  in  Richmond,  Ky., 
organized  in  1873,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

Central  Wesleyan  College,  a  co- 
educational institution  in  Warrenton, 
Mo.,  organized  in  1864,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church, 

Centre  College,  an  educational  in- 
stitution in  Danville,  Ky.,  organized 
in  1819,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church. 

Centnmviri,  judges  of  ancient 
Rome,  three  from  each  tribe,  who  de- 
termined ordinary  causes.  The  extent 
of  their  jurisdiction  is  uncertain. 

Centnrion,  a  Roman  military  of- 
ficer commanding  a  company  of  in- 
fantry, consisting  of  100  men. 

Century,  an  aggregate  number  of 
100  of  things;  a  period  of  100 
years.  This  is  the  uniformly  accepted 
sense  of  the  word  now.  Modern  chro- 


Century-plant 

nology  among  Christian  nations  cen- 
ters at  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the  cen- 
turies are  numbered  according  to  their 
order  either  before  or  after  that  era. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  a  division 
of  the  Roman  tribes  for  the  election 
of  magistrates,  the  passing  of  laws, 
etc.,  on  which  the  voting  was  by  cen- 
turies ;  to  a  sub-division  in  the  Roman 
army. 

Century-plant,  a  popular  name 
of  the  American  aloe. 

Ceplialonia,  an  island  of  Greece, 
W.  of  the  Morea,  at  the  entrance  or. 
the  Gulf  of  Patras,  about  31  miles  in 
length,  and  from  5  to  12  in  breadth; 
area,  348  square  miles ;  pop.  80,543. 
Earthquakes  are  not  infrequent.  One 
of  the  most  destructive  was  that  of 
the  year  1867. 

Cephalopoda,  a  class  of  mollusks, 
the  highest  in  organization  of  that  di- 
vision of  the  animal  kingdom.  To  this 
class  belong  the 
Nautili,  Squids, 
Cuttle-fish,  etc. 
The  Cephalopo- 
da receive  their 
name  from  hav- 
ing organs  of 
prehension  and 
and  locomotion 
attached  .to  the 
head,  an  ar- 
rangement to- 
ward which  a 
g  r  a  d  u  al  ap- 
proach may  be 
traced  in  the 
highest  gastero- 
pod  mollusks. 

Cephas,  a 
surname  given 
by  Christ  to  Si- 
mon. In  the 
Greek  it  is  Pet- 
ros  ("a  rock"), 
in  Latin,  Pe- 
trus,  and  in  English  Peter. 

Cephens,  a  king  or  Ethiopia  and 
husband  of  Cassiopeia ;  his  name  was 
given  to  a  constellation  of  stars  in 
the  N.  hemisphere  surrounded  by  Cas- 
siopeia, Ursa  Major,  Draco,  and 
Cygnus. 

Ceram,  an  island  in  the  Moluccas, 
W.  of  New  Guinea ;  area,  6,621 
square  miles,  pop.,  estimated  at  67,- 
000.  It  is  about  200  miles  long  with 


A    CEPIIALOPOD. 


Cerebro-  spinal 

an  average  width  of  35  miles.  Its  in- 
terior is?  traversed  by  mountain  ranges 
from  6,000  to  8.000  feet  high.  The 
vegetation  is  luxuriant.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  coast  are  of  Malay  origin, 
the  interior  being  peopled  by  Alfoo- 
ries.  It  is  under  the  Dutch. 

Ceramic  Art,  that  department  of 
plastic  art  which  comprises  all  objects 
made  of  baked  clay,  and  including  all 
the  varieties  of  earthenware  and 
porcelain  which  can  be  regarded  as 
works  of  art. 

Cerastes,  a  genus  of  African  vipers 
remarkable  for  their  fatal  venom,  and 
for  two  little  horns  formed  by  the 
scales  above  the  eyes.  Hence  they 
have  received  the  name  of  horned  vi- 
pers. The  tail  is  very  distinct  from 
the  body. 

Cerate,  the  name  of  an  external 
medicament,  more  or  less  liquid,  hav- 
ing for  its  basis  wax  and  oil.  Simple 
cerate  consists  of  8  ounces  of  lard  and 
4  of  white  wax  melted  together  and 
stirred  till  cold. 

Cerberus,  the  three-headed  dog 
which  guards  the  entrance  of  the  king- 
dom of  Hades  and  Persephone.  Or- 
pheus, when  he  descended  into  the  in- 
fernal regions  in  search  of  Eurydice, 
lulled  him  to  sleep  with  his  lyre ;  and 
Hercules  dragged  him  from  the  gate  of 
Hades,  when  he  went  after  Alceste. 

Cercis,  a  handsome  Asiatic  tree. 
It  has  received  the  name  of  the  Judas- 
tree,  from  the  tradition  that  it  was 
upon  a  specimen  of  it,  near  Jerusa- 
lem, that  the  traitor  Judas  hanged 
himself. 

Cerdic,  a  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
who  invaded  England  about  the  end  of 
the  5th  century,  and  established  the 
kingdom  of  Wessex  about  516.  He  died 
in  534. 

Cere,  the  naked  skin  that  covers 
the  base  of  the  bill  in  some  birds,  and 
whicn  is  supposed  to  exercise  a  tactile 
sense. 

Cereals,  a  term  derived  from  Ceres, 
the  goddess  of  corn,  and  confined  to 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  and  other 
grasses,  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their 
seed  as  food. 

Cerebration,  exertion  or  action  of 
the  brain,  conscious  or  unconscious. 

Cerebro-spinal,  pertaining  to  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  together,  looked 
on  as  forming  one  nerve  mass. 


Ceres 

Ceres,  an  asteroid,  the  first  found. 
It  was  discovered  by  Piazzi  on  Jan.  1, 
1801.  Having  observed  it  at  Palermo, 
in  Sicily,  he  called  it  Ceres,  after  the 
old  tutelary  divinity  of  that  island. 

Cerens,  the  Torch-thistle.  The 
Suwarrow  or  Saguaro  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, is  the  largest  and  most  striking 
of  the  genus.  It  rises  to  the  height 
of  50  or  60  feet,  and  looks  more  like  a 
candelabra  than  a  tree  of  the  normal 
type.  The  genus  are  generally  useful 
as  cardiac  agents  and  anti-pyretics. 

Cerigo  (ancient  Cythera),  a  Greek 
island  in  the  Mediterranean,  S.  of  the 
Morea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  narrow  strait;  area  about  100 
square  miles. 

Cerinthns,  a  heretic  who  lived  at 
the  close  of  the  apostolic  age,  but  of 
whom  we  have  nothing  better  than  un- 
certain and  confuted  accounts. 

Cerium  (named  by  the  discoverers 
after  Ceres),  a  metal  found  with  two 
other  metals,  lanthanum  and  didymi- 
um,  in  cerite. 

Ceroxylon,  a  genus  of  South 
American  palms;  the  wax  palm. 

Cerro  Blanco,  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  New  Mexico ;  summit  14,269 
feet. 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  capital  of  the 
Peruvian  department  of  Junin,  stands 
at  an  elevation  of  14,276  feet,  138 
miles  N.  E.  of  Lima.  Near  it  are 
some  of  the  richest  silver  mines  on  the 
continent.  The  climate  is  cheerless 
and  inclement.  Pop.  about  14,000. 

Cerro  Gordo,  a  mountain-pass  in 
Mexico,  through  which  passes  the  Na- 
tional road  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Jalapa 
and  Mexico.  It  is  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  a  victory  by  General  Scott 
with  9,000  United  States  troops  over 
an  army  of  13,000  Mexicans  under 
Santa  Ana,  April  17-18,  1847.  This 
victory  enabled  Scott  to  take  the  town 
of  Jalapa  the  following  day. 

Cerro  Gordo  de  Potosi,  a  moun- 
tain in  the  Andes  of  Bolivia;  S.  W.  of 
Potosi ;  16,150  feet  in  height ;  remark- 
able for  its  deposits  of  silver. 

Cerro  Largo,  a  department  in  the 
N.  E.  of  Uruguay,  well  watered,  with 
large  savannahs  and  forests.  A^ea, 
5,763  square  miles ;  pop.  54,005, 
chiefly  engaged  in  cattle-raising.  Cap- 
ital, Cerro  Largo  or  Melo ;  pop.  5,000. 


Cervidae 

Cerros,  or  Cedros  Island,  an  is- 
land belonging  to  Mexico,  in  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  off  the  W.  coast  of  Lower 
California. 

Certaldo,  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
19  miles  S.  W.  of  Florence.  It  is 
noteworthy  as  the  residence  of  Boccac- 
cio, who  was  born  and  died  here.  His 
house  is  still  standing,  much  as  it  was 
in  the  poet's  time. 

Certiorari,  in  law,  a  writ  issuing 
out  of  a  superior  court  to  call  up  the 
records  of  an  inferior  court  or  remove 
a  cause  there  depending,  that  it  may 
be  tried  in  the  superior  court. 

Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de, 
author  of  "Don  Quixote,"  and  one  of 
the  greatest  writers  of  modern  times; 
born  in  Alcala  de  Henares,  Oct.  9, 
1547.  He  died  April  23,  1616  (on  the 
same  day  as  Shakespeare),  in  Madrid, 
where  he  had  resided  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life.  He  was  buried  with- 
out any  ceremony,  and  no  tombstone 
marks  the  spot  where  he  rests. 

Cervera  y  Topete,  Pascnal,  a 
Spanish  naval  officer;  born  in  the 
province  of  Jerez,  in  1833.  Graduated 
at  the  Naval  Academy  of  San  Fernan- 
do ;  entered  on  active  service  in  1851 ; 
and  was  made  first  lieutenant  in  1859 ; 
captain  in  1868 ;  and  admiral  subse- 
quently. He  was  a  prominent  factor 
in  the  10-years'  war  in  Cuba,  when  he 
succeeded  in  blockading  the  ports ;  was 
sent  to  London,  as  a  representative  of 
Spain,  to  take  part  with  other  nations 
in  a  conference  bearing  on  naval  ques- 
tions of  international  importance ;  and 
commanded  the  fleet  sent  against  the 
American  squadron  operating  in  Cu- 
ban waters  after  the  declaration  of 
war  in  1898.  He  took  refuge  in  the 
inner  harbor  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and 
when,  on  July  3,  he  attempted  to  es- 
cape, under  imperative  orders  from  his 
superiors,  his  entire  fleet  was  destroyed 
by  the  squadron  under  the  official  com- 
mand of  Rear-Admiral  Sampson  and 
the  actual  command  ( in  the  temporary 
absence  of  that  officer)  of  Rear- Ad- 
miral Schley.  Admiral  Cervera  and  his 
surviving  officers  were  sent  to  Anna- 
polis, Md.,  as  prisoners  of  war,  and 
soon  afterward  were  returned  to 
Spain.  He  died  April  3,  1909. 

Cervidae,  a  family  of  mammals. 
The  males  of  all  the  species  and  also 
the  female  of  the  reindeer  have  ant- 


Cervns 

lers,  which  are  deciduous,  this  last 
character  completely  distinguishing 
them  from  the  Oxen.  The  antlers  also 
are  solid.  The  species  are  widely  dis- 
tributed and  well  known.  None  are 
found  in  Africa  S.  of  the  Sahara  or  in 
Australia. 

Cervns,  the  genus  of  animals  to 
which  the  stag  belongs,  forming  the 
type  of  the  deer  family. 

Cesnola,  Luiga  Palma  di,  an 
American  archasologist,  born  in  Pied- 
mont, Italy,  June  29,  1832.  He  served 
in  the  Italian  war  with  Austria  and 
came  to  the  United  States  in  I860, 
serving  in  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
United  States  Consul  at  Cyprus,  where 
he  made  extensive  archaeological  dis- 
coveries. Until  his  death,  Nov.  21, 
1904,  he  was  director  of  the  Metropol- 
itan Museum  of  Art  in  New  York  city. 

Cespedes  y  Borges,  Carlos  Man- 
uel de,  a  noted  Cuban  patriot,  born 
in  Bayamo,  April  18,  1819.  Impli- 
cated in  Prim's  conspiracy  while  in 
Spain,  he  was  banished  from  there 
and  returned  to  Cuba.  As  leader  of 
the  revolt  of  1868  he  was  chosen  by 
the  insurgents  President  of  the  newly 
proclaimed  republic.  He  was  killed 
in  a  skirmish  with  Spaniards,  March 
22,  1872. 

Cestoid  Worms,  the  Cestoda,  or 
intestinal  worms,  consisting  of  tape 
worms  and  other  creatures  which  re- 
semble them  in  structure  and  habits. 
The  number  of  different  kinds  is  great. 
Their  natural  history  is  important  in 
reference  to  the  health  of  human  be- 
ings and  of  the  most  valuable  of  do- 
mesticated animals. 

Cetacea,  aquatic  mammals  which 
depart  in  many  important  anatomical 
points  from  the  other  members  of  the 
class,  their  structure  being  so  modified 
as  to  render  them  unfit  for  terrestrial 
life.  The  whales,  the  porpoise,  nar- 
whal, etc.,  represent  the  leading  divis- 
ions of  the  group.  The  body  is  fish- 
like  in  form,  the  head  passing  grad- 
ually into  the  trunk,  which  tapers  pos- 
teriorly and  ends  in  a  bil.  bate  caudal 
fin  which  is  placed  horizontally,  not  as 
in  the  fishes,  vertically.  The  posterior 
limbs  are  wanting,  and  the  anterior 
are  converted  into  broad  paddles,  with- 
in which  are  present  representatives  of 
all  the  bones  usually  found  in  the  fore 
limb  of  mammals.  The  fish-like  aspect 


Centa 

is  further  increased  by  the  presence  of 
a  dorsal  fin,  as  in  the  dolphin  and  fin- 
ner  whale. 

The  arrangement  of  the  respiratory 
and  circulatory  systems,  which  enable 
the  Cetacea  to  remain  for  some  time 
under  water,  are  interesting.  The  nos- 
trils open  directly  upward  on  the  top 
of  the  head,  and  are  closed  by  valvu- 
lar folds  of  integument  which  are  un- 
der the  control  of  the  animal.  When  the 
animal  comes  to  the  surface  to  breathe 
it  expels  the  air  violently,  and  the 
vapor  it  contains  becomes  condensed 
into  a  cloud.  The  blood-vessels,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  thorax  and  spinal 
canal,  break  up  into  extensive  plexuses 
or  networks,  in  which  a  large  amount 
of  oxygenated  blood  is  delayed,  and 
thus  the  animal  is  enabled  to  remain 
under  water. 

Cetewayo,  a  Kaffir  chief,  son  of 
Panda,  King  of  the  Zulus.  The  Natal 
government  secured  the  recognition  of 
Cetewayo  as  king  in  1873.  A  dispute 
which  had  arisen  regarding  lands  on 
the  frontier  was  settled  in  favor  of  the 
Zulus ;  but  on  the  refusal  of  Cetewayo 
to  comply  with  the  conditions  war  was 
declared  against  him  by  the  British, 
and  the  king  made  prisoner  in  1879. 
He  died  Feb.  8,  1884. 

Cettinje,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Montenegro;  situated  in  a 
lofty  mountain  valley,  19  miles  E.  of 
Cattaro,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  steep  road.  Turkish  invaders  sacked 
and  burnt  the  town  in  1683,  1714,  and 
1785,  but  it  was  each  time  rebuilt. 
Montenegro  took  part  in  the  World 
War  on  the  side  of  the  Entente  Allies. 
Late  in  1915  it  was  overrun  by  the 
Germans  and  Austrians ;  on  Dec.  6, 
the  Germans  captured  Ipek ;  on  Jan. 
13,  1916,  the  Austrians  captured  Cet- 
tinje ;  and  subsequently  the  govern- 
ment removed  to  Lyons,  on  invitation 
of  the  French  Government.  Pop. 
about  5,500. 

Centa,  a  fortified  port  belonging  to 
Spain,  on  the  coast  of  Morocco,  oppo- 
site Gibraltar.  The  mixed  population 
number  (1913)  23,907.  It  has  resisted 
several  sieges  by  the  Moors,  and  is 
still  the  most  important  of  the  four 
African  Presidios.  An  attempt  to 
strengthen  the  fortifications  was  aban- 
doned (1899)  upon  representations 
from  the  British  government  to  the 


Cevennes 

cabinet  at  Madrid.  Many  Cuban 
patriots  were  prisoners  there  before 
Spain  gave  up  its  hold  on  Cuba. 

Cevennes,  the  chief  mountain 
range  in  the  S.  of  France.  With  its 
continuations  and  offsets,  it  forms  the 
watershed  between  the  river-systems 
of  the  Rhone  and  the  Loire  and  Ga- 
ronne. 

Ceylon,  (native  Singhala,  ancient 
Taprobane),  an  island  belonging  to 
Great  Britain  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
about  60  miles  S.  E.  of  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  Hindustan,  from  wh'ch  it 
is  separated  by  the  Gulf  of  Manaar 
and  Palk's  Strait.  Length,  about  270 
miles  N.  to  S. ;  average  breadth,  100 
mi)e«  ;  area,  25,332  square  miles. 

Where  the  jungle  has  been  cleared 
away  and  the  land  drained  and  culti- 
vated, the  country  is  perfectly  healthy ; 
where  low  wooded  tracts,  and  flat 
marshy  lands  abound,  covered  with  a 
rank,  luxuriant  vegetation,  the  cli- 
mate is  eminently  insalubrious. 

Most  of  the  animals  found  on  the 
opposite  continent  are  native  to  this 
island,  excepting  the  royal  tiger,  which 
does  not  exist  here.  Elephants  are 
numerous  and  are  esteemed  for  their 
superior  strength  and  docility.  Bears, 
buffaloes,  leopards,  jackals,  monkeys, 
and  wild  bogs  are  numerous.  Croco- 
diles, serpents,  and  reptiles  of  all  sorts 
abound.  Of  the  snake  tribe,  consisting 
of  about  26  different  species,  six  only 
are  venomous.  Among  the  insects  are 
the  leaf  and  stick  insects,  the  ant-lion, 
jthe  white  ant,  etc. 

In  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetable 
productions,  Ceylon  rivals  the  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  in  some 
respects  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
them;  its  most  valuable  products  are 
tea,  rice,  coffee,  cinnamon,  and  the 
cocoanut.  Tea  is  being  widely  culti- 
vated. Tobacco  is  raised  principally 
in  the  N.  district,  and  is  of  excellent 
quality.  Indigo  grows  wild,  but  is  not 
sought  after. 

Ceylon  is  one  of  the  British  crown 
colonies,  its  government  being  conduct- 
ed by  a  governor  and  two  councils, 
executive  and  legislative,  of  both  of 
which  the  governor  is  president  The 
first  is  composed  of  six  members,  the 
other  of  17  members.  The  powers  of 
the  councils  are  limited,  being  wholly 
subservient  to  the  governor,  who  can 
carry  into  effect  any  law  without 


Chadwick 

their  concurrence.  All  laws  must  be 
approved  by  the  Secretary  of  State  foe 
the  Colojiies  before  they  can  take  ef- 
fect. Any  individual  properly  quali- 
fied may  be  appointed  to  the  most  re- 
sponsible situation,  without  reference 
to  service,  nation  or  religion,  and  na- 
tive Singhalese  have  occupied  some  of 
the  highest  posts.  Of  the  population 
(1911)  3,592,883,  2,474,000  were  said 
to  be  Buddhists,  and  about  940,000 
were  of  the  Hindu  religion.  On  the 
W.  and  S.  W.  coast  numbers  of  the 
Singhalese  profess  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic religion.  There  are  a  number  of 
Episcopal  clergy  in  the  island,  subor- 
dinate to  the  Bishop  of  Colombo; 
various  other  Protestant  bodies  have 
places  of  worship,  but  the  Protestants 
are  less  than  half  the  number  of  the 
Roman  Catholics. 

The  Singhalese  have  a  colloquial 
language  peculiar  to  themselves,  but 
their  classic  and  sacred  writings  are 
either  in  Pali  or  Sanskrit.  The  Mala- 
bars  use  the  Tamil.  English  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  common. 

The  principal  towns  of  the  island 
are  Colombo,  Trincomalee,  Kandy, 
Galle,  Gaffna,  and  Kornegalle. 

Chacornac,  Jean,  a  French  as- 
tronomer, born  in  Lyons,  June  21, 
1823.  He  is  principally  known  for  his 
discoveries  of  asteroids,  six  in  number, 
and  most  of  his  work  was  done  at  the 
Paris  Observatory  under  Leverrier. 
He  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  26,  1873. 

Cliadbourne,  Paul  Ansel,  an 
American  educator  and  writer,  born  in 
North  Berwick,  Me.,  Oct.  21,  1823.  He 
was  president  of  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College  at  Amherst;  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin ;  of  Will- 
iams College.  He  died  in  New  York. 
Feb.  23,  1883. 

Cliaddock  College,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  in  Quincy,  111. ;  or- 
ganized in  1857,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Chadwick,  French  Ensor,  an 
American  naval  officer,  born  in  Mor- 
gantown,  W.  ya.,  Feb.  29,  1844.  Dur- 
ing the  war  with  Spain  he  commanded 
the  armored  cruiser  "New  York ;"  pro- 
moted to  rear-admiral  in  1903 ;  retired 
in  1906. 

Chadwick,  John  White,  an 
American  writer  and  Unitarian  clergy- 
man, born  in  Marblehead,  Mass.,  Oct. 


Chaeronea 

19,  1840.     He  died  in  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  Dec.  11,  1904. 

Chaeronea,  a  city  of  Boeotia,  in 
ancient  Greece,  near  the  Cephissus,  on 
the  borders  of  Phocis.  Philip  II., 
King  of  Macedon,  defeated  tue  united 
Boeotian  and  Athenian  forces  near  this 
place,  B.  c.  338;  and  here,  also,  Sylla 
defeated  the  generals  of  Mithridates 
'  VI.  B.  c.  86.  Plutarch  was  born  here, 

A.  D.  46. 

Chafer,  a  term  loosely  applied  to 
certain  insects  of  the  beetle  order,  es- 
pecially such  as  themselves  or  their 
larvae  are  injurious  to  plants. 

Chaffee,  Adna  Romanza,  an 
American  military  officer,  born  in  Or- 
well, O.,  April  14,  1842.  He  received 
a  public  school  education ;  entered  the 
regular  army  as  a  private,  July  22, 
1861 ;  became  a  captain,  Oct.  12,  1867 ; 
and  colonel  of  the  8th  U.  S.  Cavalry, 
May  8,  1899.  On  May  4,  1898,  he  was 
commissioned  Brigadier-General  of 
volunteers  for  the  war  with  Spain ;  on 
July  8,  following,  was  promoted  to 
Major-General ;  and  on  April  13,  1899, 
was  honorably  discharged  under  this 
commission.  On  the  last  mentioned 
date  he  was  re-appointed  a  Brigadier- 
General  of  volunteers,  and  on  July  19, 
1900,  the  President,  having  selected 
him  to  command  the  American  military 
forces  in  China,  commissioned  him  a 
Major-General  of  volunteers.  He 
reached  Taku,  China,  on  July  28,  and 
led  the  American  contingent  of  the  al- 
lied force  which  entered  Peking  on 
Aug.  15,  and  rescued  the  foreign  lega- 
tioners.  General  Chaffee  made  a  bril- 
liant record  in  the  Apache  Indian 
campaigns ;  commanded  the  troops 
which  captured  El  Caney,  in  Cuba; 
and  afterward  was  chief-of-staff  to 
both  Generals  Brooke  and  Wood,  when 
governor-general  of  Cuba.  In  1901-2 
he  commanded  the  division  of  the 
Philippines ;  in  1904-6  was  Chief  of 
Staff,  U.  S.  A.  and  lieutenant-general ; 
in  the  latter  year  was  retired  at  his 
own  request  after  over  40  years' 
service.  He  died  Nov.  1,  1914. 

Cliagos  Islands,  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean  belonging  to 
Great  Britain;  a  S.  extension  of  the 
Maldive  Islands. 

Chagres,  a  town  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  on  the  N.  coast 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  at  the 


Chalcedony 

mouth  of  the  Chagres  river.  The  river 
of  the  same  name  rises  about  10  miles 
N.  E.  of  Panama,  makes  an  immense 
bend  round  to  the  N.  E.,  and  enters 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  Though  toward 
its  mouth  it  varies  in  depth  from  16 
to  30  feet,  it  is  yet,  by  reason  at  once 
of  its  rapidity  and  its  falls,  but  little 
available  for  navigation.  The  route 
of  the  projected  Panama  canal  is  by 
the  valley  of  the  Chagres  for  part  of 
its  course,  and  the  canal  would  cross 
the  river  repeatedly.  The  "  Chagres 
fever  "  is  named  after  the  river. 

Cliaille-Long,  Charles,  an  Amer- 
ican explorer,  born  of  French  parent- 
age, in  Baltimore,  Md.,  1843.  After 
serving  in  the  Confederate  army  he 
went  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  appoint- 
ed lieutenant-colonel  by  the  Khedive 
(1870).  Gordon  made  him  chief-of- 
staff  and  sent  him  on  a  mission  to 
King  Mtesa  of  Uganda. 

Chain,  in  surveying,  is  a  measure 
consisting  of  100  links,  each  7.92  inch- 
es in  length,  and  having  a  total  length 
of  4  rods,  o"  66  feet. 

Chain  Armor,  coats  and  other 
pieces  of  mail,  formed  of  hammered 
iron  links,  constituting  a  flexible  gar- 
ment which  fitted  to  the  person. 

Chains,  series  of  links  interlocked 
with  the  adjacent  ones,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  form  continuous  and  flexible 
lines. 

Chain  Shot,  two  balls  connected 
either  by  a  bar  or  chain,  formerly 
used  for  cutting  and  destroying  the 
rigging  of  an  enemy's  ship. 

Chair  of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  a 
wooden  chair  overlaid  with  ivory  work 
and  gold. 

Chaise,  a  two-wheeled  carriage  for 
two  persons,  with  a  top,  and  usually 
drawn  by  one  horse. 

Chalcedon,  a  Greek  city  of  ancient 
Bithynia,  opposite  Byzantium  (Con- 
stantinople), at  the  entrance  of  the 
Black  Sea,  about  2  miles  S.  of  the 
modern  Scutari.  It  was  finally  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turks,  by  whom  it  was 
taken,  about  1075. 

Chalcedony,  a  cryptocrystalline 
variety  of  quartz,  having  the  luster 
nearly  of  wax,  and  either  transparent 
or  translu,cent.  Color,  white,  grayish, 
pale  brown  to  dark  brown  or  black; 
tendon-color  common :  sometimes  deli' 


Chalcis 

cate  blue.  Also  of  other  shades,  and 
then  having  other  names. 

Chalcis,  a  Greek  town,  anciently 
the  chief  town  of  Eubcea,  separated 
by  the  narrow  strait  of  Euripus  from 
the  Boeotian  coast,  on  the  mainland  of 
Greece,'  with  which  it  was  connected 
by  a  bridge.  Chalcis  early  became  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  Ionic  cities,  car- 
rying on  an  extensive  commerce.  It 
was  subsequently  a  place  of  impor- 
tance under  the  Romans. 

Chaldaea,  in  ancient  geography  the 
regions  of  Babylonia,  or  more  gener- 
ally Babylonia.  The  early  history  of 
Chaldsea  is  obscure.  The  Chaldaeans 
were  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  with 
Babylon,  and  waged  frequent  wars 
with  the  latter  power.  When  the  As- 
syrian power  began  to  wane,  the  Chal- 
daeans, being  a  more  warlike  and  pow- 
erful people  than  the  Babylonians,  be- 
came supreme ;  Chaldaea  and  Baby- 
lonia, by  their  conquests  under  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, became  one  kingdom,  and 
the  names  Chaldaea  and  Babylonia  be- 
came synonymous  terms. 

CLaldee  Language,  a  name  often 
given  to  the  Aramean  language,  one 
of  the  principal  varieties  of  the  an- 
cient Semitic.  Chaldee  literature  is 
usually  arranged  in  two  divisions :  the 
Biblical  Chaldee,  or  those  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  which  are  written 
in  Chaldee,  namely,  Daniel  from  ii : 
4  to  yii:  28;  Ezra  iv:  8  to  vi :  18; 
and  vii :  12-26 ;  and  Jeremiah  x :  11 ; 
and  the  Chaldee  of  the  Targums  and 
other  later  Jewish  writings. 

Chalet,  the  French-Swiss  name  for 
the  wooden  hut  of  the  Swiss  herdsmen 
on  the  mountains ;  but  also  extended 
to  Swiss  dwelling-houses  generally, 
and  to  picturesque  villas  built  in  imi- 
tation of  them. 

Chalenr  Bay,  or  Bay  of  Chal- 
eurs,  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, between  Quebec  and  New 
Brunswick. 

Chalice,  a  term  generally  applied 
to  a  communion  cup  for  the  wine  in 
the  Eucharist,  often  of  artistic  and 
highly  ornamental  character. 

Chalk,  a  well-known  earthy  lime- 
stone, of  an  opaque  white  color,  soft, 
and  admitting  no  polish.  It  is  an  im- 
pure carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  used  as 
an  absorbent  and  anti-acid,  and  for 
making  narks  for  various  purposes. 


Chamber 

Challenge,  to  jurors,  is  an  objec- 
tion either  to  the  whole  panel  or  ar- 
ray, or  to  the  jurors  individually,  and 
it  is  either  peremptory,  or  for  cause 
assigned. 

Challenger  Expedition,  a  cir- 
cumnavigating scientific  exploration  of 
the  open  sea  sent  out  by  the  British 
government  in  1872-1876.  In  1872 
the  "Challenger,"  a  corvette  of  2,306 
tons,  was  completely  fitted  out  and 
furnished  with  every  scientific  appli- 
ance for  examining  the  sea  from  sur- 
face to  bottom.  The  ship  was  given 
in  charge  to  a  naval  surveying 
staff,  under  Captain  Nares,  and  to 
a  scientific  staff,  with  Professor 
Wyville  Thomson  at  their  head,  for 
the  purpose  of  sounding  the  depths, 
mapping  the  basins,  and  determin- 
ing the  physical  and  biological  con- 
ditions of  the  Atlantic,  the  South- 
ern and  the  Pacific  Oceans.  Be- 
tween the  Admiralty  Isles  and  Japan 
the  "  Challenger "  made  her  deepest 
sounding,  on  March  23,  1875,  4,575 
fathoms,  then  the  deepest  sounding  on 
record  except  two. 

Chalons-sur-Marne,  a  town  of  N. 
E.  France,  107  miles  E.  of  Paris  and 
on  the  main  railway  line  to  Nancy ; 
normal  pop.  about  25,000.  The  prin- 
cipal industry  is  brewing.  Chalons 
is  a  center  of  much  historic  interest. 
The  plains  nearby  were  the  scene  of 
the  defeat  of  Atilla,  the  Hun,  in  the 
5th  century.  Marshal  MacMahon 
formed  the  great  army  here  which 
surrendered  at  Sedan  in  1870.  The 
town  was  conspicuous  in  the  opera- 
tions in  the  World  War,  especially  in 
1915-16.  The  entire  country  between 
Chalons-sur-Marne  and  Verdun  is  full 
of  interest.  The  town  of  Valmy, 
where  the  French  defeated  the  Allies 
in  1792,  is  33  miles  distant,  and  its 
Ridge  was  the  scene  of  desperate  fight- 
ing in  the  great  war.  Beyond  Sainte 
Menehould  is  the  famous  forest  of 
Argonne.  Verdun  is  174  miles 
from  Paris.  See  APPENDIX:  World 
War. 

Chamber,  a  word  used  in  many 
countries  to  designate  a  branch  of  gov- 
ernment whose  members  assemble  in  a 
common  apartment,  or  applied  to  bod- 
ies of  various  kinds  meeting  for  va- 
rious purposes.  The  imperial  cham- 
ber of  the  old  German  Empire  was  a 


Chamberlain 


Chambersbnrg 


court  established  at  Wetzlar,  near  the 
Rhine,  by  Maximilian  I.  in  1495,  to 
adjust  the  disputes  between  the  dif- 
ferent independent  members  of  the 
German  Empire. 

Chamberlain,  an  officer  charged 
with  the  direction  and  management  of 
the  private  apartments  of  a  monarch 
or  nobleman. 

Chamberlain,  Joseph,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  born  in  London  in 
July,  1&}6.  In  1808  he  was  appoint- 
ed a  member  of  the  Birmingham  town- 
council,  was  mayor  of  Birmingham 
from  1873  to  1876,  and  chairman  of 
the  Birmingham  school-board  from 
1874  to  1876.  After  unsuccessfully 
contesting  Sneffield  against  Mr.  Roe- 
buck in  1874,  he  was  returned  for  Bir- 
mingham without  opposition  in  June, 
1876.  He  soon  made  his  mark  in  Par- 
liament, and  on  the  return  of  the  Lib- 
erals to  power  in  1880  he  was  appoint- 
ed President  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  Meanwhile 
his  influence  was  increasing  rapidly 
outside  the  House ;  he  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  leader  of  the  extreme 
Radical  party.  During  the  last  hours 
of  Mr.  Gladstone's  government  he  was 
understood  to  be  opposed  to  the  re- 
newal of  the  Irish  Crimes  Act ;  and 
during  the  general  election  of  1886  he 
was  most  severe  in  his  strictures  on 
the  moderate  Liberals,  and  produced 
an  "  unauthorized  "  programme  which 
included  the  readjustment  of  taxation, 
free  schools,  and  the  creation  of  allot- 
ments by  compulsory  purchase.  He 
was  returned  by  the  western  division 
of  Birmingham.  On  Feb.  1,  1886,  he 
beame  president  of  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  but  resigned  on  March 
26,  because  of  his  strong  objections  to 
Mr.  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  measures 
for  Ireland.  He  became  leader  of  the 
Liberal-Unionists  when  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  went  to  the  Upper  House. 
Lord  Salisbury  sent  him  to  Washing- 
ton as  commissioner  on  the  Canadian 
fishery  dispute,  and  in  1895  he  was 
made  Colonial  minister  in  the  Union- 
ist Cabinet.  As  such  he  had  to  face 
the  troubles  in  South  Africa,  and  to 
cherish  closer  fellow-feeling  with  the 
Colonies.  He  carried  the  Australian 
Federation  measure  in  Parliament 
(1900),  and  later  had  to  face  opposi- 
tion from  within  the  Liberal  party, 
la  1888  he  was  married  to  Mary, 


daughter  of  William  C.  Endicott,  Sec- 
retary of  War  in  President  Cleve- 
land's first  administration.  After  the 
Boer  war  he  visited  South  Africa  and 
made  himself  personally  acquainted 
with  the  situation  there.  His  strong 
advocacy  of  "  fair  trade,"  or  a  modi- 
fied protective  tariff  caused  great  dis- 
turbance in  the  ministry  and  its  sup- 
porters, and  in  September,  1903,  Mr. 
Chamberlain  resigned  from  the  Cabi- 
net. He  died  July  2,  1914. 

Chamberlain,  Joshua  Law- 
rence, an  American  army  officer  and 
educator.  He  was  born  in  Bangor, 
Me.,  Sept.  8,  1828 ;  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin  College  in  1852,  and  entered  the 
volunteer  service  of  the  Union  in  1862, 
became  a  Major-General  in  1865,  and 
received  the  colors  of  Lee's  army  on 
its  surrender.  After  the  war  he  re- 
turned to  the  professorship  at  Bow- 
doin  College  which  he  had  previously 
held.  In  1867-1871  was  governor  of 
Maine,  and  in  1871-1883  was  presi- 
dent of  Bowdoin.  He  died  Feb.  24, 
1914. 

Chambers,  Charles  Julius,  an 
American  journalist,  born  in  Belle- 
fontaine,  O.,  Nov!  21,  1850.  In  1870 
he  traveled  through  the  West  Indies, 
Europe,  the  United  States,  and  Cana- 
da, as  special  correspondent  of  the 
"New  York  Herald."  In  1876  he 
published  an  account  of  his  few  weeks 
of  experience  in  an  insane  institution, 
entitled,  "A  Mad  World,"  which  ex- 
cited great  interest. 

Chambers,  Robert,  a  Scotch  prose- 
writer  and  publisher,  born  in  Peebles, 
July  10,  1802.  He  and  his  brother 
began  in  poverty  as  small  booksellers; 
issued  penny  leaflets  of  useful  infor* 
mation  for  the  people  which  became 
very  popular,  and  at  last  took  regular 
periodical  form  in  "  Chambers'  Jour- 
nal," and  the  great  publishing-housa 
which  bears  the  name  of  both  devel* 
oped  gradually.  The  "  Chambers'  Ent 
cyclopaedia  "  was  the  outgrowth  of  the 
"  Journal."  He  died  in  St.  Andrews, 
March  17,  1871. 

Chambers,  William,  a  Scotch 
prose-writer  and  editor,  brother  and 
partner  of  Robert,  born  in  Peebles, 
April  16,  1800.  He  died  in  Edinburgh, 
May  20,  1883. 

Chambersbnrg,  a  borough  and 
county-seat  of  Franklin  county,  Pa. 


Chambers  of  Commerce 


Chameleon 


on  the  Conecocheague  and  Falling 
Creeks  and  the  Cumberland  Valley 
and  Western  and  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  railroads,  52  miles  W.  S.  W. 
of  Harrisburg.  In  Early's  raid  in  the 
Civil  War  General  McCausland  en- 
tered Chambersburg  with  Confederate 
cavalry,  July  30,  1864,  and  demanded 
a  tribute  of  $200,000  gold;  this  not 
being  paid  the  place  was  set  on  fire 
and  two-thirds  of  it  burned,  causing  a 
loss  of  $1,000,000. 

Chambers  of  Commerce,  bodies 
of  merchants  and  traders  associated 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  in- 
terests of  their  own  members,  of  the 
city  to  which  the  society  belongs,  and 
of  the  community.  Of  the  means  by 
which  these  objects  are  sought  to  be 
accomplished  the  following  may  be 
mentioned  as  the  most  prominent : 
(1)  by  representing  and  urging  on 
the  Legislature  the  views  of  their 
members  in  mercantile  affairs;  (2)  by 
aiding  in  the  preparation  of  legislative 
measures  having  reference  to  trade ; 
(3)  by  collecting  statistics  bearing 
upon  the  staple  trade  of  the  city;  (4) 
in  some  places  by  acting  as  a  sort  of 
court  of  arbitration  in  mercantile 
questions ;  (5)  by  attaining  by  com? 
bination  advantages  in  trade  which 
might  be  beyond  the  reach  of  individ- 
ual enterprise. 

The  first  institution  of  the  kind  in 
the  United  States,  the  New  York 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  was  organized 
in  1768  and  incorporated  by  royal 
charter  from  King  George  III.  in 
1770.  There  are  similar  bodies  in 
every  city  and  town  of  consequence  in 
the  United  States. 

Chambly,  Fort,  a  fort  at  the  out- 
let of  Lake  Champlain  at  the  time  of 
the  Revolutionary  War.  It  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Colonists  in  1775,  and 
the  colors  of  the  7th  Regiment  of 
British  regulars  was  sent  to  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  as  trophies  of  the 
victory. 

Chambord,  Henri  Charles  Fer- 
dinand Marie  Diendonne,  Comte 
de,  Duke  of  Bordeaux,  the  last  repre- 
sentative of  the  elder  branch  of  the 
French  Bourbon  dynasty,  called  by  his 
partisans  Henry  V.  of  France;  born 
in  Paris,  Sept.  29,  1820,  seven  months 
after  the  assassination  of  his  father. 
Charles  X.,  after  the  revolutionary 


outbreak  of  1830,  abdicated  in  his 
favor,  but  the  young  count  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  country.  He  lived 
successively  in  Scotland,  Austria, 
Italy,  and  England,  keeping  a  species 
of  court,  and  occasionally  issuing  man- 
ifestos. In  1846  he  married  the  Prin- 
cess Maria-Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Modena,  and  in  1851  in- 
herited the  domain  of  Frohsdorf,  near 
Vienna,  where  he  subsequently  resid- 
ed. He  died  in  Austria,  Aug.  24,  1883. 

Chambre  Ardente,  the  name 
given  in  France  to  a  court  of  law, 
instituted  by  Francis  I.  It  was 
hung  with  black  and  lighted  with 
torches,  for  the  purpose  of  trying  and 
burning  heretics;  and  also  to  the  ex- 
traordinary commissions  established 
for  the  examination  of  poisoners,  and 
under  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans  for 
the  punishment  of  public  officers 
charged  with  offenses  against  the  reve- 
nues, as  also  of  those  who  were  guilty 
of  fraud  in  the  matter  of  Law's  bank. 

Chambre  des  Comptes,  a  great 
court  established  in  France,  prior  to 
the  Revolution,  for  the  registration  of 
edicts,  ordinances,  etc. 

Chambrnn,  Marquis  Pierre  de, 

a  French  politician ;  born  in  Paris, 
June  11,  1865,  grandson  of  Marquis 
de  Lafayette  of  Revolutionary  fame ; 
studied  law ;  since  1898  represented 
the  Department  of  Lozere  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies ;  gave  special 
attention  to  foreign  affairs,  notably  to 
the  cultivation  of  an  interest  and  pro- 
gram for  a  close  intercourse  between 
the  parliaments  and  congresses  of 
various  countries.  In  1917  he  was  a 
member  of  the  French  War  Mission  to 
the  United  States  under  the  famous 
Marshal  Joffre. 

Chameleon,  a  genus  of  reptiles  be- 
longing to  the  Saurian  or  lizard-like 
order,  a  native  of  parts  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  The  very  remarkable  power 
which  these  animals  possess  of  chang- 
ing their  color,  at  a  very  early  period 
called  the  attention  of  observers  to 
their  habits.  Its  skin  is  composed  of 
a  sort  of  small,  scaly  grains,  and  un- 
der ordinary  circumstances  is  of  a 
greenish  gray  color.  The  eyes  are 
capable  of  moving  independently  of 
each  other,  taking  different  directions 
at  the  same  moment.  Several  species 
of  chameleon  are  known,  and  are  na- 
tives of  Africa,  Madagascar,  Southern 


Chameleon 

Asia,  and  the  Molucca  Islands.  They 
pass  their  lives  altogether  upon  trees, 
feeding  upon  small  insects,  for  which 
their  construction  shows  them  to  be 
perfectly  adapted. 

Chameleon,  a  Southern  constella- 
tion containing  nine  stars,  lies  within 
the  Antarctic  Polar  Circle. 

Chamois,  a  well-known  species  of 
the  antelope  found  only  in  high,  moun- 
tainous regions,  where  they  feed  in 
small  flocks  or  families,  on  the  highest 


CHAMOIS. 

cliffs  affording  vegetation.  The  cham- 
ois are  exceedingly  shy,  and  have  very 
acute  senses,  so  that  it  is  only  by 
great  patience  and^  skill  that  the  hunt- 
er can  come  sufficiently  near  to  shoot 
them. 

Chamois  Leather,  a  leather  made 
from  the  skin  of  the  Chamois,  but  the 
skins  of  sheep,  goats,  deer,  calves,  and 
the  split  hides  of  other  animals,  are 
used  for  making  this  kind  of  leather. 

Chamomile  or  Camomile,  a  well- 
known  plant.  It  is  perennial,  and  has 
slender,  trailing,  hairy,  and  branched 
stems.  The  flower  is  white,  with  a 
yellow  center.  Both  leaves  and  flow- 
ers are  bitter  and  aromatic.  The  fra- 
grance is  due  to  the  presence  of  an  es- 
sential oil,  called  oil  of  chamomile, 
of  a  light  blue  color  when  first  ex- 
tracted. It  is  cultivated  in  gardens 
in  the  United  States,  and  also  found 
wild 

Chamemni,  or  Chamonix,  a  cele- 
brated valley  in  France,  department 


Champion 

Haute-Savoie,  in  the  Pennine  Alps, 
over  3,000  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is 
about  12  miles  long,  by  1  to  6  miles 
broad,  its  E.  side  formed  by  Mount 
Blanc  and  other  lofty  mountains  of 
the  same  range,  and  it  is  traversed  by 
the  Arve.  The  village  of  Chamouni 
is  much  frequented  by  tourists. 

Champaign,  a  city  in  Champaign 
county,  111.;  on  the  Illinois  Central 
and  other  railroads;  33  miles  W.  of 
Danville;  has  manufactures  of  wind- 
mills, furnaces,  boilers,  brick  and  tile, 
piano,  and  iron  and  steel  tools;  and 
is  the  seat  of  the  University  of 
Illinois.  Pop.  (1910)  12,421. 

Champ  de  Mars,  a  large,  rectan- 
gular public  place  in  Paris,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  about  3,300  feet 
long  and  1,600  feet  wide.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution  the 
square  was  constructed  by  the  united 
efforts  of  all  classes  of  Paris,  and  on 
July  14,  1790,  the  first  anniversary  of 
the  taking  of  the  Bastille,  was  held  a 
grand  pageant  and  festival  at  which 
universal  pledges  of  "  Liberty,  Equal- 
ity, and  Fraternity  "  were  exchanged. 
This  spot  was  the  scene  of  a  bloody 
massacre  July  17,  1791.  It  is  now 
used  chiefly  as  a  parade-ground.  In 
its  center  is  the  Eiffel  Tower. 

Champerty,  the  purchase  of  an  in- 
terest in  a  thing  in  dispute,  with  the 
object  of  maintaining  and  taking  part 
in  the  litigation,  or  assisting  another 
to  carry  on  a  suit  under  an  agreement 
to  receive  part  of  the  sum  or  thing  to 
be  recovered. 

Champion,  one  who  combats  or 
fights;  specifically,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  a  person  who  took  up  the  cause 
and  fought  in  the  place  of  another. 
Single  combat  was  one  of  the  ways 
frequently  adopted  to  decide  the  right 
of  a  cause;  and  women,  children,  or 
aged  persons  were  allowed  to  appear 
by  a  representative.  At  one  time  the 
champions  were  looked  upon  as  dis- 
reputable, being  ready,  for  hire,  to 
take  up  any  quarrel.  At  a  later  per- 
iod, however,  during  the  ages  of  chiv- 
alry, the  champion  was  a  knight,  who 
entered  the  lists  on  behalf  of  an  in- 
jured lady,  a  child,  or  one  incapable 
of  self-defense.  The  word  is  also  ap- 
plied to  one  who  earns,  or  claims,  the 
preeminence  in  feats  of  physical  prow- 
ess, or  skill, 


Champion  Hills 

Champion  Hills,  a  place  in  Hinds 
county,  Miss.,  near  Vicksburg,  where, 
on  May  16,  1863,  the  Union  army 
defeated  the  Confederates. 

Cham  plain,   Lake,   a   picturesque 
body    of    water    between    the   Green 
and    Adirondack    mountains,    on    the  | 
border  of  the  States  of  Vermont  and 
New  York;   length   about  125  miles, ; 
maximum     depth     280     feet.       The 
waters  find  an  outlet  at  the  N.  end  ' 
by  the  Richelieu  or  Sorel  river,  which  I 
empties  into  the  St.  Lawrence.    Since 
the  construction    of  the  canal,  which 
connects    it   with   the    Hudson   river; 
the   lake    has    become    an    important 
medium   of   commerce   between   Can- 
ada and  the  United  States.     In  July, 
1909,   the   300th   anniversary    of  the 
discovery  of  the  lake  was  celebrated  by  j 
the  United  States,  England,  France, 
Canada.  New  York  and  Vermont. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  a  French 
navigator,  born  at  Brouage,  Saint- 
onge,  about  1570.  In  1599  he  sailed 
to  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Pan- 
ama. On  his  return  (1601)  he  pre- 
pared a  record  of  this  cruise,  with 
charts,  etc.  In  March,  1603,  he  sailed 
for  North  America,  and  explored,  by 
boat,  the  St.  Lawrence  river  up  to 
the  Falls  of  St.  Louis,  and  down  to 
Gaspe.  In  May,  1604,  he  sailed  with 
De  Monts  along  the  shores  of  Nova 
Scotia,  wintered  on  the  island  of  St. 
Croix,  and  founded  a  colony  at  Port 
Royal.  From  1604  to  1606  he  made 
careful  surveys  and  charts  of  the  coast 
as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  He  revisited 
France  in  1607,  but  sailed  again  in 
1608,  and  founded  Quebec.  In  1609 
he  accompanied  an  Algonquin  and 
Huron  expedition  against  the  Iroquois, 
and  discovered  Lake  Champlain.  From 
September,  1609,  to  March,  1610,  he 
was  engaged  in  bringing  over  French 
mechanics  for  his  colony.  He  became 
lieutenant-governor  of  New  France 
(Oct.  8,  1612)  ;  fortified  Quebec 
(1620)  ;  but  was  compelled  (1629)  to 
surrender  to  an  English  fleet,  and  was 
taken  to  England.  Released  in  1632, 
he  sailed  again  for  New  France.  He 
died  in  Quebec,  Dec.  25,  1635. 

Champlin,  John  Denis  on,  an 
American  author,  born  in  Stonington, 
Conn.,  Jan.  29,  1834.  He  wrote  many 
useful  and  instructive  books  for  the 
young.  He  died  Jan.  8,  1915. 

E.  32. 


Chancellorsville 

Champney,  Elizabeth  (Will- 
iams), an  American  novelist,  born  hi 
Springfield,  O.,  in  1850.  Many  of  her 
books  are  illustrated  by  her  husband, 
J.  W.  Champney. 

Champney,  James  Wells,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  July  16,  1843.  He  studied  in 
Europe  under  Edouard  Frere.  and  in 
1882  became  a  member  of  the  Nation- 
al Academy.  He  died  in  New  York 
in  1903. 

Champs-Elysees,  (Fr.  "  Elysian 
Fields"),  a  place  of  public  resort  in 
Paris,  which  consists  of  an  avenue 
and  the  gardens  surrounding  it. 

Chanca,  Dr.  (believed  to  have  been 
Diego  Alvarez  Chanca),  a  Spanish 
physician,  born  in  Seville,  who  be- 
came a  companion  of  Columbus  on  his 
second  voyage  in  1493. 

Chancel,  the  end  of  a  church,  in 
which  the  altar  is  placed.  It  was  for- 
merly divided  from  the  body  of  the 
church  by  a  screen  and  is  raised  above 
the  level. 

Chancellor,  in  ancient  times  a 
petty  officer  stationed  at  the  fence  of 
bars  or  lattice-work  in  a  law-court,  to 
introduce  such  functionaries  as  were 
entitled  to  pass  inside.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England  was  originally 
the  king's  chief  secretary,  to  whom 
petitions  were  referred.  He  is  now 
the  highest  judicial  functionary  in  the 
kingdom.  Several  of  the  United  States 
have  chancellors,  high  judicial  officers 
who  preside  over  courts  of  chancery. 

The  Chancellor  of  the  German  Em- 
pire is  an  officer,  the  extent  of  whose 
power  and  influence  has  never  been 
exactly  defined.  In  modern  Germany 
since  the  unification  of  the  German 
Empire  the  office  has  been  made  illus- 
trious by  its  association  with  the 
name  of  Bismarck,  the  first  to  hold 
that  position  under  the  new  regime. 
In  general  terms  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  German  Chancellor  is  an  executive 
of  very  great  powers,  being  at  once 
the  adviser  and  prime  minister  of  the 
Emperor. 

Chancellorsville,  Battle  of,  one 
of  the  great  battles  of  the  American 
Civil  War,  fought  at  Chancellorsville, 
Va.,  May  2  and  3,  1863.  Gen.  Jo- 
seph Hooker  commanded  the  Federal 
force,  and  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee  the 
Confederate  force.  Although  Hook- 


Chancery 


Chantry 


er's  army  was  superior  in  numbers, 
being  about  130,000  against  60,000  of 
the  Confederates,  the  advantage  at  the 
end  of  the  battle  lay  with  the  latter. 
During  a  flank  movement  the  llth 
corps  of  the  Federal  army,  under  Gen. 
O.  O.  Howard,  was  surprised  and 
thrown  into  a  panic  near  nightfall  of 
the  first  day.  The  flank  movement 
extended  so  far  that  the  bullets  of  the 
Confederates  were  turned  upon  their 
own  troops,  and  by  their  fire  "  Stone- 
wall "  Jackson  was  mortally  wound- 
ed. The  Federal  loss  was  18,000,  the 
Confederate  loss  13,000. 

Chancery,  in  law,  a  court  having 
special  defined  power.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  a  court  having  equity 
jurisdiction.  American  courts  of  equi- 
ty are,  hi  some  instances,  distinct 
from  those  of  law ;  in  others,  the  same 
tribunals  exercise  the  jurisdiction  both 
of  courts  of  law  and  equity,  though 
their  forms  of  proceeding  are  different 
in  their  two  capacities. 

Chandler,  Seth  C.,  an  American 
astronomer,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Sept.  16,  1845 ;  well  known  for  his  in- 
vestigations and  observations  of  the 
phenomena  of  variable  stars,  the  com- 
putation of  comet  orbits,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  J.  Ritchie,  Jr.,  of  Bos- 
ton, for  devising  a  system  of  code- 
telegrams  for  announcing  astronomical 
discoveries.  He  died  Dec.  31,  1913. 

Chandler,  William  Eaton,  an 
American  politician,  born  in  Concord, 
N.  H.,  Dec.  28,  1835.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  Law  School  in  1855, 
entered  the  New  Hampshire  Legisla- 
ture in  1862,  became  Judge  Advocate 
General  of  the  Navy  Department  in 
1865,  and  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
1882,  serving  three  years.  In  1887- 
1901  he  was  a  United  States  Senator 
from  New  Hampshire. 

Chang-Chow-Foo,  or  Chang- 
Chan,  a  city  of  China,  about  36  miles 
S.  W.  of  Amoy,  which  is  its  port.  It 
lies  in  a  valley  in  the  province  of  Fu- 
Chien,  and  is  surrounded  by  hills  and 
intersected  by  a  river.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  Fu-Chien  silk  industry. 

Changeling,  a  child  left  or  taken 
in  the  place  of  another. 

Chang-Sha,  a  city  of  China,  capi- 
tal of  the  Province  of  Hu-Nan,  on  the 
Hang-Kiang,  a  tributary  of  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang. 


Chanler,  William  Astor,  an 
American  explorer,  born  in  Newport, 
R.  I.,  June  11,  1867.  He  studied  at 
Harvard,  but  left  the  university  to 
make  explorations  in  Africa.  He  was 
elected  to  the  New  York  Legislature, 
and  to  Congress.  He  served  in  the 
war  with  Spain. 

Channel  Islands,  a  group  of  is- 
lands in  the  English  Channel,  off  the 
W.  coast  of  department  La  Manche,  in 
France.  They  belong  to  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  consist  of  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Alderney,  and  Sark,  with  some  de- 
pendent islets.  They  are  almost  ex- 
empt from  taxation,  and  their  inhab- 
itants enjoy  besides  all  the  privileges 
of  British  subjects.  Area  112  square 
miles,  pop.,  88,289. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  an 
American  preacher  and  writer ;  born 
in  Newport,  R.  I.,  April  7,  1780; 
studied  at  Harvard  College.  His  early 
views  are  said  to  have  been  evangeli- 
cal, but  he  soon  became  a  decided  Uni- 
tarian, and  by  his  zeal  was  termed 
the  "  Apostle  of  Unitarianism."  His 
first  appointment  as  a  preacher  was 
in  1803,  when  he  obtained  the  charge 
of  a  congregation  in  Federal  street, 
Boston.  He  died  in  Burlington,  Vt, 
Oct.  2,  1842. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  an 
American  poet ;  nephew  of  William  E. 
Channine.  the  elder;  born  in  Boston, 
Mass.,  June  10,  1818;  died  in  1901. 

Channing,  William  Henry,  an 
American  Unitarian  clergyman  and 
biographer;  nephew  of  W.  E.  Chan- 
ning, the  elder ;  born  in  Boston,  May 
25,  1810.  Settling  in  England,  he 
succeeded  James  Martineau  as  pastor 
at  Liverpool.  His  daughter  married 
Sir  Edwin  Arnold.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  23,  1884. 

Chantibnn,  or  Chantahon,  an 
important  commercial  port  of  Siam, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Chantibun  river, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  occupied  by  the 
French  as  security  for  the  fulfillment 
of  the  treaty  of  1893.  Pop.,  30,000. 

Chantry,  a  church  or  chapel  en- 
dowed for  the  maintenance  of  one  or 
more  priests,  for  the  purpose  of  sing- 
ing daily  masses  for  the  souls  of  the 
endowers,  and  such  others  as  they 
may  appoint.  Also  the  endowment  for 
the  performance  of  masses  for  the  soul 
of  the  donor,  or  others. 


Chanzy 

Clianzy,  Antoine  Eugene  Al- 
fred, a  French  General,  born  in  Nou- 
art  (Ardennes),  March  18,  1823;  en- 
tered the  artillery  as  a  private,  re- 
ceived a  commission  in  the  Zouaves. 
He  was  elected  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly, and  narrowly  escaped  being  shot 
by  the  Communists  in  1871.  In  1873- 
1879  he  was  Governor-General  of  AJ- 
geria.  Chosen  a  life  Senator  in  1875, 
he  was  pot  forward  for  the  presidency 
in  1879.  He  was  ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg  in  1879-1881,  and  after- 
ward commanded  the  6th  Army  Corps 
at  Chalons,  where  he  died  suddenly, 
Jan.  4,  1883. 

Chao-Chau,  a  city  of  China,  on 
the  Han-Kiang,  in  the  Province  of 
Kwang-tung,  195  miles  N.  E.  of  Hong- 
Kong. 

Chapala,  a  lake  in  Mexico,  on  the 
high  plateau  of  Jalisco,  surrounded  by 
steep,  bare  mountains. 

Chapel,  a  place  of  worship,  for- 
merly distinguished  from  a  church  by 
the  worship  to  be  performed;  churches 
being  for  general  use,  and  chapels  for 
private  use.  In  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  portions  of  the  main  build- 
ing, dedicated  to  particular  saints,  in 
honor  of  whom  a  service  is  there  per- 
formed, are  called  chapels.  The  word 
is  also  applied  to  an  association  of 
union  workmen  in  a  printing-office  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  and  enforc- 
ing order  among  themselves. 

Chapelle,  Placide  Louis,  an 
American  clergyman,  born  in  Mende, 
France.  Aug.  28,  1842.  He  came  to 
the  United  States  in  1859,  and  was 
ordained  a  Roman  Catholic  priest. 
For  five  years  he  was  a  missionary, 
and  from  1870  to  1891  held  pastorates 
in  Baltimore  and  Washington.  He 
was  made  coadjutor  archbishop  of 
Santa  Fe  in  1891,  archbishop  in  1894, 
and  archbishop  of  New  Orleans  in 
1897;  in  1898  he  became  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 
Philippines.  He  died  Aug.  9,  1905. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell,  Amer- 
ican Universalist  divine  (1814-80), 
was  the  author  of  valuable  moral  and 
ethical  works  for  young  people. 

Chapin,  John  R.,  an  American 
illustrator,  born  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
in  1823.  He  received  a  common  school 
education  and  studied  law,  but  took 
up  art.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  periodi- 


Charcot 

cal  illustration  in  the  United  States. 
In  1863  he  made  the  designs  for  the 
new  series  of  bills  for  the  National 
currency.  He  died  Nov.  12,  190-L 

Chaplain,  literally  a  person  who 
is  appointed  to  a  chapel,  as  a  clergy- 
man not  having  a  parish  or  similar 
charge.  Chaplains  in  the  United 
States  ansy  rank  as  captains  of  in- 
fantry ;  in  the  navy  they  have  the 
rank  of  lieutenant,  commander  and 
captain,  according  to  length  of  service. 

Clia-Poo,  or  Cha-Pn,  a  seaport 
town  of  China,  in  the  Province  of 
Cheh-Chiang  (or  Che-Kiang),  on  the 
N.  side  of  Hang-Chau  Bay,  35  miles 
from  Ning-Po. 

Chapter,  one  of  the  chief  divi- 
sions of  a  book.  As  the  rules  and 
statutes  of  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ments were  arranged  in  chapters,  so 
also  the  assembly  of  the  members  of  a 
religious  order,  and  of  canons,  was 
called  a  chapter. 

Chapter-House,  the  building  at- 
tached to  a  cathedral  or  religious 
house  in  which  the  chapter  meets  for 
the  transaction  of  business. 

Chapultepec,  a  rocky  elevation 
about  3  miles  S.  W.  of  the  City  of 
Mexico.  During  the  war  with  the 
United  States,  Gen.  Pillow  stormed 
the  castle  on  this  hill,  Sept  13,  1847. 
The  Emperor  Maximilian  made  Cha- 
pultepec his  principal  palace,  and  it 
is  now  occupied  by  the  President,  por- 
tions used  by  a  school  and  observa- 
tory being  still  reserved  for  them. 

Charade,  a  species  of  enigma,  or 
riddle,  the  subject  of  which  is  a  name 
or  word  that  is  proposed  for  solution 
from  an  enigmatical  description  of  its 
several  syllables  taken  separately  as  so 
many  individual  words,  and  then  from 
a  similar  description  of  the  whole 
name  or  word. 

Charcot,  Jean  Martin,  a  French 
physician,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  29, 
1825.  His  specialty  was  nervous  and 
mental  diseases,  and  he  performed 
many  curious  and  successful  experi- 
ments in  hypnotism  and  mental  sug- 
gestion. He  died  Aug.  16,  1893. 
His  son,  JEAN  MABTIN,  became  an 
eminent  scientist:  led  an  expedition 
to  discover  the  South  Pole  in  1908; 
and  while  he  failed  he  reached  lat. 
70°  S.,  and  mapped  120  miles  of 
hitherto  unknown  coast. 


Chares 


Charles 


Chares,  a  Rhodian  sculptor,  born 
in  Lindus,  Rhodes;  lived  about  290- 
280  B.  c.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Lysippus 
and  the  sculptor  of  the  Colossus  of 
Rhodes,  one  of  the  "  seven  wonders  of 
the  world." 

Charge  d'affaires,  a  representa- 
tive of  a  country  at  a  less  important 
foreign  court,  inferior  to  an  ambassa- 
dor, or  a  minister,  to  whom  is  intrust- 
ed all  matters  of  diplomacy. 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade, 
The,  or  "  Death  charge  of  the  600  at 
Balaclava,"  Oct.  25,  1854,  a  remark- 
able military  movement  made  by  the 
13th  Light  Dragoons,  the  17th  Lan- 
cers, the  llth  Hussars,  commanded  by 
Lord  Cardigan,  the  8th  Hussars,  and 
the  4th  Light  Dragoons.  The  Rus- 
sians were  advancing  in  great  strength 
to  cut  off  the  Turkish  force  from  the 
British.  Lord  Raglan  sent  an  order 
to  Lord  Lucan  to  advance,  and  Lord 
Lucan,  not  understanding  what  was 
intended,  applied  to  Captain  Nolan, 
who  brought  the  message,  and  Nolan 
replied :  "  There,  my  lord,  is  your 
enemy."  Lucan  then  gave  orders  to 
Lord  Cardigan  to  attack,  and  the  600 
men  rode  forward  into  the  jaws  of 
death.  In  20  minutes  12  officers  were 
killed  and  11  wounded;  147  men  were 
killed  and  110  wounded,  and  325  hors- 
es were  slain. 

Charing-Cross,  the  titular  center 
of  London,  so  named  from  a  cross 
which  stood  until  1647  at  the  village 
of  Charing  in  memory  of  Eleanor,  wife 
of  Edward  I.  It  is  now  a  triangular 
piece  of  roadway  at  Trafalgar  Square. 

Chariot,  in  ancient  times  a  kind  of 
carriage  used  either  for  pleasure  or  in 
war. 

Charivari,  an  imitative  word,  hav- 
ing its  origin  in  slang,  describing  a 
mock  serenade  of  discordant  music 
with  such  accompaniments  as  tin  ket- 
tles, shouting,  whistling,  groaning, 
hissing,  and  screaming,  and  the  like. 

Charlemagne,  Charles  the  Great, 
King  of  the  Franks,  and  subsequently 
Emperor  of  the  West,  was  born  in 
742,  probably  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  His 
father  was  Pepin  the  Short,  King  of 
the  Franks.  On  the  decease  of  his 
father,  in  768,  he  was  crowned  king, 
and  divided  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks 
with  his  younger  brother  Carloman,  at 
whose  d«ath  in  771  Charlemagne  made 


himself  master  of  the  whole  empire. 
He  attracted  by  his  liberality  the  most 
distinguished  scholars  to  his  court  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  where  he  died  and  was 
buried  in  814. 

Charleroi,  a  fortified  and  impor- 
tant manufacturing  town  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  Hainault,  on  the 
navigable  river  Sambre,  33  miles  S.  of 
Brussels.  The  town  is  the  center  of 
the  large  coal-basin  of  Charleroi.  It 
was  one  of  the  first  places  in  Belgium 
to  suffer  from  the  German  invasion, 
and  sturdily  but  ineffectually  met  the 
attack  of  Aug.  21-3,  1914.  See  AP- 
PENDIX: World  War. 

Charles  VII.,  King  of  France; 
born  in  Paris,  Feb.  22,  1403,  and 
though  only  the  fifth  son  of  Charles 

VI.  and  Isabella  of  Bavaria,  became, 
by  the  successive  deaths  of  his  elder 
brothers,      heir-presumptive      to     the 
crown.     That  he  should  ever  succeed 
to  it  was  then  extremely  problemati- 
cal, as  Henry  V.  of  England  was  pur- 
suing his  career  of  conquest,  and  short- 
ly afterward,  by  the  treaty  of  Troyes, 
secured  to  himself  the  hand  of  Charles' 
sister  Catharine,  and  the  succession  to 
the  French  throne  after  her  father's 
death.     On    the    King    of    England's 
death  in  1422  his  son  Henry  VI.  was 
proclaimed  King  of  France  at  Paris, 
The  war  with  the  national  party,  rep- 
resented by  the  Orleanist  faction,  with 
the  dauphin  at  their  head,  was  main- 
tained for  several  years  by  the  Eng- 
lish, under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of   Bedford.     So  successfully  did  the 
latter  conduct  operations  that  Charles 
was    nearly    ready    to    abandon    the 
struggle  when   his   fortunes   were  re- 
trieved by  one  of  the  most  singular  in- 
cidents recorded  in  history.    This  was 
the  arrival  in  his  camp  of  the  Maid 
of    Orleans2    who   by   the   enthusiasm 
which  she  inspired  turned  the  tide  of 
success  against  the  English.     Through 
the  intervention  of  the  Earl  of  Suf- 
folk   a    marriage    was    concluded    be- 
tween the  young  King  Henry  VI.  and 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  niece  of  Charles 

VII.  s  queen.     In  the  treaty  entered 
into  on  this  occasion  the  territory  of 
Maine    was    secretly    surrendered    to 
France,  and  subsequently,  on  hostili- 
ties being   resumed  between   the  two 
countries,  the  troops  of  Charles  con- 
quered the  whole  of  Guienne,  and  final- 
ly expelled  the  English  from  all  their 


Charles 


Charles 


possessions  in  France  except  Calais. 
The  last  years  of  Charles'  reign  were 
embittered  by  domestic  broils,  in  which 
his  son  and  successor  Louis  XI.  took 
a  prominent  part  against  his  father. 
He  died  at  the  castle  of  Mehun,  near 
Bourges,  on  July  22,  1401.     His  share 
in  the  treacherous  murder  of  the  Duke  j 
of  Burgundy,  and  base  abandonment  \ 
to  her  fate  of  Joan  of  Arc,  are  stains  j 
on  his   memory  which  can   never   be 
effaced. 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  France,  born 
in  1550,  ascended  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  10  years,  after  the  death  of  his 
brother  Francis  II.     During  his  reign 
occurred  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Day.    Charles  died,  childless,  in  I 
1574.    He  was  succeeded  by  his  broth- ' 
er  Henry  III. 

Charles  X.,  Comtc  d'Artpis, 
King  of  France ;  born  in  Versailles 
in  1757 ;  grandson  of  Louis  XV.,  the 
youngest  son  of  the  dauphin,  and 
brother  of  Louis  XVI.  After  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  he  entered 
France  with  the  title  of  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  kingdom,  and  issued  a 
judicious  proclamation,  promising  the 
reign  of  law  and  an  entire  oblivion 
of  the  past.  In  1824  he  succeeded  his 
brother,  Louis  XVIII.,  under  the  title 
of  Charles  X.,  and  gained  a  momen- 
tary popularity  by  the  abolition  of  the 
censorship  of  the  press.  He  was  ig- 
nominiously  driven  from  the  throne  in 
1830.  After  formally  abdicating  in 
favor  of  his  grandson,  the  Duke  de 
Bordeaux,  he  revisited  England,  re- 
sumed his  residence  for  a  short  time 
at  Holyrood,  and  finally  settled  at  Go- 
ritz  in  Styria,  where  he  died  of  chol- 
era in  1836. 

Charles  V.,  Emperor  of  Germany 
and  King  of  Spain  (in  the  latter  ca- 
pacity he  is  called  Charles  I.)  ;  the 
eldest  son  of  Philip,  Archduke  of  Aus- 
tria, and  of  Joanna,  the  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain ;  born 
in  Ghent,  Feb.  24,  1500.  Philip  was 
the  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
and  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  the 
Bo'd,  last  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Charles 
birth  gave  him  claim  to  the  fairest 
countries  of  Europe.  In  1519  Charles, 
on  the  death  of  Maximilian,  was  elect* 
ed  emperor. 

The  progress  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany  demanded  the  care  of  the 
new  emperor,  who  held  a  Diet  at 


Worms.  Luther,  who  appeared  at  this 
Diet  with  a  safe  conduct  from  Charles, 
defended  his  cause  with  energy  and 
boldness.  The  emperor  kept  silent; 
but  after  Luther's  departure  a  severe 
edict  appeared  against  him  in  the 
name  of  Charles,  who  thought  it  his 
interest  to  declare  himself  the  defend- 
er of  the  Roman  Church. 

After  the  defeat  and  capture  of 
Francis  I.  of  France  the  power  of 
Charles  became  a  source  of  uneasiness 
to  most  other  princes  of  Europe.  Pope 
Clement  VII.  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  league  of  the  principal 
States  of  Italy  against  the  emperor, 
but  their  in-directed  efforts  were  pro- 
ductive of  new  misfortunes.  Rome 
was  taken  by  storm  by  the  troops  of 
the  Constable  of  Bourbon,  sacked,  and 
the  Pope  himself  made  prisoner. 
Charles  V.  publicly  disavowed  the 
proceedings  of  the  Constable,  went 
into  mourning  with  his  court,  and  car- 
ried his  hypocrisy  so  far  as  to  order 
prayers  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
Pope.  On  restoring  the  holy  father  to 
liberty  he  demanded  a  ransom  of  400,- 
000  crowns  of  gold,  but  was  satisfied 
with  a  quarter  of  that  sum.  He  also 
released,  for  2,000,000,  the  French 
princes  who  had  been  given  to  him  as 
hostages.  Henry  VIII.  of  England 
now  allied  himself  with  the  French 
monarch  against  Charles,  who  accused 
Francis  of  haying  broken  his  word. 
The  war  terminated  in  1529  by  the 
treaty  of  Cambray,  of  which  the  con- 
ditions were  favorable  to  the  emperor. 
Charles  soon  after  left  Spain,  and  was 
crowned  in  Bologna  as  King  of  Lom- 
bardy  and  Roman  Emperor.  In  1530 
he  seemed  desirous,  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg,  to  reconcile  the  Reformers 
to  the  Roman  Church ;  but  not  suc- 
ceeding, he  issued  a  decree  against  the 
Protestants,  which  they  met  by  the 
Schmalkaldic  League.  He  also  pub- 
lished, in  1532,  a  law  of  criminal  pro- 
ceedure.  Having  compelled  Solyman  to 
retreat,  he  undertook,  in  1535,  an  ex- 
pedition against  Tunis,  reinstated  the 
dey,  and  released  20.000  Christian 
slaves. 

The  disturbances  caused  in  Ger- 
many by  the  Reformation  induced  the 
emperor  to  accede  to  the  peace  of 
Crespy  with  France  in  1545.  The  pol- 
icy of  Charles  was  to  reconcile  the 
two  parties,  and  with  this  view  he  al- 


Charles 


Charles 


ternately  threatened  and  courted  the 
Protestants.  After  some  show  of  ne- 
gotiation the  Protestant  princes  raised 
the  standard  of  war.  The  emperor 
declared  in  1546  the  heads  of  the 
league  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
excited  divisions  among  the  confed- 
erates, collected  an  army  in  haste,  and 
obtained  several  advantages  over  his 
enemies.  John  Frederick,  the  Elector 
of  Saxony,  was  taken  prisoner  in  the 
battle  of  Muhlberg  in  1547.  Charles 
received  him  sternly,  and  gave  him 
over  to  a  court-martial  consisting  of 
Italians  and  Spaniards,  under  the 
presidency  of  Alva,  which  condemned 
him  to  death.  The  elector  saved  his 
life  only  by  renouncing  his  electorate 
and  his  hereditary  estates,  but  he  re- 
mained a  prisoner.  Meanwhile  the 
emperor  appeared  somewhat  more  mod- 
erately inclined  toward  the  vanquished 
party.  On  coming  to  Wittenberg  he 
expressed  surprise  that  the  exercise  of 
the  Lutheran  worship  had  been  dis- 
continued. The  Landgrave  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  one  of  the  heads  of  the  Prot- 
estants, was  compelled  to  sue  for 
mercy.  Notwithstanding  his  promise 
Charles  deprived  him  of  his  freedom. 
After  having  dissolved  the  League  of 
Schmalkalden  the  emperor  again  occu- 
pied himself  with  the  plan  of  uniting 
all  religious  parties,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose issued  the  "  Interim,"  which  was 
as  fruitless  as  the  measures  proposed 
by  him  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg.  The 
fortunes  of  war  changed,  and  the 
Protestants  dictated  the  conditions  of 
the  treaty  of  Passau  in  1552. 

Charles  saw  all  his  plans  frustrated 
and  the  number  of  his  enemies  increas- 
ing. He  abdicated  the  imperial  throne, 
and  selected  for  his  residence  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Justus,  near  Plasencia 
in  Estremadura,  and  here  he  ex- 
changed sovereignty,  dominion,  and 
pomp  for  the  quiet  and  solitude  of  a 
cloister.  His  death  took  place  Sept. 
21,  1558. 

Charles  I.,  King  of  England  and 
Scotland ;  born  in  Scotland  in  1600 ; 
was  the  third  son  of  James  VI.  and 
Anne  of  Denmark.  Soon  after  the 
birth  of  his  son  James  succeeded  to 
the  crown  of  England,  and  on  the 
death  of  Prince  Henry  in  1612,  Rob- 
ert, the  second  son,  having  died  in  in- 
fancy, Charles  became  heir-apparent, 
but  was  not  created  Prince  of  Wales 


till  1616.  His  youth  appears  to  have 
passed  respectably,  little  being  record- 
ed of  him  previous  to  his  journey  into 
Spain  in  company  with  Buckingham, 
in  order  to  pay  his  court  in  person  to 
the  Spanish  Infanta.  Through  the 
arrogance  of  Buckingham  this  match 
was  prevented,  and  the  prince  was 
soon  after  contracted  to  Henrietta 
Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of 
France.  In  1625  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  father. 
Charles  began  to  employ  his  threat- 
ened mode  of  raising  funds  by  loans, 
benevolences,  and  similar  unpopular 
proceedings ;  which  were  wholly  op- 
posed to  the  rising  notions  of  civil 
liberty  throughout  the  nation,  and  to 
the  constitutional  doctrine  which  ren- 
dered the  Commons  the  guardian  and 
dispenser  of  the  public  treasure.  Civil 
war  followed,  and  Charles  was  defeat- 
ed and  captured.  He  was  tried  before 
a  special  tribunal  on  the  charge  that 
he  had  appeared  in  arms  against  the 
Parliamentary  forces,  and  sentence  of 
death  was  pronounced  against  him, 
and  only  three  days  were  allowed  him 
to  prepare  for  his  fate.  The  interpo- 
sition of  foreign  powers  was  vain. 
After  passing  the  three  days  in  re- 
ligious exercises,  and  in  tender  inter- 
views with  his  friends  and  family,  he 
was  led  to  the  scaffold.  His  execution 
took  place  before  the  Banqueting 
House,  Whitehall,  on  Jan.  30,  1649, 
where  the  ill-fated  king  submitted  to 
the  fatal  stroke,  in  the  49th  year  of 
his  age. 

Charles  II.,  King  of  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Scotland ;  son  of  Charles  I. 
and  Henrietta  Maria  of  France ;  born 
in  London,  May  29,  1630.  He  was  a 
refugee  at  The  Hague  on  the  death  of 
his  father,  on  which  he  immediately 
assumed  the  royal  title.  He  first  in- 
tended to  proceed  to  Ireland,  but  was 
prevented  by  the  progress  of  Crom- 
well. He  therefore  listened  to  an  in- 
vitation from  the  Scots,  who  had  pro- 
claimed him  their  king  on  Feb.  5, 
1649,  and  arrived  in  the  Cromarty 
Firth,  June  16,  1650.  In  1651  he 
was  crowned  at  Scone ;  but  the  ap- 
proach of  Cromwell  with  his  conquer- 
ing army  soon  rendered  his  abode  in 
Scotland  unsafe.  Hoping  to  be  joined 
by  the  English  royalists,  he  took  the 
spirited  resolution  of  passing  Crom- 
well and  entering  England,  Carlisle 


Charles 


Charles 


readily  throwing  open  its  gates  to  re- 
ceive him.  He  was  immediately  pur- 
sued by  that  active  commander,  who 
gained  the  battle  of  Worcester,  and 
Charles,  after  a  variety  of  imminent 
hazards,  being  on  one  occasion  shel- 
tered for  24  hours  in  the  branches  of 
the  famous  Boscobel  oak,  reached 
Shoreham,  in  Sussex,  and  effected  a 
passage  to  France. 

It  is  the  province  of  history  to  state 
the  circumstances  that  produced  the 
Restoration,  which  General  Monk  so 
conducted  that  Charles,  without  a 
struggle,  succeeded  at  once  to  all  those 
dangerous  prerogatives  which  it  had 
cost  the  nation  so  much  blood  and 
treasure,  first  to  abridge  and  then  to 
abolish.  This  unrestrictive  return 
was  not  more  injurious  to  the  nation 
than  fatal  to  the  family  of  the  Stu- 
arts, which,  had  a  more  rational  pol- 
icy prevailed,  might  have  occupied  the 
throne  at  the  present  time.  On  May  29, 
1660,  Charles  entered  his  capital  amid 
universal  and  almost  frantic  acclama- 
tions ;  and  the  different  civil  and  re- 
ligious parties  vred  with  each  other  in 
loyalty  and  submission.  In  1662  he 
married  the  Infanta  of  Portugal,  a 
prudent  and  virtuous  princess,  but  in 
no  way  calculated  to  acquire  the  af- 
fection of  a  man  like  Charles.  The 
indolence  of  his  temper  and  the  ex- 
penses of  his  licentious  way  of  life 
soon  involved  him  in  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties ;  and  the  unpopular  sale  of 
Dunkirk  to  the  French  was  one  of  his 
most  early  expedients  to  relieve  him- 
self. After  a  troubled  reign  he  died 
from  the  consequences  of  an  apoplectic 
fit,  in  February,  1685,  in  the  55th 
year  of  his  age. 

Charles  XII.,  King  of  Sweden; 
born  in  Stockholm,  June  27,  1682; 
was  instructed  in  the  languages,  his- 
tory, geography,  and  mathematics.  On 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1697  when 
he  was  but  15  years  old,  he  was  de- 
clared of  age  by  the  estates.  Fred- 
erick IV.  of  Denmark,  Augustus  II.  of 
Poland,  and  the  Czar  Peter  I.  of  Rus- 
sia concluded  an  alliance  which  re- 
sulted in  the  Northern  War.  The 
Danish  troops  first  invaded  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp. 
Charles  proposed  in  the  Council  of 
State  the  most  energetic  measures 
against  Denmark.  After  making  some 
arrangements  respecting  the  internal 


administration  he  embarked  at  Carls- 
crona  in  May,  1700.  Thirty  ships  of 
the  line  and  a  great  number  of  small 
transports,  strengthened  by  an  English 
and  Dutch  squadron,  appeared  before 
Copenhagen.  Arrangements  were  being 
made  for  the  disembarkation  when 
Charles,  full  of  impatience,  plunged 
from  his  boat  into  the  water,  and  was 
the  first  who  reached  land.  The  Danes 
retired  before  the  superior  power  of 
the  enemy.  Copenhagen  was  on  the 
point  of  being  besieged  when  the 
peace  negotiated  at  Travendal  was 
signed  (Aug.  8,  1700),  by  which  the 
Duke  of  Holstein  was  confirmed  in  all 
the  rights  of  which  it  had  been  at- 
tempted to  deprive  him.  Thus  ended 
the  first  enterprise  of  Charles  XII., 
in  which  he  exhibited  as  much  intelli- 
gence and  courage  as  disinterested- 
ness. 

After  thus  checking  Denmark  thft 
attacks  of  Augustus  and  Peter  were 
to  be  repelled.  The  former  was  be- 
sieging Riga,  the  latter  menaced  Nar- 
va and  the  country  situated  about  the 
Gulf  of  Finland.  Without  returning 
to  his  capital,  which  he  never  revisit- 
ed, Charles  caused  20,000  men  to  be 
transported  to  Livonia,  and  went  to 
meet  the  Russians,  whom  he  found 
80,000  strong  in  a  fortified  camp  un- 
der the  walls  of  Narva.  On  Nov.  30, 
1700,  between  8,000  and  10,000  Swedes 
placed  themselves  in  order  of  battle, 
under  the  fire  of  the  Russians,  and 
the  engagement  began.  In  less  than 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  Russian 
camp  was  taken  by  storm.  Thirty 
thousand  Russians  perished  on  the 
field  or  threw  themselves  into  the 
Narva ;  the  rest  were  taken  prisoners 
or  dispersed.  After  this  victory  Charles 
crossed  the  Dwina,  attacked  the  in- 
trenchments  of  the  Saxons,  and  gained 
a  decisive  victory.  Charles  might  now 
have  concluded  a  peace  which  would 
have  made  him  the  arbiter  of  the 
North ;  but  instead  of  so  doing  he  pur- 
sued Augustus  to  Poland.  Augustus 
attempted  in  vain  to  enter  into  nego- 
tiations with  Charles,  who  refused  to 
negotiate  with  him. 

The  war  continued ;  the  Swedes 
gained  a  brilliant  victory  at  Clissau ; 
in  1703  all  Poland  was  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  conquerors;  the  cardinal 
primate  declared  the  throne  vacant; 
and  by  the  influence  of  Charles  the 


Charles 

new  choice  fell  on  Stanislaus  Leczin- 
sky.  Augustus  hoped  to  be  secure  in 
Saxony,  as  Peter  had  meanwhile  oc- 
cupied Ingria,  and  founded  St.  Peters- 
burg, at  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  Bat 
the  victor  of  Narva  despised  an  enemy 
on  whom  he  hoped,  sooner  or  later, 
to  take  an  easy  revenge,  and  invaded 
Saxony.  At  Altranstadt  he  dictated 
the  conditions  of  peace  in  1706.  The 
Livonian  Patkul,  who  was  the  prime 
mover  of  the  alliance  against  Sweden, 
was  delivered  up  to  him  on  his  de- 
mand, and  was  broken  on  the  wheel. 
The  King  of  Sweden,  however,  before 
he  left  Germany,  required  the  em- 
peror to  grant  to  the  Lutherans  in  Si- 
lesia perfect  freedom  of  conscience ; 
and  the  requisition  was  complied  with. 

In  September,  1707,  the  Swedes  left 
Saxony.  They  were  43,000  strong, 
well  clothed,  well  disciplined,  and  en- 
riched by  the  contributions  imposed 
on  the  conquered.  Six  thousand  men 
remained  for  the  protection  of  the 
King  of  Poland;  with  the  rest  of  the 
army  Charles  took  the  shortest  route 
to  Moscow.  But  having  reached  the 
region  of  Smolensk  he  altered  his  plan, 
at  the  suggestion  of  the  Cossack  bet- 
man  Mazeppa,  and  proceeded  to  the 
Ukraine,  in  the  hope  that  the  Cossacks 
would  join  him.  But  Peter  laid  waste 
their  country,  and  the  proscribed  Ma- 
zeppa could  not  procure  the  promised 
aid.  General  Lewenhaupt,  who  was 
to  bring  reinforcements  and  provisions 
from  Livonia,  arrived  with  only  a  few 
troops.  Pultawa,  abundantly  fur- 
nished with  stores,  was  about  to  be 
invested  when  Peter  appeared  with 
70,000  men.  Charles,  in  reconnoiter- 
ing,  was  dangerously  wounded  in  the 
thigh ;  consequently,  in  the  battle  of 
July  8,  1709,  he  was  obliged  to  issue 
his  commands  from  a  litter,  without 
being  able  to  encourage  his  soldters  by 
his  presence.  They  were  obliged  to 
yield  to  superior  force,  and  the  enemy 
obtained  a  complete  victory.  Charles 
saw  the  flower  of  his  army  fall  into 
the  power  of  those  Russians  so  easily 
vanquished  at  Narva.  He  himself,  to- 
gether with  Mazeppa,  fled  with  a  small 
guard,  and  was  obliged  to  go  several 
miles  on  foot.  He  finally  found  ref- 
nge  and  an  honorable  reception  at 
Bender,  in  the  Turkish  territory. 

After  his  romantic  return  from  Tur- 
key to  Sweden  Charles  continued  to 


Charles 

fight.  He  was  besieging  Frederikshall, 
when,  on  Nov.  30,  1718,  as  he  was  in 
the  trenches,  leaning  against  the  para- 
pet and  examining  the  workmen,  he 
was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  cannon 
ball.  He  was  found  dead  in  the  same 
position,  his  hand  on  his  sword,  in  his 
pocket  the  portrait  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  and  a  prayer  book.  A  century 
afterwards,  Nov.  30,  1818,  Charles 
XIV.  caused  a  monument  to  be  erect- 
ed on  the  spot  where  he  fell. 

Charles  XIII.,  King  of  Sweden; 
born  Oct.  7,  1748;  second  son  of  King 
Adolphus  Frederick,  and  Louisa  Ul- 
rica, sister  of  Frederick  the  Great  of 
Prussia.  His  education  was  directed 
chiefly  to  the  learning  of  naval  tactics, 
for  which  purpose  he  engaged  in  sev- 
eral cruises  in  the  Cattegat.  The 
death  of  Adolphus  Frederick  recalled 
him  to  Sweden,  where  he  took  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  revolution  of  1772. 
His  brother  Gustavus  III.  appointed 
him  governor-general  of  Stockholm, 
and  Duke  of  Sundermannland.  In 
1774  he  married  Hedwig  Elizabeth 
Charlotte,  princess  6f  Holstein-Got- 
torp.  In  the  war  with  Russia  in  1788 
he  received  the  command  of  the  fleet, 
defeated  the  Russians  in  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  and,  in  the  most  dangerous 
season  of  the  year,  brought  back  his 
fleet  in  safety  to  the  harbor  of  Carls- 
crona,  after  which  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  Finland.  After 
the  murder  of  Gustavus  III.  in  1792, 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  re- 
gency, and  happily  for  Sweden,  pre- 
served the  country  at  peace  with  all 
other  nations.  In  1796  he  resigned 
the  government  to  Gustavus  Adolphus 
IV.,  who  had  become  of  age,  and  re- 
tired as  a  private  man  to  his  castle 
of  Rosersberg.  A  revolution  hurled 
Gustavus  Adolphus  IV.,  in  1809,  from 
the  throne,  and  placed  Charles  at  the 
head  of  the  State,  as  administrator  of 
the  realm,  and  some  months  after- 
ward, June  20,  1809,  as  King  of  Swe- 
den, at  a  very  critical  period.  He  had 
already  adopted  Prince  Christian  of 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg  as 
his  successor,  and  after  his  death, 
Marshal  Bernadotte,  who  was  elected 
by  the  Estates,  in  August,  1810,  to 
take  the  place  of  the  prince.  On  him 
he  bestowed  his  entire  confidence.  May 
27,  1811,  he  founded  the  Order  of 
Charles  XIII.,  which  is  conferred 


Charles 


Charles  Eniannel 


solely  on  Freemasons  of  high  degree. 
June  21,  1816,  he  acceded  to  the  holy 
alliance.  His  prudent  conduct  in  the 
war  between  France  and  Russia  in 
1812  procured  Sweden  an  indemnifica- 
tion for  Finland  by  the  acquisition  of 
Norway,  Nov.  4,  1814.  He  died  Feb. 
5,  1818. 

Charles,  Archduke  of  Austria; 
third  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II. ; 
born  in  Florence,  Sept.  5,  1771.  In 
his  20th  year  he  distinguished  himself 
in  the  battles  of  Jemappes  and  Neer- 
winden,  in  both  of  which  the  French 
republican  armies  were  beaten,  and 
was  appointed  governor-general  of 
Belgium  in  1793.  In  the  campaign  the 
following  year  victory  favored  the 
French  under  Pichegru,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands were  lost.  He  was  appointed 
in  1796  field-marshal  of  the  empire 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Aus- 
trian army  on  the  Rhine,  and  after 
notable  victories  in  the  winter  of  1797 
he  captured  Kehl,  the  only  position 
the  French  occupied  in  Germany. 
Meanwhile  Bonaparte  had  finished  his 
conquest  of  Italy,  and  was  rapidly 
pushing  his  way  into  the  heart  of  Aus- 
tria. Charles  was  sent  against  him ; 
but  it  was  too  late.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Leo- 
ben  (1797),  which  was  followed  by 
the  peace  of  Campo  Formio.  After 
the  fruitless  congress  at  Rastadt  he 
again  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Rhine  army.  In  the  protracted  strug- 
gle in  the  heart  of  Germany  Napo- 
leon's genius  was  on  every  occasion 
triumphant,  once  only,  at  Aspern,  did 
Charles  snatch  a  victory  from  him 
(May  21,  22,  1809),  but  the  bloody 
battle  of  Wagram  (July  5,  6)  laid 
Austria  at  the  feet  of  the  French  em- 
peror. The  military  career  of  Charles 
closes  here.  His  literary  work  is  com- 
prised in  "  Principles  of  Strategy " 
(1814).  He  died  April  30,  1847. 

Charles  Edward  Stuart,  called 
THE  PRETENDER,  grandson  of  James 
II.,  King  of  England,  son  of  James 
Edward  and  Clementina,  daughter  of 
Prince  Sobieski ;  born  in  Rome  in 
1720.  The  last  scion  of  the  royal 
house  of  Stuart,  xrom  the  very  cradle 
he  was  inspired  with  an  impulse  that 
induced  him,  at  the  early  age  of  22, 
to  attempt  the  recovery  of  the  throne 
of  his  ancestors.  Supported  by  the 
court  of  Rome,  he  went  to  Paris  in 


1742,  and  succeeding  in  gaining  over 
to  his  views  Louis  XV.,  and  an  army 
was  on  the  point  of  sailing  from 
Dunkirk  for  England  when  the  Eng- 
lish Admiral  Norris  dispersed  the 
whole  French  fleet  before  it  had 
gained  the  open  sea.  He  now  resolved 
to  trust  to  his  own  exertions.  With 
borrowed  money,  and  seven  trusty  of- 
ficers, he  landed,  July  28,  1745,  at 
Lochnanuadh,  Scotland,  and  found 
many  adherents,  who  went  over  to  his 
party.  With  this  he  marched  for- 
ward, conquered  the  British  troops 
and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
Regent  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. His  force  was  now  7,000 
strong.  With  this  he  advanced,  and 
laid  siege  to  Carlisle,  Nov.  15,  which, 
after  three  days,  surrendered,  and 
supplied  him  with  arms. 

He  now  caused  his  father  to  be 
proclaimed  King,  and  himself  Regent 
of  England;  removed  his  headquar- 
ters to  Manchester,  and  soon  found 
himself  within  100  miles  of  London, 
where  many  of  his  friends  awaited 
his  arrival.  He  was  compelled  to  re- 
tire in  the  beginning  of  1746.  As  a 
final  attempt  he  risked  the  battle  of 
Culloden,  against  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, April  16,  1746,  in  which  his 
army  was  defeated  and  dispersed. 
Five  months  later,  on  Sept.  20,  1746, 
after  much  wandering  and  hardship, 
he  sailed  from  Scotland,  and  arrived 
in  France  destitute  of  everything.  By 
the  interest  of  Madame  de  Pompadour 
Charles  now  received  an  annual  pen- 
sion of  200.000  livres  for  life ;  he  had 
also  12,000  doubloons  yearly  from 
Spain. 

He  died  Jan.  31,  1788,  in  the  68th 
year  of  his  life.  His  body  was  car- 
ried to  Frascati,  and  entombed  in  a 
style  worthy  of  a  king.  A  scepter, 
crown,  and  sword,  and  the  escutch- 
eons of  England  and  Scotland  adorned 
his  coffin ;  and  his  only  brother  then 
living,  the  Cardinal  of  York,  per- 
formed the  funeral  services  for  "dead 
King  Charles."  The  Cardinal  of  York 
received  a  pension  from  Great  Britain 
after  1799,  and  died  in  Frascati,  July 
13,  1807. 

Charles  Emanuel  I.,  Duke  of 
Savoy,  surnamed  THE  GREAT;  born  at 
castle  of  Rivpli  in  1562.  He  proved 
his  courage  in  the  battles  of  Mon- 
brun,  Vigo,  Asti,  Chatillon,  Ostage, 


Charles  I. 


Charlton 


at  the  siege  of  Berne,  and  on  the 
walls  of  Suza.  He  died  of  apoplexy  in 
Savillon,  in  1630. 

Charles  Martel,  son  of  Pepin 
Heristal  (mayor  of  the  palace  under 
the  last  kings  of  the  Merovingian 
dynasty).  His  father  had  governed  un- 
der the  weak  Kings  of  France  with  so 
much  justice  that  he  was  enabled  to 
make  his  office  hereditary  in  his  fam- 
ily. Charles  rendered  his  reign  fa- 
mous by  the  victory  in  October,  732, 
over  the  Saracens.  He  died  in  741. 

Charles  I.,  CHAKLES  FRANCIS  JO- 
SEPH, Emperor  of  Austria  and  King 
Of  Hungary;  born  Aug.  17,  1887; 
grand-nephew  of  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  (died  Nov.  21,  1916)  ;  mar- 
ried Zita,  Princess  of  Bourbon  and 
Parma,  Oct.  21,  1911,  succeeded  to  the 
crowns  on  the  death  of  Francis  Jo- 
seph ;  heir  apparent,  Archduke  Fran- 
cis Joseph  Otto,  born  Nov.  20,  1912. 
Although  bound  by  the  league  with 
Germany  the  young  Emperor  mani- 
fested strong  desires  for  peace,  and 
early  made  himself  exceedingly  popu- 
lar by  his  democratic  conduct. 

Charleston,  a  city,  port  of  entry, 
and  county-seat  of  Charleston  Co., 
S.  C. ;  the  first  city  in  population  and 
importance  in  the  State,  situated  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Ashley  and  Coop- 
er rivers,  7  miles  from  the  ocean. 
Charleston  has  one  of  the  safest  and 
most  commodious  harbors  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  defended  by  Forts 
Sumter  and  Moultrie.  Area,,  5% 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1910)  58,833. 

Charleston  was  founded  in  1670,  re- 
ceiving from  France  about  1685  a 
large  influx  of  Protestant  refugees. 
It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1780, 
but  evacuated  in  1782.  It  was  here 
that  the  first  open  movement  was 
mado  in  favor  of  secession.  In  1860 
and  1861  the  harbor  was  the  scene  of 
several  conflicts,  and  Fort  Sumter 
was  reduced  to  ruins.  In  August, 
1863,  the  city  was  bombarded,  and  in 
February,  1865,  after  565  days  of 
continuous  military  operations,  dur- 
ing which  period  2,550  shells  reached 
the  city,  it  was  occupied  by  Federal 
troops.  On  Aug.  31  and  Sept.  1, 
1886,  the  city  was  partially  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake.  Earth  tremblings 
continued  for  some  months  thereafter, 
but  with  indomitable  energy  the  city 


was  soon  restored  to  its  former  beauty 
and  prosperity. 

Charleston,  city  and  capital  of 
Kanawha  county  and  of  the  State  of 
West  Virginia;  at  junction  of  the 
Great  Kanawha  and  Elk  rivers  and 
on  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  and  other 
railroads;  130  miles  S.  W.  of  Wheel- 
ing. It  is  an  important  commercial 
center,  with  steamer  connections  with 
all  Ohio  and  Mississippi  river  ports; 
is  in  a  bituminous  coal,  salt,  iron, 
petroleum,  and  natural  <  gas  section; 
has  shipyards  and  railroad  repair 
shops;  and  manufactures  fire-brick, 
wire  nails,  engines,  boilers,  and  woolen 
goods.  Pop.  (1910)  22,996. 

Charlestown,  a  former  city  and 
seaport  of  Massachusetts,  since  1873 
part  of  the  municipality  of  Boston, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  bridges 
across  Charles  river.  Bunker  Hill 
is  in  its  limits,  and  there  is,  on  the 
site,  a  commemorative  monument  220 
feet  high,  the  cornerstone  of  which 
was  laid  by  Lafayette  in  1821. 

Charlestown,  a  village  ar.d  county- 
seat  of  Jefferson  Co.,  W.  Va.,  noted 
as  being  the  place  of  the  capture, 
trial,  and  execution  (Dec.  2,  1859), 
of  John  Brown.  Pop.  (1910)  22,996. 

Charlotte,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.  C.;  the  center 
of  the  Southern  cotton  mill  industry, 
having  100  mills  within  a  radius  of 
200  miles.  The  Mecklenburg  Decla- 
ration of  Independence  was  adopted 
here  in  1775.  Pop.  (1910)  34.014. 

Charlottenlmrg,  a  town  of  Prus- 
sia, about  3  miles  from  Berlin,  with  a 
royal  palace  and  park,  also  a  num- 
ber of  industrial  and  manufacturing 
establishments.  Pop.  (1910)  305,978. 

Charlottesville,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Albermarle  Co.,  Va.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  University  of  Virginia  and 
of  Monticello,  the  home  of  Thomas 
Jefferson.  Pop.  (1910)  6,765. 

Charlottetown,  a  city  and  capital 
of  Prince  Edward  Island,  Canada,  on 
Hillsborough  bay,  and  the  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island  railway.  Pop.  (1911) 
11,198. 

Charlton,  John,  an  English  ar- 
tist, born  in  Bamborough,  Northum- 
berland, June  28,  1849.  Died  in  1893. 

Charlton,  John,  a  Canadian 
statesman,  born  near  Caledonia,  N. 
Y.,  Feb.  3,  1829.  He  removed  to 


Charm 


Chase 


Canada  in  1849,  and  entered  business 
and  political  life.  He  was  elected  as 
a  Liberal  to  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons  in  1872,  and  held  his  seat 
until  his  death.  He  was  best  known 
in  moral  legislation.  He  died  in  1910. 

Charm,  anything  believed  to  pos- 
sess some  occult  or  supernatural  pow- 
er, such  as  an  amulet,  spell,  etc. 

Charnel-house,  a  chamber  or 
building  under  or  near  churches  where 
the  bones  of  the  dead  are  deposited. 

Charon,  the  ferryman  who  conduc- 
ted the  souls  of  the  departed  in  a  boat 
across  the  Stygian  lake  to  the  infernal 
regions. 

Charpoy,  in  the  East  Indies,  a 
small,  portable  bed,  consisting  of  a 
wooden  frame  resting  on  four  legs, 
with  bands  across  to  support  the  bed- 
ding. 

Charqni,  jerked  beef,  the  Chilian 
name  of  which  the  English  term  is  a 
corruption. 

Chart,  a  representation  of  a  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface  projected  on  a 
plane.  The  term  is  commonly  re- 
stricted to  those  intended  for  navi- 
gator's use,  on  which  merely  outlines 
of  coasts,  islands,  etc.,  are  represented. 
A  globular  chart  is  a  chart  construct- 
ed on  a  globular  projection.  A  Mer- 
cator's  chart  is  a  chart  on  the  pro- 
jection of  Mercator.  A  plane  chart 
is  a  representation  of  some  part  of 
the  superficies  of  the  earth,  in  which 
the  spherical  form  is  disregarded,  the 
meridians  drawn  parallel,  the  parallels 
of  latitude  at  equal  distances,  and  the 
degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude 
equal.  A  selengraphical  chart  is  a 
chart  representing  the  surface  of  _the 
moon ;  and  a  topographical  chart  is  a 
chart  of  a  particular  place,  or  of  a 
small  part  of  the  earth. 

Charter,  a  written  instrument,  ex- 
ecuted with  usual  forms,  given  as  evi- 
dence of  a  grant,  contract,  or  other 
important  transacation  between  man 
and  man. 

Charter-house  a  celebrated 
school  and  charitable  foundation  in 
London,  England. 

Charter  Oak,  a  tree  which  for- 
merly stood  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in 
the  hollow  trunk  of  which  the  colonial 
charter  is  said  to  have  been  hidden. 
The  story  is  that  when  •Governor  An- 


dros  _went  to  Hartford  in  1687  to  de- 
mand the  surrender  of  the  charter, 
the  debate  in  the  Assembly  over  his 
demand  was  prolonged  until  darkness 
set  in,  when  the  lights  were  suddenly 
extinguished,  and  a  patriot,  Captain 
Wadsworth,  escaped  with  the  docu- 
ment and  hid  it  in  the  oak.  The  ven- 
erable tree  was  preserved  with  great 
care  until  1856,  when  it  was  blown 
down  in  a  storm. 

Charter  Party,  an  agreement  in 
writing  concerning  the  hire  of  a  ves- 
sel and  the  freight,  containing  the 
name  and  burden  of  the  vessel,  the 
names  of  the  owner,  master,  and 
freighter,  and  every  other  particular 
as  to  rate  of  freight,  duration  of  voy- 
age, time  of  loading  and  unloading,  etc. 

Chartist,  a  name  given  to  a  politi- 
cal party  in  England  whose  views 
were  embodied  in  a  document  called 
the  "People's  Charter."  The  chief 
points  were,  universal  suffrage,  vote 
by  ballot,  annual  parliaments,  pay- 
ment of  members,  equal  electoral  di- 
visions, and  the  abolition  of  property 
qualification  for  members. 

Ciiartres,  Robert  Philippe 
Louis  Eugene  Ferdinand  D' Or- 
leans (Dnc  de)  grandson  of  Louis 
Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  was 
born  in  Paris,  Nov.  9,  1840.  When 
only  two  years  old  he  lost  his  father, 
and  six  years  later  the  Revolution 
drove  him,  along  with  his  family,  into 
exile.  He  joined  the  Union  army  in 
the  first  campaign  of  the  American 
Civil  War  in  1862.  Died  in  1910. 

Chartreuse,  La  Grande,  a  fa- 
mous monastery  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Isere,  14  miles  N.  of 
Grenoble,  among  lofty  mountains,  at 
an  elevation  of  3,281  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  access  to  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult. It  was  built  in  1084,  but  hav- 
ing been  several  times  pillaged  and 
burnt  down,  the  present  building  was 
erected  after  1676. 

Charybdis,  an  eddy  or  whirlpool 
in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  celebrated 
in  ancient  times,  and  regarded  as  the 
more  dangerous  to  navigators  because 
in  endeavoring  to  escape  it  they  ran 
the  risk  of  being  wrecked  upon  Scy- 
lla,  a  rock  opposite  to  it. 

Chase,  Ann,  an  American  patriot; 
born  in  Ireland  in  1809 ;  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1818 ;  settled  in  New 


Chase 

Orleans  in  1832 ;  removed  to  Tampico, 
Mex.,  in  the  following  year,  where 
she  met  and  married  Franklin  Chase, 
United  States  consul,  in  1836.  Dur- 
ing the  War  with  Mexico,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  her  husband,  she  remained 
at  the  consulate  to  protect  the  Amer- 
ican records.  On  one  occasion  a  mob 
attempted  to  pull  down  the  American 
flag  that  floated  over  the  consulate, 
but  she  protected  it  with  drawn  re- 
volver, and  declared  that  the  flag 
should  not  be  touched  except  over  her 
dead  body.  Later  through  her  efforts 
the  city  of  Tampico  was  taken.  She 
died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y..  Dec.  24,  1874. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  an 
American  jurist ;  born  in  Cornish,  N. 
H.,  Jan.  13,  1808;  educated  at  Wind- 
sor, Vt.,  in  his  uncle's  family  at  Co- 
lumbus, O.,  and  in  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege; taught  school  in  Washington, 
while  studying  law  with  William 
Wirt;  opened  law  practice  in  Cincin- 
nati. In  1846  he  argued  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law  with  William  H.  Seward,  in 
a  celebrated  case,  and  his  support  of 
the  anti-slavery  cause  soon  made  him 
a  leader  of  the  Free  Soil  and  Re- 
publican parties.  In  1849  he  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate; 
in  1855  Governor  of  Ohio;  in  1860 
was  a  prominent  candidate  for  the  Re- 
publican presidential  nomination ;  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by 
President  Lincoln,  in  1861,  and  in 
1864  became  Chief -Justice,  in  which 
office  he  presided  at  the  impeachment 
trial  of  President  Johnson.  He  died 
in  New  York  city,  May  7,  1873. 

Chase,  Samuel,  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  American  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence; born  in  Somerset  Co., 
Md.,  April  17,  1741.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  the  age  of  20.  Having 
become  a  member  of  the  colonial  legis- 
lature, he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
bold  opposition  to  the  royal  governor. 
He  took  the  lead  in  denouncing  and 
resisting  the  famous  Stamp  Act.  His 
revolutionary  spirit  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  active  adversaries  of  the 
British  government  in  his  State.  The 
Maryland  Convention  of  June  22, 
1774,  appointed  him  to  attend  the 
meeting  of  the  General  Congress  at 
Philadelphia  in  September  of  that 
year.  He  was  also  present  at  the 
session  of  December  following,  and  in 
the  subsequent  Congresses  during  the 


Chasseni 

most  critical  periods  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War.  That  of  1776  deputed 
him  on  a  mission  to  Canada  along 
with  Dr.  Franklin,  Charles  Carroll, 
of  Carrollton,  and  the  Rev.  John  Car- 
roll, afterward  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore.  He  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  with 
promptitude.  In  June,  1783,  the 
legislature  of  Maryland  sent  him  to 
London  as  a  commissioner  to  recover 
stock  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and 
large  sums  of  money  which  belonged 
the  State.  In  1791  he  accepted  the 
appointment  of  chief-justice  of  the 
General  Court  of  Maryland.  Five 
years  afterward  President  Washing- 
ton made  him  an  associate  judge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  He  was  impeached  by  the 
National  House  of  Representatives. 
The  trial  of  the  judge  before  the  Sen- 
ate is  memorable  on  account  of  the 
excitement  which  it  produced,  the 
ability  with  which  he  was  defended, 
and  the  nature  of  his  acquittal.  He 
continued  to  exercise  his  judicial  func- 
tions with  the  highest  reputation  till 
1811.  He  died  June  19  of  that  year. 

Chase,  William  Henry,  an  Amer- 
ican military  officer ;  born  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1798;  was  graduated  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
entered  the  Confederate  army,  and 
was  prominent  in  the  seizure  of  the 
Pensacola  navy  yard.  He  died  in 
Pensacola,  Fla.,  Feb.  8,  1870. 

Chase,  William  Merritt,  an 
American  artist,  born  in  Franklin; 
Ind.,  Nov.  1,  1849.  He  studied  paint- 
ing at  the  National  Academy  and  sub- 
sequently in  Europe  with  Piloty,  and 
made  a  specialty  of  portraits  and 
figure  pieces.  He  died  Oct.  25,  1916. 

Chasing,  the  art  of  working  decor- 
ative forms  in  low-relief  in  gold,  sil- 
ver, or  other  metals. 

Chassaignac,  Charles  Louis,  an 
American  physician ;  born  in  New 
Orleans,  Jan.  5,  1862;  was  graduated 
at  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
University  of  Louisiana;  and  was 
president  and  Professor  of  Genito- 
Urinary  Diseases  at  the  New  Orleans 
Polyclinic  in  1902. 

Chasseur,  a  male  attendant  upon 
persons  of  distinction,  attired  in  a 
military  dress,  and  wearing  a  sword. 
It  is  also  the  name  given  by  the 


Chastelluj 


Chattanooga 


French  to  bodies  of  light  infantry 
which  act  as  skirmishers  and  sharp- 
shooters. 

Chastellux,  Francois  Jean, 
Chevalier  de,  a  French  historian ; 
born  in  Paris  in  1734 ;  entered  the 
army  in  1749 ;  distinguished  himself 
as  colonel  in  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
and  later  served  in  the  American 
Revolution  as  major-general  under 
Rochambeau,  and  gained  the  friend- 
ship of  Washington.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Oct.  28,  1788. 

Chasuble,  the  upper  garment  worn 
by  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  during 
the  celebration  of  mass. 

Chatard,  Francis:  Silas  Mare  an, 
an  American  clergyman;  born  in  Bal- 
timore, in  1834.  He  became  rector 
of  the  American  College  in  Rome, 
and  in  1878  Bishop  of  Vincennes,  Ind. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Au- 
gnste,  Vicpmte  de,  a  French  au- 
thor and  politician;  born  in  St.  Malo, 
Brittany,  Sept.  4,  1768;  died  in  Paris, 
July  4,  1848. 

Chatham,  a  town  and  port  of 
entry  in  Northumberland  county. 
New  Brunswick;  on  the  Miramichi 
river  and  the  Intercolonial  railroad; 
82  miles  N.  W.  of  Moncton;  is  the 
center  of  a  fertile  section,  with  largo 
grain  and  livestock  interests;  and 
has  machine  shops  and  pulp  and 
lumber  mills.  Pop.  (1911)  4,666. 

Chatham,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
capital  of  Kent  county,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada ;  on  the  Thames  river  and  the 
Canadian  Pacific  railroad ;  67  miles 
S.  W.  of  London ;  has  a  large  ship- 
ping trade  in  lumber  and  farm  prod- 
ucts ;  and  is  principally  engaged  in 
manufacturing.  Pop.  (1911)  10,770. 

Chatham,  a  town,  naval  arsenal, 
and  seaport  of  England,  county  Kent, 
on  the  Medway,  about  34^  miles  by 
rail  from  London.  The  royal  dock- 
yard was  founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
previous  to  the  sailing  of  the  Armada. 
It  has  been  greatly  enlarged  in  re- 
cent years,  and  has  now  capacious 
docks,  in  which  the  heaviest  warships 
can  be  equipped  and  sent  directly  to 
sea.  The  town  is  defended  by  a  strong 
line  of  fortifications  which  also  serve 
as  a  flank  defense  for  the  metropolis. 
Pop.  (1911)  42,250. 

Chatham,  William  Pitt,  Earl 
of,  one  of  the  most  illustrious  states- 


men of  Great  Britain ;  son  of  Robert 
Pitt,  of  Boconnoc,  in  Cornwall ;  born 
Nov.  15,  1708;  educated  at  Eton  and 
Oxford.  On  quitting  the  university 
he  became  a  cornet  in  the  Blues,  and 
in  1735  represented  the  borough  of 
Old  Sarum  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, where  he  attracted  universal 
notice.  Pitt  uniformly  supported  the 
cause  of  the  people.  Foreseeing  the 
separation  of  the  American  colonies 
from  the  mother  country  if  the  arbi- 
trary measures  then  adopted  should 
be  continued ;  he  advocated,  especially 
in  1766,  a  conciliatory  policy  and  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  invited  to  assist  in  form- 
ing a  new  ministry,  in  which  he  took 
the  office  of  privy-seal.  In  1768  he 
resigned,  as  he  found  himself  inade- 
quately seconded  by  his  colleagues.  In 
the  House  of  Lords  he  continued  to 
recommend  the  abandonment  of  the 
coercive  measures  employed  against 
America,  particularly  in  1774 ;  but  his 
warning  was  rejected,  and  in  3776  the 
colonies  declared  themselves  indepen- 
dent. On  April  7,  1778,  though  la- 
boring under  a  severe  illness,  he  re- 
paired to  the  House,  to  attack  the 
unjust  and  impolitic  proceedings  of 
the  ministers  toward  the  colonies.  At 
the  close  of  his  speech  he  fainted  and 
was  conveyed  out  of  the  House,  and 
afterward  removed  to  his  country- 
seat  at  Hayes,  in  Kent,  where  he  died 
May  11.  The  Parliament  annexed  an 
annuity  of  £4,000  to  the  earldom  of 
Chatham ;  his  debts  were  paid,  and 
he  was  honored  with  a  public  funeral, 
and  a  magnificent  monument  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Another  was  erected 
in  1782  in  Guildhall. 

Chatham  Islands,  a  small  group 
in  the  Pacific,  lying  360  miles  E.  of 
New  Zealand,  to  which  they  politically 
belong.  Pop.  (1911)  453. 

Chattanooga,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Hamilton  Co.,  Tenn.  It  is  sit- 
uated on  high  grounds  at  the  foot  of 
Lookout  Mountain,  and  in  the  midst 
of  picturesque  scenery.  It  is  the  site 
of  a  National  Soldiers'  Cemetery,  with 
over  13,000  graves,  and  the  Chatta- 
nooga and  Chickamauga  National 
Military  Park.  Chattanooga  was  set- 
tled in  1836,  and  was  originally  called 
Ross's  landing.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1851,  and  in  1863  was  occupied  and 
nearly  destroyed  by  Union  forces.  It 


Chattels 


Check 


was  the  scene  of  three  of  the  greatest 
battles  of  the  Civil  War:  Chicka- 
mauga,  Missionary  Ridge,  and  Look- 
out Mountain.  Pop.  (1899),  29,100; 
(1900),  32,490;  (1910)  44,604. 

Chattels,  property  movable  and 
immovable,  not  being  freehold.  The 
word  chattels  is  originally  the  same 
word  with  cattle,  all  property  being 
reckoned  in  early  periods  by  the  num- 
ber of  heads  of  cattle  possessed,  or 
their  equivalent. 

Chattel-ton,  Thomas,  an  English 
youth  whose  genius,  eccentricity,  and 
melancholy  fate  have  gained  him  much 
celebrity ;  born  in  Bristol  in  1752,  of 
poor  parents:  He  died  of  self-ad- 
ministered poison  in  1770,  when  not 
yet  18  years  old. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  "  the  father 
of  English  poetry ;  "  born  in  London 
probably  about  1340.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  vintner  named  John  Chaucer. 
His  most  celebrated  work,  "The  Can- 
terbury Tales,"  was  written  at  differ- 
ent periods  between  1373  and  1400.  He 
died  in  London,  Oct.  25,  1400,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Chauny,  a  town  of  N.  France,  19 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  St.  Quentin  by  rail 
and  60  miles  from  Paris ;  normal  pop. 
about  12,000.  The  town  is  on  the 
Oise  river,  which  is  here  navigable, 
and  before  the  World  War  contained 
mirror-polishing  and  chemical  works, 
sugar  factories,  metal  foundries,  and 
breweries.  Its  commercial  importance 
was  derived  from  the  St.  Gobain  glass 
works.  Chauny  was  the  scene  of 
much  fighting  in  the  Hundred  Years' 
War,  and  was  in  the  sphere  of  great 
operations  in  the  World  War  in  1917. 

Chautauqna,  a  beautiful  lake  in 
New  York,  18  miles  long  and  1/3 
broad,  726  feet  above  Lake  Erie, 
from  which  it  is  8  miles  distant.  On 
its  banks  is  the  village  of  Chautau- 
qua,  the  center  of  a  religious  and 
educational  movement  of  large  and 
growing  interest.  This  originated  In 
1874,  when  the  village  was  selected 
as  a  summer  place  of  meeting  for  all 
interested  in  Sunday-schools  and  mis- 
sions. Since  then  the  Chautauqua 
Literary  and  Scientific  Circle  has 
taken  origin  here,  consisting  of  a 
regular  and  systematic  course  of  read- 
ing, extending  over  four  years  and 
entitling  the  student  to  a  diploma. 


Cliauveau  -  Lagarcle,  Claude 
Francois,  a  French  advocate;  born 
in  Chartres,  in  175G.  He  studied  law 
in  his  native  town  and  began  to  prac- 
tice in  Paris  shortly  before  the  out- 
break of  the  Revolution.  He  became 
celebrated  for  his  eloquent  defense  of 
those  on  trial  in  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
He  was  the  advocate  of  Marie  An- 
toinette at  her  trial  and  also  of  Char- 
lotte Corday.  He  died  in  1841. 

Chauvenet,  William,  an  Ameri- 
can astronomer  and  mathematician ; 
born  in  Milford,  Pa.,  May  24,  1819. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  and  became 
professor  of  mathematics  and  astron- 
omy at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1845,  and  professor  of 
astronomy  at  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis,  in  1859.  In  1862  he  be- 
came chancellor  of  the  last  institu- 
tion. He  died  in  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  Dec. 
13,  1870. 

Chauvinism,  a  French  word  do- 
rived  from  Nicolas  Chauvin,  a  sol- 
dier of  the  French  Republic  and  of 
the  First  Empire.  His  name  be- 
came a  synonym  for  a  passionate  ad- 
mirer of  Napoleon,  and  the  word 
Chauvinism  was  formed  to  signify  the 
almost  idolatrous  respect  entertained 
by  many  for  the  First  Emperor;  and 
now  used  for  exaggerated  devotion. 

Chazars,  a  people  of  the  Finnic 
stock  known  in  the  7th  century  on 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian ;  in  the  9th 
century  their  kingdom  occupied  the 
S.  E.  of  Russia  from  the  Caspian 
and  the  Volga  to  the  Dnieper.  Their 
capital  was  long  at  Astrakhan,  called 
by  them  Balandshar.  They  were  sin- 
gularly tolerant  of  all  religions,  Jew- 
ish, Christian,  and  Moslem ;  and  a 
large  part  of  the  nation  formally 
adopted  the  Jewish  faith  from  Jews 
who  fled  from  the  persecutions  of  the 
Emperor  Leo.  The  power  of  the  Cha- 
zars was  ultimately  broken  in  the 
12th  century  by  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors and  the  Russians. 

Check,  or  Cheque,  a  draft  or  bill 
on  a  bank,  payable  on  presentation. 
A  check  may  be  drawn  payable  to  the 
bearer,  or  to  the  order  of  some  one 
named ;  the  first  form  is  transferable 
without  endorsement  and  payable  to 
any  one  who  presents  it;  the  second 
must  be  endorsed,  that  is  the  person 
in  whose  favor  it  is  drawn  must  write 
his  name  on  the  back  of  it. 


Cheese 

Cheese,  the  curd  or  caseine  oi 
knilk,  with  variable  quantities  of  but- 
ter and  common  salt,  pressed  into 
molds  and  ripened  by  keeping. 

Cheetah,  the  East  Indian  name  for 
two  species  of  feline  animals,  the 
leopard  and  the  hunting  leopard,  the 
latter  being  much  used  in  India  for 
hunting  game. 

Chee-foo  (properly  the  name  of 
the  European  colony  of  the  Chinese 
town  of  Yen-Tai),  a  treaty  port  on 
the  N.  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Shan- 
tung, at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili,  in  which  it  is  the  only  port 
that  remains  open  throughout  the 
winter.  The  foreign  quarter  is  in 
some  sense  a  colony  of  Shanghai,  and, 
having  the  best  climate  of  all  the 
treaty  ports,  it  is  much  resorted  to  by 
convalescents.  The  Chinese  town, 
built  on  the  sandy  shore,  with  exceed- 
ingly dirty  streets,  has  fortifications, 
a  signal-station,  and  pop.  (1910  est.) 
54,000.  The  port  was  the  scene 
of  a  naval  demonstration  in  1900, 
when  British  and  American  warships 
th-eatened  to  bombard  the  forts  if 
their  hostile  attitude  was  not  aban- 
doned. Tfiere  were  150  missionaries 
in  the  city,  whose  rescue  from  peril 
was  thus  effected. 

Cheh-Chiang,  or  Cheh-Kiang,  a 
maritime  province  of  China  proper, 
of  very  great  commercial  importance, 
containing  three  treaty  ports,  Ning- 
Fo,  Wan-Cbau  (Wen-Chow),  and 
Hang-Chau  ( Hang-Chow) ,  all  of  which 
are  to  be  connected  with  Shanghai 
by  a  projected  railway.  Cheh-Chiang 
is  famed  for  its  native  system  of  edu- 
cation. It  contains  the  great  relig- 
ious and  literary  center  of  China, 
Hang-Chow,  where  thousands  of  can- 
didates yearly  resort  for  the  public 
examinations.  Hang-Chow  is  also  the 
capital  of  the  province,  which  is  ruled 
by  a  viceroy.  Marco  Polo  visited  the 
province  in  the  14th  century,  when  it 
contained  beautiful  temples,  now  in 
ruins.  The  Italians  in  1900  laid 
claim  to  part  of  Cheh-Chiang  as  a 
sphere  of  influence,  but  failed  in  their 
demands.  Area  36,670  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1910  est.)  17,000,000. 

Cheironectes,  the  Frog-fish,  a 
genus,  comprising  some  of  those  fishes 
popularly  known  under  the  name  of 
anglers.  They  are  most  grotesquely 
and  hideously  shaped,  having  the  pec- 


Chemistry 

toral  fins  supported  like  short  feet 
on  peduncles,  by  means  of  which  they 
can  creep  over  mud  or  sand  when 
left  dry  by  the  receding  tide. 

Cheirotherimn,  a  name  given  to 
a  great  unknown  animal  that  formed 
the  larger  footsteps  upon  the  slabs  of 
the  Trias,  or  upper  New  Red  Sand- 
stone, and  which  bears  a  resemblance 
to  the  human  hand. 

Chel-ab-kn-kil,  or  Ab-kn-kil- 
chel,  an  Indian  priest  who  lived  in, 
Yucatan  and  flourished  in  the  15th 
century.  His  name  is  mentioned  in 
almost  every  Yucatanie  legend,  and 
fragments  of  history  composed  by  him 
are  found  in  documents  of  Yucatan, 
and  Central  American  missions. 

Chelmsf  ord,  Frederic  Augustus 
Thesiger,  Lord,  born  May  21,  1827, 
an  English  soldier;  served  in  the  Cri- 
mea and  through  the  Indian  mutiny, 
and  in  1877  was  appointed  command- 
er of  the  forces  and  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor of  Cape  Colony.  He  restored 
Kaffraria  to  tranquillity,  and  was 
given  the  chief  command  in  the  Zulu 
war  of  1879.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land he  was  made  G.  C.  B.  He 
died  April  9,  1905. 

Chelsea,  a  city  in  Suffolk  county, 
Mass.,  practically  a  suburb  of  Bos- 
ton; on  Chelsea  harbor,  the  Mystic 
river,  and  the  Boston  &  Maine  rail- 
road; 3  miles  from  the  State  house 
in  Boston;  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  Naval  Hospital,  Marine  Hos- 
pital, and  Soldiers'  Home;  and  is 
chiefly  engaged  in  manufacturing. 
Pop.  (1910)  32,452. 

Chelsea,  a  borough  of  London,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Thames,  opposite  Bat- 
tersea,  and  chiefly  distinguished  for 
containing  a  royal  military  hospital, 
originally  commenced  by  James  I.  as 
a  theological  college,  but  converted  by 
Charles  II.  for  the  reception  of  sick, 
maimed,  and  superannuated  soldiers. 

Chelyuskin,  Cape,  (formerly 
Northeast  Cape,  and  sometimes  called 
Cape  Severe),  the  extreme  N.  point  of 
Asia,  on  a  peninsula  of  the  same 
name,  which  forms  the  W.  arm  of  the 
B.  half  of  the  Taimyr  peninsula.  It 
is  named  after  a  Russian  officer  who 
led  an  expedition  thus  far  in  1742, 
and  here  succumbed,  with  his  wife, 
to  the  fatigues  of  the  journey. 

Chemistry,  the  science  treating 
of  the  relations  and  combinations  of 


Chemnitz 

atoms,  or,  that  branch  of  natural 
science  which  considers  the  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  substances  to 
form  a  third  body  with  properties  un- 
like either  of  the  components;  and 
the  separation  from  a  compound  sub- 
stance of  the  more  simple  bodies  pres- 
ent in  it,  each  possessing  distinct 
properties.  Considering  that  the  steps 
of  the  combination  and  decomposition 
of  substances  can  never  be  correctly 
understood  without  an  ultimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  properties  of  substances, 
it  follows  that  the  science  of  chem- 
istry must  take  into  notice  likewise 
the  description  of  all  the  simplest  as 
well  as  of  the  most  complex  bodies. 
Chemistry  ranks  as  one  of  the  arts 
as  well  as  one  of  the  sciences,  and 
the  division  of  Practical  Chemistry 
comprehends  the  rules  and  processes 
•which  must  be  followed  and  the  me- 
chanical means  for  the  prosecution  of 
the  art. 

Chemnitz,  a  town  of  Saxony,  at 
the  base  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Chemnitz  river,  with 
three  other  streams,  51  miles  S.  S.  E. 
of  Leipsic.  It  is  the  principal  manu- 
facturing town  of  the  kingdom,  its 
industry  consisting  in  weaving  cot- 
tons, woolens,  and  silks,  and  in  print- 
ing calicoes,  chiefly  for  German  con- 
sumption. It  supplies  the  world  with 
cheap  hosiery,  and  makes  mixed  fab- 
rics of  wool,  cotton,  and  jute  for  the 
markets  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  It  has  several  extensive  ma- 
chine-factories, producing  locomotives 
and  other  steam-engines,  with  ma- 
chinery for  flax  and  wool  spinning, 
weaving,  and  mining  industry. 
Created  a  free  imperial  city  as  early 
as  1125,  Chemnitz,  suffered  much 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Pop. 
(19iO)  287,807. 

Chemnitz,  Martin,  a  German 
Protestant  theologian ;  born  in  the 
mark  of  Brandenburg  in  1522.  Died 
at  Brunswick  in  1586. 

Chemulpo,  Chosen,  seaport  town 
(since  1883  a  treaty-port),  on  the  W. 
coast,  25  miles  by  rail  W.  S.  W.  of 
Seoul,  the  capital.  It  was  a  landing- 

g)int  for  the  Japanese  occupation  of 
orea,  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
war  of  1904,  and  witnessed  the  first 
fight,  in  the  sinking  of  the  Russian 
warships,  the  Variag  and  Korietz. 
The  imports  attain  a  value  of  $3,- 


Cherhourg 

500,000  in  some  years;  the  exports 
$1,COO,000.  Pop.  41,000;  the  bulk  of 
the  3,000  foreigners  are  Japanese. 

Cheney,  Charles  Edward,  an 
American  clergyman ;  born  in  Can- 
andaigua,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  12,  1836.  He 
was  ordained  a  clergyman  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1858. 
Becoming  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
Chicago,  he  incurred  censure  for  het- 
erodoxy and  was  tried  on  that  charge 
and  deposed  from  the  priesthood.  He 
at  once  became  a  leader  in  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  movement,  and  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  the  new  denomi- 
nation in  1873,  a  post  he  has  since 
held. 

Cheney,  Ednah  Dow  (Little- 
hale),  an  American  writer ;  born  in 
Boston  in  1824.  She  became  presi- 
dent of  the  New  England  Woman's 
Club  and  the  Massachusetts  Suffrage 
Association.  She  died  in  1904. 

Cheney,  John  Vance,  an  Ameri- 
can writer,  born  in  Groveland,  N.  Y., 
Dec.  29,  1848. 

Cheney,  Theseus  Apoleon,  an 
American  historian ;  born  in  Leon,  N. 
Y.,  March  16,  1830.  He  died  in 
Starkey,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  1878. 

Chenile,  a  round  fabric  or  trim- 
ming made  by  uniting  with  two  or 
more  sets  of  warps,  a  fine  filling  or 
weft.  The  fabric  is  then  twisted,  as- 
suming a  cylindrical  shape  with  weft 
projecting  radially  from  the  central 
line  of  warps. 

Cheops,  the  name  given  by  Herodo- 
tus to  the  Egyptian  despot  whom  the 
Egyptians  themselves  called  Khufu. 
He  belonged  to  the  rulers  who  had 
for  their  capital  Memphis ;  lived  about 
2800-2700  B.  C.,  and  built  the  largest 
of  the  pyramids.  According  to  He- 
rodotus he  employed  100,000  men  on 
this  work  constantly  for  20  years. 

Cherbourg,  a  strongly  fortified 
arsenal  and  seaport  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  La.  Manche  (The  Chan- 
nel), 196  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Paris. 
It  is  the  works  by  which  it-  has  been 
converted  into  a  great  naval  fortress 
that  give  it  its  special  importance. 
These  altogether  have  cost  $40,000,- 
000,  and  were  chiefly  carried  out 
under  Napoleon  I.,  Louis  Philippe, 
and  Napoleon  III.  A  United  States 
consul  is  resident  at  Cherbourg.  Pon» 
(1911)  43,731. 


Cherbuliez 

Cherbuliez,  Victor,  a  French  ro- 
mancist ;  born  in  Geneva,  of  a  noted 
family  of  litterateurs,  July  19,  1829. 
He  died  in  Paris,  July  1,  1899. 

Cherokee  Indians,  a  tribe  of  the 
Appalachian  family  of  North  _  Amer- 
ican aborigines,  which  occupied  for 
centuries  the  country  E.  and  S.  of 
the  Alleghanies.  After  the  coloniza- 
tion of  North  America  by  the  whites, 
a  series  of  wars  broke  out  at  periods 
ranging  from  1759  to  1793 ;  when,  by 
a  treaty  entered  into  with  the  United 
States,  they  ceded  their  territory  in 
the  Southeastern  States,  in  consid- 
eration of  a  certain  cash  payment, 
and  an  annual  subsidy  being  continued 
to  them.  In  1805  they  made  further 
concessions  of  their  lands,  and,  in 
1812,  fought  bravely  on  the  American 
side.  In  1817-1819  new  treaties  were 
made,  which  resulted  in  the  Cherokees 
being  forced  to  a  reservation  of  ter- 
ritory afforded  them  W.  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. A  remnant  of  the  tribe  re- 
mained, hqwever,Jn  the  original  reser- 
vation in  'North  Carolina.  In  Okla- 
homa they  occupy  at  present  an  area 
of  7,861  square  miles  in  the  N.  E.  The 
Cherokee:?  have  a  chief,  an  assistant, 
and  a  legislature,  all  chosen  by  vote. 
They  live  in  dwellings,  not  in  wig- 
wams. They  have  an  asylum  for  or- 
phans, seminaries,  and  100  private 
schools.  Their  capital  is  Tahlequah. 
In  the  original  North  Carolina  reser- 
vation the  Cherokees  number  1,351. 
They  occupy  an  area  of  98,211  acres. 

Cherry,  a  fruit-tree  of  the  prune  or 
plum  tribe,  very  ornamental  and  there- 
fore much  cultivated  in  shrubberies. 
The  American  wild  cherry  is  a  fine 
large  tree,  the  timber  of  which  is  much 
used  by  cabinet-makers  and  others. 
The  fruit  is  somewhat  astringent. 

Cherubini,  Luigi  Zenobio  Sal- 
vatore,  founder  of  the  French  Con- 
servatory and  instructor  of  hundreds 
of  eminent  musicians ;  born  in  Flor- 
ence, Sept.  1,  1760.  In  the  interval 
from  1780  to  1788,  he  composed  eleven 
Italian  operas,  including  "Ifigenia  in 
Aulide,"  the  most  successful  of  the 
series.  He  died  in  Paris,  March  15, 
1842. 

Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  and  dividing  the  former 
State  into  two  parts,  is  the  largest 
inlet  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 

E.  33. 


Chess 

United  States,  being  200  miles  long, 
and  from  4  to  40  broad.  Its  entrance, 
12  miles  wide,  has  on  the  N.  Cape 
Charles,  and  on  the  S.  Cape  Henry, 
both  promontories  being  in  Virginia. 
Chess,  the  most  purely  intellec- 
tual of  all  games  of  skill,  the  origin 
of  which  has  been  much  disputed,  but 
probably  arose  Sp  India  5,000  years 
ago,  and  thence  spread  through  Persia 
and  Arabia,  to  Europe  and  America. 
The  game  has  undergone  many  modi- 
fications during  its  diffusion  through- 
out the  world,  but  retains  marked 
traces  of  its  Oriental  origin.  The 
game  'is  played  by  two  persons  on  a 
board  which  consists  of  64  squares, 
arranged  in  8  rows  of  8  squares  each, 
alternately  black  and  white.  Each 


CHESS. 

player  has  two  sets  of  pieces  of  op- 
posite colors  of  16  men  each,  and  of 
various  powers,  according  to  their 
rank.  These  sets  of  men  are  arrayed 
opposite  each  other,  and  attack,  de- 
fend, and  capture  like  hostile  armies. 
The  superior  officers  occupying  the 
first  row  on  each  side  are  called  pieces, 
the  inferior  men,  all  alike,  standing 
on  the  row  immediately  in  front  of  the 
pieces,  are  called  pawns. 

The  chessmen  being  placed,  the  play- 
ers begin  the  engagement  by  moving 
alternately ;  each  aiming  to  gain  a  nu- 
merical superiority  by  capturing  his 
opponent's  men,  as  well  as  such  ad- 
vantages of  position  as  may  conduce  to 
victory. 


Chest 

Chest,  in  man  and  the  higher 
vertebrates,  the  cavity  formed  by  the 
breast-bone  in  front  and  the  ribs  and 
backbone  at  the  sides  and  behind, 
shut  off  from  the  abdomen  below  by 
the  diaphragm.  It  contains  the  heart, 
lungs,  etc.,  and  the  gullet  passes 
through  it. 

Chester,  as  an  independent  word, 
the  name  given  to  a  circular  forti- 
fication in  some  parts  of  Scotland ; 
as  a  suffix,  it  forms  part  of  the  names 
of  many  towns  among  English-speak- 
ing people,  as  Manchester,  and  indi- 
cates that  such  places  were  once  the 
sites  of  Roman  encampments. 

Chester,  a  city  and  port  of  entry 
in  Delaware  county,  Pa. ;  on  the 
Delaware  river  and  several  railroads ; 
15  miles  S.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the 
oldest  city  in  the  State,  having  been 
settled  by  Swedes  in  1643  under  the 
name  of  Upland.  It  is  noted  as  the 
site  of  the  famous  Roach  ship-build- 
ing yards,  where  many  vessels  of  the 
navy  were  constructed,  as  the  seat 
of  the  Crozer  Theological  Seminary 
(Bapt.)  and  the  Pennsylvania  Mili- 
tary Academy,  and  for  its  diversified 
manufactures.  The  Federal  census 
of  1910  credited  the  city  with  having 
128  factory-system  plants,  employing 
$23,928,262  capital,  and  yielding  prod- 
ucts valued  at  $19,373,314.  Pop. 
(1910)  38,537. 

Chester,  one  of  the  cathedral  cities 
of  England ;  16  miles  S.  E.  of  Liver- 
pool ;  has  St.  John's  Church,  founded 
in  698.  Pop.  (1911)  39.028. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer 
Stanhope,  fourth  Earl  of,  an  English 
statesman  and  litterateur ;  born  in 
London,  Sept.  22,  1694.  He  entered 
public  life  in  1715,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  petty  intrigues  and  party 
squabbles  which  made  up  the  parlia- 
mentary and  court  history  of  the  reign 
of  George  II.  The  only  writings  of 
this  accomplished  person  that  are  at 
all  remembered  are  his  "  Letters  "  to 
his  son,  remarkable  for  their  ease  of 
style  and  their  knowledge  of  society, 
but  notoriously  reprehensible  for  the 
principles  of  conduct  which  they  in- 
culcate. He  died  March  24.  1773. 

Chesterton,  Gilbert  Keith,  an 
English  journalist  and  author ;  born 
at  Campden  Hill,  Kensington,  in 
1874  ;  essayed  poetry  in  boyhood  ;  be- 
came an  artist,  more  for  recreation 
than  profit ;  engaged  in  book-reviewing 


Chevy  Chase 

for  several  London  magazines ;  then 
launched  into  authorship.  In  1917  he 
was  considered  the  most  conspicuous 
figure  in  British  journalism,  a  master 
of  paradox,  epigram,  and  anti-climax, 
always  entertaining,  brilliant,  and 
belligerent. 

Chetah,  the  hunting  leopard  of 
India,  a  native  of  Arabia  and  Asia 
Minor.  It  has  its  specific  name  (ju- 
tata,  crested  or  maned)  from  a  short 
mane-like  crest  at  the  back  of  the  head. 
When  used  for  hunting  it  is  hooded 
and  placed  in  a  car.  When  a  herd  of 
deer  is  seen,  its  keeper  places  its  head 
in  the  proper  direction  and  removes 
its  hood.  It  slips  from  the  car,  and, 
approaching  its  prey  in  a  stealthy  man- 
ner, springs  on  it  with  several  bounds. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  grey- 
hound, has  a  cat-like  head,  but  a  body 
more  like  a  dog's.  A  slightly  different 
species  inhabits  Africa. 

Chevalier,  Michel,  a  French 
economist ;  born  in  Limoges,  Jan.  13,, 
1806.  He  became  a  councillor  of  state 
(1838),  professor  of  political  economy 
in  the  College  de  France  (1840), 
member  of  the  chamber  of  deputies 
(1846),  and  a  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute (1851).  He  died  in  Montpellier, 
Nov.  28,  1879. 

Cheviot,  (from  the  name  of  a  bor- 
der mountain  range  in  Scotland — the 
Cheviot  hills),  (1)  a  variety  of  moun- 
tain sheep,  named  from  the  Cheviot 
hills,  where  they  abound ;  (2)  a  kind 
of  coarse  woolen  cloth  used  principal- 
ly for  men's  clothing. 

Chevrenl,  Michel  Eugene,  a 
French  chemist ;  born  in  1786.  He 
wrote  various  works  on  chemistrv, 
dyeing,  etc.  Died  1889,  103  years 
old. 

Chevy  Chase,  the  name  of  a  cele- 
brated British  Border  ballad,  which 
is  probably  founded  on  some  actual 
encounter  which  took  place  between 
its  heroes,  Percy  and  Douglas.  There 
are  two  versions  of  the  ballad,  the  old- 
est, originally  called  "  The  Hunting 
of  the  Cheviot,"  being  mentioned  in 
the  "  Complaynt  of  Scotland,"  written 
in  1548,  and  the  later  one.  believed 
to  date  from  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  (1660-1685),  which  forms  the 
subject  of  the  critique  by  Addison 
in  Nos.  70  and  74  of  the  "  Spec- 
tator." The  ballad  is  not  historically 
accurate. 


CATTLE  PENS 


KNOCKING  PENS C.' 


DRESSED  BEEF  READY  FOR  GOVERNMENT  INSPECTION  STII 

THE  PACKII 


KILLING  DEPARTMENT 


CATTLE  READY  FOR  HEADING  AND  SKINNING 


!  HOGS 

INDUSTRY 


CUTTING  HAMS 


Cheyenne 

Cheyenne,  city,  capital  of  the 
State  of  Wyoming,  is  situated  on  a 
plateau  6,075  feet  above  the  sea  and 
contains  Fort  Russell,  a  United  States 
military  post,  and  the  main  repair 
shops  of  the  Union  Pacific  railroad. 
Pop.  (1910)  11,320. 

Cheyenne  s,  a  tribe  of  American 
Indians,  originally  of  Algonquin  or 
Dakota  stock,  at  one  time  settled  in 
Wyoming.  To  the  number  of  2,069 
(1899),  they  were  settled  in  Okla- 
homa on  a  reservation  of  529,682 
acres.  They  are  in  a  backward  state 
of  civilization  and  possess  a  primitive 
form  of  tribal  government. 

Cliiang-lisi,  or  Kiang-si,  one  of 
the  18  provinces  into  which  China 
proper  is  divided.  The  area  is  69,480 
square  miles.  Pop.  (according  to  1910 
census  published  by  the  Government 
in  1911),  16,255,000.  The  province 
contains  the  treaty  port  of  Kin-Kiang 
or  Chin  Chiang,  on  the  Yang-tze- 
Kiang,  a  town  of  53,000  inhabitants. 
Here  are  established  famous  manu- 
factories of  porcelain.  The  province 
produces  tea  and  silk,  besides  porce- 
lain. 

Chiang-Su,  or  Kiang-Su,  an  im- 
portant maritime  province  of  China 
proper.  It  has  an  area  of  38,600 
square  miles  (about  that  of  Pennsyl- 
vania), and  a  pop.  estimated  in  1910 
at  15,380,000,  according  to  the  census 
published  by  the  Government  in  1911. 
The  great  commercial  importance  of 
this  province  is  denoted  by  its  posses- 
sion of  four  treaty  ports,  Shanghai, 
Nanking,  Su-Chow,  and  Chin-Kiang. 
Half  the  foreign  population  of  China 
(14,000  in  1900)  is  established  in  this 
province.  The  capital  is  Nanking. 
Commercially  the  province  is  con- 
trolled by  the  English,  who  have  in- 
vested largely  in  railways,  mills  and 
government  concessions. 

Chiapas,  a  State  of  the  Republic 
of  Mexico,  on  the  Pacific  slope,  having 
an  area  of  27,222  square  miles  and  a 
.)op.  (1910)  of  438,843.  The  capital, 
fuxtla  Gutierrez,  is  also  the  chief 
town.  The  State  is  in  many  parts 
mountainous,  and  is  also  in  many 
parts  traversed  by  noble  streams,  in- 
cluding the  Rio  Chiapas.  It  forms 
part  of  the  Central  American  table- 
land, and  has  a  fine  climate,  although 
the  whole  region  is  largely  clothed  in 
primeval  forests. 


Chicago 

Chiaro-oscnro,  that  branch  of 
painting  which  has  for  its  object  the 
combination  and  arrangement  of  the 
light  and  shadow  of  a  picture  to  the 
best  advantage. 

Cnibcnas,  or  Muyscas,  a  tribe  of 
South  American  Indians  who  formerly 
lived  E.  of  the  Magdalena  river,  oc- 
cupying the  region  from  its  head  wat- 
ers to  the  Sierra  Nevada  de  Merida. 
They  were  partially  civilized.  They 
were  ruled  by  women  as  well  as  men 
in  the  line  of  succession,  and  believed 
in  a  Supreme  Being.  They  were  con- 

?uered  in  a  war  with  the  Spaniards  in 
537  and  their  descendants  constitute 
a  large  part  of  the  present  population 
of  Colombia. 

Chibouque,  a  Turkish  pipe  with  a 
long  stem. 

Chica,  or  Chicha,  the  name  given 
in  Brazil  to  a  species  of  Sterculia,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  eaten.  They  are 
about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and 
have  an  agreeable  taste.  Also  a  red 
coloring  matter  used  by  some  tribes 
of  North  American  Indians  to  stain 
the  skin.  The  word  is  also  used  as  a 
name  of  a  dance  popular  among  the 
Spaniards  and  the  South  American 
settlers  descended  from  them. 

Chicago,  city,  port  of  entry,  and 
county-seat  of  Cook  Co.,  III. ;  the  sec- 
ond city  in  population  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  built  on  the  S.  W.  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan,  about  18  miles  N. 
of  its  S.  extremity.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  Western  and  Lake  commerce 
and  has  a  large  water  front  of  30 
miles.  A  portion  of  the  shore  is  pro- 
tected by  a  massive  wall.  The  city  is 
one  of  the  greatest  commercial  centers 
in  the  world,  and  is  connected  by 
steamship  and  railroad  lines  with  all 
parts.  The  lake  shore  is  protected  by 
breakwaters,  forming  a  splendid  har- 
bor at  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river. 
The  exterior  breakwater  is  5,436  feet 
long,  and  extends  in  a  N.  B.  and  S. 
W.  direction  about  one  mile  from  the 
shore.  Piers  and  breakwaters,  built 
as  continuations  of  the  shores  of  Chi- 
cago river,  form  a  harbor  of  about  455 
acres,  with  an  average  depth  of  16 
feet.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Calumet 
river,  in  South  Chicago,  is  another 
harbor  300  feet  wide  between  piers. 
The  Erie  canal,  terminating  at  Buf- 
falo, provides  a  means  of  commercial 
communication  with  the  Atlantic 


Chicago 

ports.  Area  199  square  miles ;  popu- 
lation (1890),  1,099,850;  (1900),  1,- 
698,575;  (1916,  est.)  2,550,000. 

The  city  was  built  originally  on  the 
flat  prairie,  at  an  elevation  too  low 
to  secure  proper  drainage.  When  this 
became  apparent  the  grade  of  the 
whole  city  was  raised  7  feet  and  the 
streets  and  buildings  brought  to  the 
new  level.  The  Chicago  river  traverses 
the  city,  and  by  its  peculiar  course 
divides  it  into  three  sections,  known 
as  the  North,  South  and  West  Sides, 
which  are  connected  by  many  bridges. 

The  city  owns  an  extensive  water 
works  system.  It  was  found  that  as 
the  city  grew,  the  old  water  supply 
became  inadequate,  and  in  order  to 
reach  a  point  in  tie  lake  where  the 
water  would  be  uncontaminated  by 
sewage,  cribs  were  built  two  to  four 
miles  out,  with  a  tunnel  connecting 
them  with  the  shore.  By  1900  there 
were  five  of  these  cribs,  35  miles  of 
tunnel  and  1,802  miles  of  main.  On 
Jan.  17,  1900,  a  drainage  canal  was 
opened  to  carry  off  the  city's  sewage. 
It  consists  of  an  open  drain  connect- 
ing the  Chicago  and  Des  Plaines 
rivers,  and  extending  thence  to  the 
Illinois  and  Mississippi  rivers. 

Chicago  is  surrounded  by  some  of 
the  largest  and  finest  parks  and  boule- 
vards in  the  country.  The  park  area 
in  1916  was  4,600  acres  and  comprised 
about  80  parks  and  squares,  and  the 
boulevards  had  a  length  of  about  48 
miles  within  the  city  limits  and  large 
suburban  extensions.  There  are  six 
large  parks,  Lincoln,  Humboldt,  Gar- 
field,  Douglas,  Washington,  and  Jack- 
son, all  connected  by  boulevards.  The 
Sheridan  road  is  a  superb  driveway 
running  along  the  lake  shore  to  Fort 
Sheridan,  25  miles  distant. 

Chicago  is  noted  for  the  number, 
size  and  height  of  its  public  and  busi- 
ness buildings,  and  for  their  hand- 
some and  complete  interior  finishings. 
Among  them  are :  the  Auditorium,  ten 
stories  high,  contains  the  largest  thea- 
ter and  opera  house  in  the  world,  cap- 
able of  seating  7,000  persons,  a 
great  hotel  with  400  guest  rooms,  and 
also  136  offices  and  store  rooms,  cost 
$2,000,000;  the  Art  Institute,  which 
ranks  among  the  first  art  museums  in 
the  country ;  Board  of  Trade  Build- 
ing; Chicago  Stock  Exchange,  13 
stories  high ;  the  Monadnock  building, 


Chicago 

16  stories  high,  containing  1,600  of- 
fices and  costing  $2,500,000 ;  the  Ma- 
sonic Temple,  21  stories  high  and 
costing  $3,500,000 ;  the  Public  Library, 
a  magnificent  structure  costing  $2,- 
000,000  and  containing  a  library  of 
250,000  books ;  the  Woman's  Temple, 
12  stories  high,  containing  300  offices 
and  costing  $1,500,000 ;  the  City  Hall 
and  County  Court  and  Criminal  Court 
buildings ;  the  Newberry  Library,  and 
numbers  of  handsome  club  buildings, 
stores  and  theaters,  besides  many  ele- 
gant and  costly  private  residences. 

According  to  the  Federal  census  of 
1914  there  were  reported  10,114  manu- 
facturing establishments,  employing 
$1,189,976,000  capital  and  386,794  per- 
sons ;  paying  $213,351,000  for  wages 
and  $901,658,000  for  materials;  and 
yielding  products  of  an  aggregate  value 
of  $1,482,814,000.  The  principal  in- 
dustries were  wholesale  slaughtering 
and  meat  packing,  foundry  and  ma- 
chine shop  products,  men's  clothing, 
in  factories ;  iron  and  steel,  agricul- 
tural implements,  railroad  cars,  print- 
ing and  publishing,  masonry,  and  malt 
liquors ;  bakery  products,  coffee  and 
spices,  furniture,  electrical  supplies, 
women's  clothing,  soap  and  candles, 
wholesale  slaughtering  (without  meat 
packing),  linseed  oil,  planing  mill 
products  and  confectionery.  Chicago 
is  the  greatest  live  stock  and  grain 
market  in  the  world,  as  well  as  the 
greatest  railroad  center. 

At  the  close  of  the  school  year  1914- 
15,  the  children  of  school  census  age 
aggregated  954,413 ;  the  enrollment  in 
public  day  schools  was  345,512  and 
in  private  and  parochial  schools  (large- 
ly estimated)  114,000,  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  in  public  day  schools 
was  291,255.  For  higher  education 
there  were  23  public  high  schools,  one 
public  normal  school,  one  endowed 
normal  school,  27  private  secondary 
schools,  St.  Ignatius  College  (R.  C., 
opened  1869),  and  the  University  of 
Chicago  (1892).  The  principal  pri- 
vate secondary  schools  were  Lewis  In- 
stitute, Chicago  Institute,  Seminary 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  De  La  Salle  In- 
stitute, University  School,  Harvard 
School,  Kirkland  School,  St.  Xayier's 
Academy,  and  Kenwood  Institute. 
There  were  30  training  schools  for 
nurses,  mostly  connected  with  hospit- 
als. Chicago  has  1,183  churches,  chap- 


Chicago  Drainage  Canal 


Chicago,  University 


els,  and  missions.  There  are  102 
hospitals  and  dispensaries  in  the  city. 
Among  the  largest  of  the  former  are 
the  Mercy,  Cook  County,  Michael 
Reese,  United  States  Marine,  and  the 
Hahnemann.  The  benevolent  institu- 
tions include  the  Old  People's  Home, 
Newsboys'  Home,  Washington  Home 
for  the  Reformation  of  Inebriates, 
Foundlings'  Home,,  Home  for  the 
Friendless,  and  the  Protestant,  St. 
Joseph's  and  St.  Mary's  Orphan 
Asylums. 

Under  the  National  Banking  Act  of 
1913,  Chicago  became  the  central  re- 
serve city  of  the  Sixth  Federal  Re- 
serve District,  and  the  exchanges  at 
the  clearing-house  there,  in  the  year 
ended  Sept.  30,  1916,  aggregated  $19,- 
129,452,000,  a  gain  of  $3,725,285,000 
in  a  year. 

The  commercial  interests  of  the  city 
were  greatly  affected  by  the  World 
War.  In  the  calendar  year  1916  the 
imports  of  merchandise  had  a  value  of 
$29,006,276,  and  the  exports  $3,990,- 
173,  a  decrease  in  the  total  of  1914  of 
$5,700,314  in  the  former  and  $21,992,- 
671  in  the  latter. 

In  1916  the  assessed  valuation  of  all 
taxable  property  was  $1,042.340,937; 
the  city  assets  (1915)  were  $170,741,- 
460;  and  the  debt  (1916)  was  $30,- 
563,094. 

The  site  of  Chicago  was  first  visited 
by  Joliet  and  Marquette,  French  mis- 
sionaries and  explorers,  in  1673.  In 
1685  a  fort  was  built  there,  com- 
manded by  an  officer  in  the  Canadian 
service,  and  before  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  the  Jesuits  made  it  a  mission 
post.  Indian  hostilities  prevented  fur- 
ther occupation  till  the  United  States 
government  established  there  the  fron- 
tier post  of  Fort  Dearborn  in  1804, 
which  was  destroyed  by  Indians  in  the 
War  of  1812,  but  rebuilt  in  1816, 
when  a  permanent  settlement  began. 

In  1830  the  entire  population  was 
only  70  persons,  but  in  1835  a  town 
was  organized,  and  in  1837  it  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  with  4,000  in- 
habitants and  an  area  of  10  miles.  On 
Oct.  8  and  9,  1871,  occurred  the  mem- 
orable fire  which  reduced  a  large 
part  of  the  city  to  ashes,  destroyed  its 
entire  business  center,  and  swept  over 
an  area  of  more  than  three  square 
miles,  causing  a  loss  of  about  $190,- 
000,000.  Nearly  20,000  buildings  were 
consumed,  100,000  people  were  made 


homeless,  and  200  lives  were  lost.  An- 
other disastrous  fire  broke  out  in  1874 
in  the  heart  of  the  city,  which  con- 
sumed 18  blocks  and  over  600  homes, 
with  a  loss  of  over  $4,000,000.  In 
May,  1886,  anarchist  riots  at  the  Hay- 
market  resulted  in  the  death  of  six 
police  officers,  the  wounding  of  sev- 
eral others,  the  conviction  of  eight 
rioters,  and  the  execution  of  four.  The 
World's  Columbian  Exposition  was 
held  in  Chicago  from  May  1  to  Oct. 
30,  1893.  Fully  $17,500,000  were  ex- 
pended in  the  construction  of  the  fair 
•and  its  operation,  and  it  was  visited 
by  17,000,000  people.  In  October, 
1903,  Chicago  celebrated  the  centen- 
nial of  its  settlement. 

Chicago  Drainage  Canal,  a 
canal  intended  chiefly  for  carrying  off 
the  sewage  of  Chicago,  but  which  may 
be  used  for  commercial  purposes ;  be- 
gun in  September,  1892 ;  completed  in 
January,  1900.  The  main  channel  is 
29  miles  long,  extending  from  Chicago 
to  Lockport  on  the  Illinois  river,  into 
which  stream  it  discharges.  About  9 
miles  of  the  channel  is  cut  through 
solid  rock,  with  a  minimum  depth  of 
22  feet  and  a  width  of  160  feet  on  the 
botton  in  rock,  which  makes  it  the 
largest  artificial  channel  in  the  world. 
The  length  of  the  waterway  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Chicago  river  to  its  ter- 
minus S.  of  Joliet  is  about  42  miles. 
The  cost  of  the  canal  was  estimated 
at  about  $45,000,000. 

Chicago,  University  of,  a  co-edu- 
cational (non-sectarian)  institution  in 
Chicago,  111.,  founded  by  John  D. 
Rockefeller,  dating  from  Sept.  10, 
1890,  when  the  institution  was  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  Illinois.  A 
previous  institution  known  as  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  had  gone  out  of  ex- 
istence, owing  to  financial  difficulties, 
in  1886.  A  number  of  Baptists  de- 
sired to  have  a  college  in  Chicago,  and 
succeeded  in  interesting  John  D. 
Rockefeller  in  the  plan.  He  promised 
$600,000  toward  the  establishment  of 
the  college  if  $400,000  more  should  be 
raised  by  June,  1890.  This  amount 
was  duly  raised,  and  the  plan  was 
enlarged  in  scope  so  as  to  include  a 
university  instead  of  a  mere  college. 
Further  large  gifts  were  made  by  Mr. 
Rockefeller  and  by  others,  and  the 
doors  were  opened  for  instruction  Oct. 
1,  1892. 


Chickadee 

Chickadee,  the  popular  name  of 
the  black-cap  titmouse. 

Chickahominy,  a  river  in  Virginia, 
affluent  of  the  James  and  running 
parallel  to  it  for  many  miles  from  its 
source  N.  W.  of  Richmond.  On  and 
near  it  occurred  many  of  the  most 
important  events  of  McClellan's 
Peninsular  campaign  in  1862.  The 
second  battle  of  Cold  Harbor  under 
Grant  took  place  in  1864. 

CLickamauga,  Battle  of,  an  en- 
gagement fought  Sept  19-20,  1863, 
between  the  Union  army  under  Rose- 
crans  and  the  Confederate  under 
Bragg  and  Longstreet.  Out  of  about 
100,000  troops  engaged,  some  30,000 
were  reported  as  killed,  wounded  and 
missing  —  a  very  bloody  and  prac- 
tically drawn  battle,  though  claimed 
as  a  Confederate  victory,  and  causing 
the  replacement  of  Rosecrans  by 
Grant.  But  for  the  splendid  stand 
made  by  General  George  H.  Thomas 
it  would  have  been  a  Union  defeat. 

CLickasaw,  an  Indian  tribe,  occu- 
pying a  reservation  near  the  center 
of  Oklahoma  in  Grady  county.  The 
tribe  has  a  chief  and  a  legislature 
chosen  by  popular  vote. 

Chickaslia,  city  and  capital  of 
Grady  county,  Okl.;  near  the  Wich- 
ita river  and  on  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  &  Pacific  and  other  railroads; 
39  miles  S.  of  Oklahoma  City;  was 
the  chief  town  of  the  Chickasaw  Na- 
tion in  the  former  Indian  Territory; 
is  largely  engaged  in  mercantile  and 
farming  interests;  and  has  lumber, 
flour,  cotton,  and  cotton-seed  oil  mills, 
and  brick  yards.  Pop.  (1910)  10,320. 

Chicopee,  a  city  in  Hampden 
county,  Mass.;  on  the  Chicopee  and 
Connecticut  rivers  and  the  Boston  & 
Maine  railroad;  4  miles  N.  of  Spring- 
field; is  an  important  manufacturing 
city,  with  fine  water  power  from 
Chicopee  Falls;  chief  products,  cot- 
ton and  brass  goods.  Pop.  (1910). 
25,401. 

Chief,  in  heraldry,  the  upper  part 
of  the  field  cut  off  by  a  horizontal  line. 
It  generally  occupied  one-third  of  the 
area  of  the  shield. 

Chief  Justice,  the  title  of  the  chief 
member  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  also  of  the  judges  holding  simi- 
lar rank  in  some  of  the  States.      In  j 
Canada  it  is  the  title  of  the  leading  I 


Cliignecto  Bay 

judge  of  the  Dominion  and  Provincial 
Supreme  Courts,  and  in  England  the 
presiding  judge  in  the  Queen's  Bench 
Division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice 
is  called  a  "  Lord  Chief  Justice." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  per- 
sons appointed  as  Chief-Justice  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
from  its  establishment : 

John  Jay,  of  New  York. 

Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Connecticut. 

John  Marshall,  of  Virginia. 

Roger  Brooke  Taney,  of  Maryland. 

Salmon  Portland  Chase,  of  Ohio. 

Morrison  R.  Waite,  of  Ohio. 

Melville  W.  Fuller,  of  Illinois. 

Edward  D.   White,   of   Louisiana. 

Chigi,  a  princely  Italian  family, 
whose  founder  was  Agostino  Chigi 
(died  1512),  of  Siena,  who  in  Rome 
became  banker  to  the  popes,  and  was 
noted  for  his  pomp  and  encourage- 
ment of  art. 


CHICORY. 

Chignecto  Bay,  an  inlet  at  the 
head  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  in  British 
North  America.  It  separates  Nova 
Scotia  from  New  Brunswick,  is  30 
miles  long  and  8  broad,  and  has  an 
isthmus  of  only  14  miles  in  width  be- 
tween it  and  Northumberland  Strait, 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1888,  work  was  begun  on  the 


Chignon 

construction  of  a  ship  railway  across 
the  neck  of  land  connecting  Nova 
Scotia  with  the  main  land  of  Canada. 
The  promoters  had  spent  nearly  $4,- 
000,000  on  the  work,  when  in  1890 
a  financial  depression  in  London  pre- 
vented them  from  obtaining  further 
capital.  In  March,  1901,  the  under- 
taking was  revived. 

Chignon,  (1)  the  back  of  the  neck, 
(2)  back  hair;  the  back  hair  of  wo- 
men, a  protuberance  of  artificial  hair 
on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  worn 
by  women  about  1866-1875. 

Chigo,  Chigre,  or  Jigger,  a 
West  Indian  and  South  American  spe- 
cies of  apterous  insect  of  the  flea  kind, 
which  penetrates  the  skin  and  breeds 
there,  unless  speedily  eradicated. 

Chihuahua,  the  largest  State  of 
Mexico ;  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.  E. 
by  New  Mexico  and  Texas ;  area,  87,- 
802  square  miles;  pop.  (1910)  405, 
707.  The  State  is  better  adapted  for 
stock-raising  than  for  agriculture  ;  the 
fertile  districts  are  mainly  confined 
to  the  valleys  and  river  courses.  Cot- 
ton is  grown  in  the  S.  The  silver 
mines  were  for  centuries  among  the 
richest  in  Mexico,  and  mining  is  still 
the  chief  industry.  The  capital,  Chi- 
huahua, 225  miles  S.  of  El  Paso,  rises 
like  an  oasis  in  the  desert,  among 
roses  and  orange  groves.  The  city  and 
State  were  frequently  raided  by  the 
Villa  bandits  in  1915-17.  See  AP- 
PENDIX: Mexican  Campaign.  Pop. 
(1910)  39,706. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria,  an  American 
prose-writer ;  born  in  Medford,  Mass., 
Feb.  11,  1802.  She  was  an  ardent 
abolitionist,  and  published  the  first 
book  written  on  that  subject,  entitled 
"  Appeal  for  that  class  of  Americans 
called  African."  Dr.  Channing  went 
over  to  Roxbury  to  thank  her  for  it. 
She  died  in  Wayland,  Mass.,  Oct.  20, 
1880. 

Children,  Societies  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to,  organiza- 
tions that  had  their  origin  in  New 
York  City,  and  have  since  been  adopt- 
ed in  most  American  and  many 
European  cities. 

Children's  Crusade,  The,  a  sin- 
gular movement  in  1212,  preached  in 
France  by  Stephen,  a  peasant  boy, 
and  in  Germany  the  same  year  by 
Nicholas,  also  a  peasant  boy.  Some 
90,000  children  left  their  mothers  and 


Chile 

schoolmasters  in  the  spring  "  to  rescue 
the  Holy  Land  from  the  infidels."  Part 
perished  by  shipwreck  and  the  rest 
were  sold  into  slavery. 

Childs,  George  William,  an 
American  philanthropist  and  pub- 
lisher ;  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  May 
22,  1829.  He  published  the  Philadel- 
phia "  Public  Ledger,"  1864-1894.  He 
assisted  in  establishing  a  home  for 
printers  at  Colorado  Springs.  He  died 
in  Philadelphia,  Feb.  3,  1894. 

Chile,  a  Republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica, bounded  on  the  N.  by  Peru,  E. 
by  Bolivia  and  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, S.  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ; 
area,  289,829  square  miles;  pop. 
(1914)  3,596,541;  principal  towns, 
Santiago  (capital),  397,941;  Valpa- 
raiso, 187,240;  Concepcion,  69,776; 
Iquique,  45,012;  Talca,  39,526;  and 
Chilian,  39,173. 

The  climate  of  Chile  is  temperate. 
The  temperature  is  remarkably  even 
and  pleasant,  and  always  cool  at 
night.  The  S.  wind  blows  fiercely 
during  many  days  of  summer,  dry 
and  cold ;  the  N.  wind  brings  heat, 
tempest  and  rain ;  other  winds  are 
unknown.  Central  Chile,  between  lat. 
32°  and  36°,  is  fertile.  In  Southern 
Chile  generally  the  land  is  poor,  and 
on  account  of  excessive  rain  of  hardly 
any  value  for  agriculture,  which,  in- 
deed, is  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive 
fashion,  but  the  soil  of  the  valleys, 
where  large  herds  of  cattle  graze,  is 
very  fertile. 

Chile  was  the  first  South  American 
State  to  construct  railways.  In  1915 
there  were  5,015  English  miles  of  lines 
open  to  traffic,  of  which  the  State 
owned  3,236  miles.  The  Arica  to  La 
Paz  railway,  with  a  length  of  266 
miles,  of  which  127  are  in  Chile  and 
139  in  Bolivia,  was  opened  Aug.  6, 
1912;  cost,  $12,250,000.  A  railway 
system  crossing  the  Andes  has  18 
miles  in  Chile  and  88  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans  from  Buenos  Ayres  to 
Valparaiso.  There  were  18,181  miles 
of  telegraph  lines  with  946  offices, 
through  which  12,596,236  messages 
were  sent  in  1914. 

The  government  is  that  of  a  repub- 
lic, the  chief  magistrate  being  a 
President,  elected  for  five  years,  who 
is  thereafter  ineligible  to  immediate 
reelection.  The  President  has  a  cab- 


Chile 

inet  consisting  of  six  members  and  a 
Council  of  State  of  11,  six  of  whom 
are  named  by  Congress.  Legislation 
is  conducted  by  a  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, chosen  by  popular  vote,  and  who 
serve  three  years,  renewable  by  thirds 
every  three  years ;  and  a  Senate,  mem- 
bers of  which  are  chosen  for  nine 
years.  For  administrative  purposes 
Chile  is  divided  into  23  provinces  and 
1  territory,  and  the  provinces  in  turn 
into  departments,  sub-delegations  and 
districts.  Each  province  is  governed 
by  an  intendant,  who  also  acts  as 
governor  of  the  department  in  which 
the  capital  of  the  province  is  situated. 
The  departments  are  governed  by  gov- 
ernors, the  minor  divisions  by  sub- 
delegates  and  inspectors.  The  estab- 
lished religion  of  Chile  is  Roman 
Catholic,  but  the  constitution  guaran- 
tees freedom  of  worship.  Education 
receives  much  attention,  but  is  not 
compulsory. 

The  name  of  Chile  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  an  ancient  Peruvian 
word  signifying  "snow."  The  N.  por- 
tion, as  far  as  the  river  Maule,  formed 
part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Incas  of 
Peru,  and  the  S.  was  held  by  the  val- 
iant Araucanians.  The  first  European 
to  land  in  Chile  was  the  Portuguese 
discoverer  Magellan,  at  Chiloe,  in 
1520.  After  the  conquest  of  Peru  by 
Pizarro,  an  expedition  was  made  to 
Chile  from  that  country  overland,  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Diego  de  Alma- 
gro,  in  1535.  This  expedition  pene- 
trated as  far  as  the  Rio  Clano,  but 
returned  unsuccessful.  Another  was 
sent  under  command  of  Pedro  Val- 
divia  in  1540,  which  succeeded  in  an- 
nexing the  territory  as  far  as  the  river 
Maipu.  Santiago,  the  capital,  was 
founded  by  Valdivia  in  1542.  Dur- 
ing the  colonial  period  the  governors 
of  Chile  were  appointed  by  the  King 
of  Spain,  but  were  subordinate  to  the 
viceroys  of  Peru.  In  1810  a .  revolt 
against  the  Spanish  power  broke  out, 
in  which  Don  Bernardo  O'Higgins,  son 
of  one  of  the  last  viceroys  of  Peru, 
but  a  native  of  Chile,  played  a  con- 
spicuous part,  and  finally  became  the 
first  dictator  of  the  new  republic.  The 
conflict  between  the  Spanish  troops 
and  the  Republican  army  continued 
until  1826,  when  peace  was  definitely 
settled  and  Chile  left  to  govern  itself. 
The  first  constitutional  president  was 
Gen.  Blanco  Encalada.  The  govern- 


Clii-IJ 

ment  was  unsettled  till  1830.  In 
1833  the  present  constitution  was 
adopted.  Revolutions  broke  out  in 
1851  and  1859,  but  since  then  there 
has  been  no  serious  attempt  to  over- 
turn the  government  by  force  of  arms. 
In  1864  Chile  gave  Peru  very  valuable 
support  in  her  war  with  Spain.  In 
1879  Chile  declared  war  against  Bo- 
livia on  account  of  an  alleged  viola- 
tion of  treaty  rights,  and  immediately 
after  against  Peru,  with  which  Bolivia 
was  allied.  For  a  time  the  Peruvian 
fleet  kept  the  Chilians  in  check,  but 
in  August,  1879,  the  Peruvian  ironclad 
"  Huascar"  was  captured  by  the 
Chilian  men-of-war  "  Cochrane  "  and' 
"Blanco  Encalada,"  both  armor- 
plated.  After  this  event  the  success 
of  the  Chilians  was  uninterrupted. 
Peruvian  towns  were  bombarded,  and 
their  other  warships  captured.  Final- 
ly Lima  was  taken  by  storm  on  June 
21,  1881.  The  Chilians  occupied  Lima 
and  Callao  until  Oct.  30,  1885,  when 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  between 
Chile  and  Peru.  Up  to  1900  no  treaty 
of  peace  had  been  signed  by  Chile  and 
Bolivia;  a  treaty  of  indefinite  truce 
having  been  agreed  to  in  1884.  In 
1885  Jose  Manuel  Balmaceda,  repre- 
senting the  Liberal  party,  was  elected 
President.  The  hostile  factions  or- 
ganized a  rebellion  and  formed  a 
junta,  under  whose  management  the 
forces  of  Balmaceda  were  repeatedly 
defeated.  He  committed  suicide  Sept. 
19,  1891.  In  a  riot  in  Valparaiso 
some  United  States  marines  were  set 
upon  and  wounded.  Reparation  was 
demanded  and  refused,  and .  war  be- 
tween Chile  and  the  United  States 
seemed  imminent.  Two  war  vessels 
were  sent  to  Chile  to  enforce  the  de- 
mands of  the  U.  S.  and  an  apology 
and  compensation  were  given.  In  1902 
the  boundary  dispute  with  Argentina, 
arbitrated  by  Great  Britain,  led  later 
to  a  treaty  of  continuous  peace. 

Chi-Li,'  or  Chin-Li,  one  of  the  18 
provinces  into  which  China  proper  Is 
divided.  It  has  an  area  of  115,800 
square  miles.  It  is  in  many  respects 
the  most  important  of  the  Chinese 
provinces,  containing  as  it  does  the 
imperial  capital.  Pekin,  the  treaty 
port  of  Tien-Tsin,  and  the  only  com- 
pleted line  of  railway  in  the  Empire. 
The  Great  Wall  runs  across  the  whole 
of  the  N.  part  of  Chi-Li,  while  on  the 
coast  are  the  forts  of  Taku,  and  the 


Chilkat  Inlet 


China 


nearest  approach  to  a  naval  station 
belonging  to  the  Chinese  government. 
There  are  Christian  missionaries  of 
many  denominations  throughout  the 
province.  No  census  has  been  taken 
since  1879,  when  the  population  was 
returned  as  17,937,000.  In  1914  the 
customs  authorities  estimated  the  pop- 
ulation at  22,970,000.  Chi-Li  has 
valuable  coal  mines  at  Kai-Ping,  and 
other  mineral  resources.  The  soil  is 
fertile.  The  provincial  capital  is 
Tientsin,  estimated  pop.  800,000. 

Chilkat  Inlet,  the  W.  arm  of 
Lynn  Canal,  an  inlet  in  Alaska. 

Chilkat,  or  Dalton,  Pass,  a  route 
in  Alaska  traversed  by  miners  in 
reaching  the  gold  fields  of  the  Klon- 
dike. 

Chilkoot  Inlet,  the  Eastern  arm 
of  Lynn  Canal,  an  inlet  in  Alaska. 

Chilkoot  Pass,  a  pass  over  the 
mountains  in  the  Northern  part  of 
Alaska,  traversed  by  thousands  of 
gold-seekers  in  the  Klondike  gold  fields 
excitement  in  1897-1898.  By  way  of 
the  Chilkoot  Pass  is  the  most  direct 
route  to  Dawson  City,  the  principal 
starting  point  to  the  Klondike  region. 

Chillicothe,  Ohio,  capital  of  Ross 
County,  50  miles  S.  of  Columbus,  was 
the  capital  of  Ohio  (1800-10).  It  is 
an  agricultural  and  industrial  centre. 
Pop.  (1910)  14,508. 

Chill  on,  Castle,  a  fortress  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  Vaud,  6 
miles  S.  E.  of  Vevay.  It  stands  on 
an  isolated  rock  at  the  E.  end  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva.  It  was  built  in  1238, 
by  Amadeus  IV.  of  Savoy,  and  was 
long  used  as  a  State  prison. 

Chiloe,  the  insular  province  of 
Chile ;  consists  of  the  island  of  that 
name  on  the  W.  coast,  which  is 
115  miles  long,  with  a  maximum 
breadth  of  43  miles,  and  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow 
strait  on  the  N.,  and  by  a  gulf  30 
miles  wide  on  the  E. ;  and  of  a  number 
of  neighboring  islets,  mostly  unin- 
habited ;  total  area,  6,979  square 
miles;  pop.  (1914)  95,756,  almost  all 
Indians  living  on  the  principal  is- 
land. 

Chimborazo,  a  conical  peak  of  the 
Andes,  in  Ecuador,  20,517  feet  above 
the  sea,  but  only  about  11,000  above 
the  level  of  the  adjacent  Quito  valley. 

China,  in  1917  alternately  a  repub- 
lic, an  empire,  and  again  a  republic, 


is  the  most  populous  and,  excluding 
Siberia,  the  largest  country  in  Asia. 
China  Proper  is  remarkable  as  the 
most  compact  nationality  in  the  world, 
having  an  area  estimated  by  the  Gov- 
ernment at  1,532,420  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  320,000,000.  The 
rest  of  the  country  includes  the  de- 
pendencies of  Manchuria,  Mongolia, 
Inner  Tibet,  and  Turkestan,  which 
cover  an  area  of  2,744,750  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  about  29,- 
000,000. 

The  dependencies  are  described  un- 
der their  respective  headings,  and 
this  article  refers  to  China  Proper, 
ancient  Cathay  or  The  Middle  King- 
dom, the  centre  of  power  and  people. 
It  occupies  the  E.  slope  of  the  table- 
lands of  Central  Asia,  and  is  almost 
in  the  form  of  a  square.  Two-thirds 
of  the  interior  are  estimated  to  be 
mountainous  ;  the  central  and  northern 
hills  are  off-shoots  of  the  Kuen-lun 
range,  while  in  the  southeast  extensive 
chains  stretch  from  the  Tibetan  high- 
lands to  the  eastern  seaboard.  Be- 
tween these  mountain-systems,  and  al- 
most parallel  flow  the  two  great  rivers 
of  China,  the  Hwang-ho,  and  the  Yang- 
tze. Besides  these  rivers  and  their 
numerous  tributaries,  the  most  notable 
are  the  Se-Kiang  in  the  south,  and  the 
Pei-ho  in  the  north.  The  waterways 
are  the  highways  of  China ;  joined  by 
a  vast  network  of  canals,  they  form  a 
gigantic  system  of  inland  communi- 
cation, always  thronged  with  craft  of 
every  description.  The  coast-line,  an 
irregular  curve  of  about  2,500  miles, 
is  fringed  with  islands,  the  largest  of 
which,  Formosa,  was  ceded  to  Japan 
after  the  war  of  1894-5.  The  greater 
part  of  China  lies  within  the  temper- 
ate zone,  but  the  climate  is  marked 
by  a  great  range  of  temperature,  from 
tropical  heat  in  the  south,  to  arctic 
conditions  in  the  north,  according  to 
seasons.  The  flora,  forestry,  and 
fauna,  are  allied  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions. China  is  well  supplied  with 
minerals,  including  gold,  silver,  cop- 

Eer,  and  iron  ;  there  are  extensive  coal- 
elds,  inexhaustible  beds  of  kaolin, 
or  porcelain  earth,  and  salt  is  abun- 
dant. Covering  an  immense  area  in 
the  north,  is  the  loess  deposit,  a 
brownish-yellow  earth  of  great  fertil- 
ity, wafted  thither  by  the  simoons  and 
winds  of  the  ages,  from  the  disin- 


China 

tegrating  Himalayan  plateaux.  Agri- 
culture is  held  in  veneration ;  rice  as 
the  principal  food  of  the  people  is 
the  staple  crop,  but  other  grains  also 
are  grown.  The  mulberry  tree  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  for  silkworms, 
while  the  opium  poppy,  and  the  tea- 
plant,  furnish  important  crops.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  silk,  paper, 
porcelain  and  cotton  goods  ;  the  inven- 
tiveness of  the  Chinese  is  of  ancient 
date,  paper-making,  printing,  gunpow- 
der, etc.,  having  been  discovered  by 
them  long  before  they  were  known  to 
Occidental  nations.  Besides  an  enor- 
mous domestic  trade,  a  considerable 
and  increasing  import  and  export 
trade  is  carried  on ;  tea,  raw  and  man- 
ufactured silk  being  exported,  and  cot- 
ton goods,  metals,  metal  goods,  and 
opium  being  imported.  Forty-seven 
treaty  ports  were  open  (1917)  to  for- 
eign commerce.  The  principal  cities 
are,  Peking,  the  capital,  with  pop.  est. 
in  1912  at  692,500,  Canton,  Tientsin, 
Han-kau,  Nanking,  Shanghai,  Ning- 
po,  Fu-chau,  Amoy,  Swatow,  and  30 
or  40  more,  with  a  population  from 
800,000  to  1,320,000.  In  1914  5,960 
miles  of  railway  were  open  for  traffic, 
and  2,273  miles  more  were  building; 
there  were  nearly  36,500  miles  of  tele- 
graph lines,  which  were  being  extend- 
ed throughout  the  country.  Peking  is 
in  direct  telegraphic  and  railway  com- 
munication with  Europe.  China  is 
being  gradually  opened  up  to  foreign 
intercourse  through  missionary  and 
political  influence,  but  a  great  part  of 
the  country  is  still  unknown  to  for- 
eigners. The  modern  development  of 
the  export  trade,  railways,  telegraphs, 
etc.,  has  been  due  to  foreign  rivalry 
for  China's  trade,  and  has  led  to  a 
complication  of  interests  whence  have 
arisen  the  political  catch-phrases, 
"The  Integrity  of  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire," "  The  Open  Door."  Various 
foreign  "  spheres  of  influence,"  and 
"  concessions,"  recognized  and  granted 
by  the  Chinese  Government,  are  the 
Russian,  British,  and  French  "  spheres 
of  influence,"  and  the  American  and 
German  "  concessions,"  respectively 
centred — the  Russian  in  Manchuria, 
the  British  at  Wei-hai-Wei  and  in  the 
Kau-lung  Peninsula  opposite  their  in- 
sular possession,  Hongkong ;  the 
French  at  Pakhoi  and  the  southern 
provinces  of  Kwang-si,  and  Yun-nan, 


China 

the  American  in  Han-kau,  Wu-chang, 
and  Canton ;  and  the  German  in  1897- 
1914  at  Kiaochau. 

Ethnologically  the  Chinese  belong 
to  the  Mongolian  race,  with  the  char- 
acteristic conformation  of  the  head 
and  face,  tawny  skin,  black  and  lank 
hair  (which  as  a  sign  of  subjection  to 
their  Tartar  conquerors  they  wear  in 
the  form  of  a  queue  or  "pig-tail"), 
oblique  eyes,  high-cheek  bones,  and 
monosyllabic  language.  They  are 
peaceable  and  domesticated ;  capable 
of  a  high  degree  of  organization  and 
local  self-government,  thrifty,  sober, 
industrious,  literary  but  unimagina- 
tive, and  thoroughly  imbued  with  a 
practical,  commercial  spirit.  The  prin- 
ciple of  filial  piety,  and  ancestral  wor- 
ship form  the  basis  of  Chinese  society. 
Vacillation,  duplicity,  and  insincerity, 
largely  the  result  of  excessive  polite- 
ness and  the  desire  to  please,  gam- 
bling, and  opium  smoking,  are  among 
their  vicious  traits.  Education  is 
general,  and  is  largely  fostered  by  the 
Chinese  executive  system  which  is 
based  on  those  noteworthy  competi- 
tive examinations,  which  are  intended 
to  sift  out  from  the  millions  of  edu- 
cated Chinese,  the  best  and  ablest  for 
the  public  service.  Many  young  men 
of  the  higher  classes  are  sent  to  the 
United  States  and  Europe  for  instruc- 
tion in  English  and  the  sciences.  In 
1898  an  "  Imperial  University  of 
China"  was  established  by  imperial 
decree.  Dr.  William  A.  P.  Martin, 
an  American  missionary  and  educator, 
was  appointed  first  president  of  this 
institution,  and  three  of  its  professors 
are  from  the  United  States. 

The  Confucian,  the  Buddhist,  and 
the  Taoist,  are  the  chief  forms  of  re- 
ligion ;  Confucianism  and  Taoism  are 
indigenous,  but  Buddhism  was  intro- 
duced from  India.  Confucianism,  the 
basis  of  their  social  and  political 
systems,  has  been  professed  by  all 
their  greatest  men,  and  is  still  the  sole 
belief  of  the  educated  classes. 

For  many  years  the  Empress  Dow- 
ager ruled  the  empire  as  regent  or 
as  practical  empress.  She  died  No- 
vember 15,  1908,  the  Emperor  Kuang- 
Hsu  haying  died  November  9,  Pu- 
Yi,  a  child  emperor  two  years  old,  suc- 
ceeded, the  government  being  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a  regent.  The  provincial 
governor  or  national  delegate  possesses 


China 

the  power  of  life  or  death,  and  under 
him  are  the  superintendent  of  provin- 
cial finances,  the  provincial  criminal 
judge,  and  the  provincial  educational 
examiner ;  each  communicates  through 
the  governor  with  his  especial  board 
in  Peking.  China  has  (on  paper)  an 
enormous  army,  each  of  the  18  prov- 
inces being  supposed  to  provide  a  mil- 
itary force  or  corps  of  8,000  to  about 
68,000  men,  and  aggregating  from  540,- 
000  to  660,000,  known  as  the  Ying 
Ping  or  National  Army,  and  called 
also  the  Green  Flags  and  the  Five 
Camps — five  being  the  unit  of  sub-di- 
vision. The  elite  of  the  army  is  the 
Shen-Che-Yeng  (Black  Flags),  the  for- 
eign-drilled Tientsin  Army  corps,  about 
35,000  strong,  and  the  Pa-ki  or  Eight 
Banners  containing  about  300.000 
Manchu  warrior-descendants.  Since 
the  Chino- Japanese  War  (1894^95), 
there  is  no  effective  Chinese  fleet,  al- 
though a  few  swift  cruisers  have  been 
added  to  the  Chen-Hai  and  the  Kang- 
Chi  which  alone  remained  of  the  Pei- 
Yang  squadron.  The  national  revenue 
is  derived"  from  land  and  property  tax- 
es, customs,  and  excise,  and  in  1916 
the  budget  for  ordinary  and  extraor- 
dinary revenue  and  expenditure  was 
$325,000,000.  Prior  to  the  Boxer 
troubles  (1900-1901),  the  external 
debt  amounted  to  about  $270,000,000 ; 
to  this  was  added  in  1901  the  in- 
demnity of  $375,000,000;  estimated 
debt  in  1914  $960,000,000. 

China's    authentic    history    begins  i 
with   the   Chow   dynasty   founded   by  ! 
Woo-wang,   which    lasted    from   1100 , 
B.  c.  to  258  B.  c.   Confucius  was  born 
under  Ling-wang  of  this  dynasty  about 
550  B.  c.    Chow-siang,  the  founder  of 
the  Tsin  dynasty,  from  which  China 
takes  its  name,  overcame  all  rivals, 
and  died  in  251  B.  o.     Che-Hoang-ti, 
his  great-grandson,  was   the  first  to 
assume  the  title  of  "Hoang"    (em- 
peror) ;   during  his  reign,  in  214  B. 
c.,   the   great   wall  was  begun   as   a 
protection    against    marauding    Tar- 
tars. 

The  Mongols  under  Genghis  Khan 
and  his  son  Ogdai  conquered  China  in 
the  13th  century,  and  in  1259  Kublai 
Khan,  a  nephew,  ascended  the  throne 
and  founded  the  Mongol  dynasty.  In 
the  13th  century  Marco  Polo,  the 
Venetian  traveler,  visited  China,  and 
published  in  Europe  the  earliest  au- 


China 

thentic  account  of  the  country.  In 
1368  the  native  Ming  dynasty  in  the 
person  of  Hungwu  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, which  it  retained  until  replaced 
in  1618  by  the  present  Manchu  dynas- 
ty, in  the  person  of  Tungchi.  Diplo- 
matic connections  with  Occidental  na- 
tions did  not  commence  until  the  Brit- 
ish embassy  of  Lord  Macartney  ar- 
rived at  Peking  in  1792,  and  it  was 
not  until  after  the  war  with  Great 
Britain  in  1840,  occasioned  by  the  de- 
plorable imposition  of  the  opium  traf- 
fic on  China,  that  commercial  treaties 
opened  the  country  to  foreign  trade. 
The  first  treaty  with  the  United  States 
was  negotiated  by  Caleb  Gushing  in 
1844.  .War  with  Great  Britain  again 
occurred  in  1856  over  the  Chinese  seiz- 
ure of  a  Hongkong  vessel,  France 
joining  in,  to  secure  better  protection 
for  missionaries  and  trade.  From  1850 
to  1865  southern  China  was  disturbed 
by  the  Taiping  Rebellion.  In  1894-95 
occurred  the  war  with  Japan  over 
Korea,  which  resulted  in  a  series  of 
brilliant  land  and  naval  victories  for 
Japan,  and  the  payment  of  a  large  in- 
demnity by  China.  In  1898  Russia 
and  Germany  acquired  Chinese  con- 
cessions of  land.  In  1900  occurred 
the  Boxer  troubles,  when  a  belligerent 
section  of  the  natives  exasperated  by 
the  continued  encroachments  of  the 
"  foreign  devils  "  and  "  barbarians," 
murdered  the  German  ambassador, 
and  besieged  the  foreign  legations  in 
Peking  for  two  months  until  relieved 
by  the  allied  forces  of  Russia,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  Japan. 

The  Emperor  Kuang-Hsu  died  Nov. 
9,  1908 ;  his  two-year  old  nephew, 
P'u-yi,  succeeded  nominally,  but  the 
Empress  Dowager  was  the  actual  ruler 
till  her  death,  Nov.  15,  1908.  On 
Feb.  12, 1912,  the  oldest  of  monarchies 
became  a  republic,  the  young  Emperor 
abdicating  the  same  day.  In  1915  an 
attempt  was  made  to  restore  the  mon- 
archy, but  the  act  of  eight  provinces 
declaring  their  independence  checked 
the  movement.  On  July  2,  1917,  the 
monarchy  was  restored  tinder  the  boy 
Emperor;  and  on  Aug.  10  following 
all  the  foreign  ministers  in  Pekin  rec- 
ognized the  restoration  of  the  repub- 
lic under  President  Feng-Kwo-Chang. 
China  severed  diplomatic  relations 
with  Germany,  March  22,  1917,  and 


Chinchilla 

declared  war  on  Germany  and  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, Aug.  14  following. 

Chinchilla,  a  genus  of  South  Amer- 
ica herbivorous  rodents  very  closely 
allied  to  the  rabbit,  which  they  resem- 
ble in  the  general  shape  of  the  body, 


CHINCHHXA. 

in  the  limbs  being  longer  behind  than 
before,  and  by  the  nature  of  the  fur, 
which  is  more  woolly  than  silky. 

Chinchon,  a  town  of  Spain,  25 
miles  S.  E.  of  Madrid,  named  for  the 
Countess  of  Chinchon,  wife  of  the 
Governor  of  Peru  in  1638.  Peruvian 
bark  was  named  "  Chinchona,"  now 
habitually  misspelled  "  Cinchona." 

Chinese -fire,  a  pyrotechnic  compo- 
sition, consisting  of  gunpowder,  16 ; 
niter,  8 ;  charcoal,  3 ;  sulphur,  3 ;  cast- 
iron  borings  (small),  10. 

Chinese  Lantern,  a  lantern  made 
of  thin  paper,  usually  variously  col- 
ored and  much  used  in  illuminations. 

Chinese  Swallows'  Nests,  curi- 
ous productions,  which  sell  at  a  high 
price  in  China,  though  they  have  no 
special  points  of  recommendation  be- 
yond many  other  gelatinous  ingredients 
in  soups.  They  are  formed  of  a  secre- 
tion from  the  mouth  of  the  bird  itself. 

Chinese  Tartary,  an  old  name  of 
Turkestan. 

Ching,  a  Chinese  prince ;  born  in 
Peking  about  1840.  He  was  related  to 
the  Chinese  imperial  family.  He  was 
at  the  head  of  the  Tsung-li-Yamen,  but 
was  deposed  in  1900  for  his  efforts  to 
protect  the  legations  in  Peking,  during 
which  he  attacked  the  Boxers. 

Ching-hai,  or  Chin-hai,  a  sea- 
port of  China,  in  the  province  of  Cheh- 
Chiang  (Cheh-Kiang),  9  miles  from 
the  treaty  port  of  Ning-Po. 

Chin-Kiang,  or  Chin-Chiang,  a 
city  of  China  in  the  province  of  Kiang- 


Chippeways 

Su  (or  Chiang-Su),  about  490  miles 
S.  of  Tieu-Tsin.  Chin-Kiang  became 
a  treaty  port  in  1861.  Pop.  (1914) 
86,120. 

Chinon,  an  antique  town  in  the 
French  department  of  Indre-et-Loire. 
Crowning  a  lofty  rock  are  the  ruins  of 
its  vast  old  castle,  the  "  French  Wind- 
sor "  of  the  Plantagenets,  the  death- 
place  of  Henry  II. ;  and  later  the  resi- 
dence of  several  French  sovereigns, 
where,  in  1429,  Joan  of  Arc  revealed 
her  mission  to  the  Dauphin. 

Chinooks,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  now 
nearly  extinct,  on  the  Columbia  river, 
or  in  Oregon. 

Chinook  Wind,  a  strong,  dry  west 
or  south  wind  in  Wyoming  and  Mon- 
tana, which  descends  from  the  moun- 
tains, like  the  hot  winds  of  Kansas, 
and  the  Fohn  winds  of  Switzerland. 

Chintz,  a  cotton  cloth  gaily  printed 
with  designs  of  flowers,  etc.,  in  five 
or  six  different  colors.  It  was  a  favor- 
ite in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  long 
before  cotton  prints  became  cheap.  The 
name  has  since  been  applied  to  goods 
lacking  the  graceful  and  artistic  char- 
acter of  the  genuine  article. 

Chios,  (now  called  by  the  natives 
Chio,  Italianized  into  Scio),  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  fertile  islands  in 
the  -33gean  sea,  belonging  to  Greece,  7 
miles  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  at 
the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna. 
It  has  an  area  of  320  square  miles,  and 
a  population  (1913)  of  73,830,  almost 
all  Greeks.  Earthquakes  are,  however, 
not  rare,  and  one  in  1881  caused  the 
death  of  3,558  persons,  and  the  de- 
struction of  property  to  the  value  of 
over  $15,000,000. 

Chipmunk,  a  small  animal  much 
like  a  squirrel,  known  as  the  striped 
squirrel. 

Chippendale,  Thomas,  an  Eng- 
lish cabinet-maker ;  went  to  London 
from  Worcestershire  before  1750.  The 
style  of  furniture  named  from  him  was 
less  heavy  and  severe  than  that  of  his 
successors,  and  was  rather  elaborate, 
delicate  and  baroque,  with  classical 
tendencies. 

Chippeways,  or  Ojibways,  a 
tribe  of  North  American  Indians  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  They 
are  distributed  in  bands  round  both 
sides  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Superior, 


Chiquimula 

where  they  once  owned  vast  tracts. 
They  are  of  the  Algonquin  stock,  tall, 
active  and  well  formed,  subsist  chiefly 
by  hunting  and  fishing  and  number 
about  18,000. 

Chiqnimnla,  a  small  town  in  the 
E.  of  Guatemala,  which  gives  name  to 
a  province  and  to  the  Isthmus  of  Chi- 
quimula. 

Cliiquinquira,  the  largest  town  in 
the  department  of  Boyaca,  Colombia, 
was  an  Indian  place  of  pilgrimage  be- 
fore the  conquest,  and  the  Spaniards 
having  found  here  a  miraculous  image 
of  the  Virgin,  the  church  where  this  is 
preserved  is  now  visited  by  some 
60,000  pilgrims  annually. 

Cliiquitos,  or  Naquinoneis 
("men"),  an  Indian  tribe  of  Bolivia, 
dwelling  between  the  Paraguay  and 
the  Madeira. 

Cliiriqui,  the  westernmost  admin- 
istrative division  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  adjoining  Costa  Rica;  area, 
6,500  square  miles ;  pop.  43,000.  It  is 
well  wooded,  and  has  rich  pasturage, 
especially  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where 
the  climate  is  very  moist. 

Chiron,  a  centaur,  half  man  and 
half  horse,  son  of  Philyra  and  Saturn, 
was  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  mu- 
sic, medicine  and  shooting.  He  taught 
mankind  the  use  of  plants  and  medic- 
inal herbs,  and  be  instructed  in  all  the 
polite  arts,  the  greatest  heroes  of  his 
age,  Achilles,  .ZEsculapius,  Hercules,  etc. 

Chisholm,  William  Wallace, 
Republican  politician  and  Unionist, 
born  in  Morgan  County,  Ga.,  1830; 
was  fatally  shot  by  a  mob  in  1877. 

CLisleu,  the  ninth  month  of  the 
Jewish  year,  commencing  with  the  new 
moon  in  December  or  the  latter  part  of 
November.  The  modern  Jews  fast  on 
the  sixth  day  of  this  month. 

Chitral,  a  small  mountain  State  in 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Kashkar  or 
Kunar,  a  tributary  of  the  Kabul  river, 
and  bordering  on  Kashmir  and  Kafiris- 
tan,  is  5.200  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  people  are  Moslems,  but  mostly 
speak  a  language  close  akin  to  that 
of  their  pagan  neighbors  in  Kafiristan. 

Chittenden,  Rnssel  Henry,  an 
American  educator;  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  18,  1856.  He  be- 
came Professor  of  Physiological  Chem- 
istry at  Yale  in  1882,  and  since  1896 


Chlopicki 

has  been  director  of  the  Sheffield  Scien- 
tific School. 

Chittenden,  Thomas,  an  Ameri- 
can colonial  and  State  governor;  born 
in  East  Guilford,  Conn.,  Jan.  6,  1730. 
He  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  Ver- 
mont, and  acquired  a  fortune  from  bis 
lands.  In  1778  he  became  governor  of 
Vermont,  before  its  formal  separation 
from  New  York  was  recognized.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  the  British 
and  the  Continental  Congress  received" 
overtures  from  him,  his  terms  being 
recognition  of  Vermont's  statehood.  He 
retired  from  public  life  in  1796  and 
died  in  Williston,  Vt.,  Aug.  24,  1797. 

Chittim,  or  Kittim,  in  the  Old 
Testament,  is  usually  identified  with 
Cyprus. 

Chitty,  Joseph,  an  English  law- 
yer and  legal  writer ;  born  in  1776.  He 
achieved  eminence  as  a  barrister  in 
London,  but  his  celebrity  rests  mainly 
upon  his  legal  works.  He  died  in 
London,  Feb.  17,  1843. 

Chinsi,  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
102  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  R9me.  It  is 
in  connection  with  the  discovery  of 
Etruscan  antiquities  that  the  place 
is  chiefly  heard  of.  During  the  19th 
century  immense  quantities  of  these 
remains  were  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood in  the  grottoes  that  served  the 
ancient  Etruscans  as  tombs. 

Chivalry,  the  uses  and  customs 
pertaining  to  the  order  of  knighthood. 
Chivalry  declined  and  fell  with  the  feu- 
dal system,  of  which  it  was  a  normal 
growth.  The  institution  of  the  mili- 
tary orders,  the  Knights  Templar,  the 
Knights  of  St.  John  and  the  Teutonic 
Knights  was  an  interesting  develop- 
ment of  chivalry. 

Chladni,  Ernst  Flprens  Freid- 
rich,  a  German  physicist;  born  in 
Wittenberg,  Nov.  30.  1756.  Died  in 
Breslau,  April  4,  1827. 

Chlopicki,  Joseph,  a  Polish  gen- 
eral ;  born  in  Galicia,  March  24,  1772. 
He  served  under  Kosciuszko  during  the 
first  revolt  of  the  Poles  (1794),  and 
then  engaged  in  Napoleon's  service,  un- 
der whom  he  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Eylau,  Friedland,  Smolensk  and 
Moskowa.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Polish  revolution  of  1830  he  was  elect- 
ed Dictator,  but  soon  resigned  that 
office,  fought  at  Grochow  and  Wavre, 
and  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities 


Chloral 


Chocolate 


retired  into  private  life.     He  died  in 
Cracow,  Sept.  30,  1854. 

Chloral,  produced  by  the  action  of 
chlorine  on  alcohol,  since  the  discov- 
ery of  its  anaesthetic  effects  by  Dr. 
O.  Liebrich  in  1869,  is  extensively 
employed  medicinally  in  the  form  of 
chloral  hydrate. 

Chlorine,  a  gas.  From  its  wide 
affinities  and  great  activity  in  the  free 
state,  chlorine  is  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful and  powerful  instruments  with 
which  the  chemist  deals.  By  it  such 
metals  as  platinum  and  gold  are  at- 
tacked and  made  soluble  in  water, 
while  its  power  over  organic  sub- 
stances is  very  great. 

Chlorine  is  largely  consumed  in  the 
arts.  Thus  it  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  potassic  chlorate  for  making 
lucifer  matches;  in  the  conversion  of 
the  yellow  to  the  red  prussiate  of  pot- 
ash, in  the  preparation  of  chloride  of 
sulphur  for  the  vulcanizing  process, 
and  above  all  as  a  bleaching  and  dis- 
infecting agent. 

Chloroform,  is  formed  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  sun's  rays  on  a  mixture  of 
chlorine  and  marsh  gas;  also  by  the 
action  of  caustic  potash  on  chloral  or 
chloracetic  acid,  or  by  the  action  of 
nascent  hydrogen  on  tetrachloride  of 
carbon.  It  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale 
by  distilling  water  and  alcohol  with 
bleaching  powder.  Chloroform  is  a 
colorless,  mobile,  heavy,  ethereal  liquid. 

The  vapor  of  chloroform,  when  in- 
haled for  some  time,  produces  a  tem- 
porary insensibility  to  pain.  Inhaled 
in  small  doses  it  produces  pleasurable 
inebriation,  followed  by  drowsiness ;  in 
larger  doses  it  causes  loss  of  voluntary 
motion,  suspension  of  mental  faculties, 
with  slight  contraction  of  the  muscles 
and  rigidity  of  the  limbs ;  then  if  the 
inhalation  is  continued  a  complete  re- 1 
laxation  of  the  voluntary  muscles 
takes  place,  but  if  carried  too  far  it ' 
causes  dangerous  symptoms  of  apnoea 
or  of  syncope,  and  the  patient  must  be 
restored  by  artificial  respiration. 

Chlorosis,  one  of  the  most  formid- 
able diseases  to  which  plants  are  liable, 
and  often  admitting  of  no  remedy. 
Many  forms  of  the  disease  exist,  of 
which  those  of  clover,  onions,  cucum- 
bers and  melons  are  best  known. 

In  medical  practice  an  affection  in 
which  the  skin  of  the  body,  and  es- 


pecially that  of  the  face,  assumes  a 
peculiar  greenish  cast,  and  hence  is 
popularly  known  as  green-sickness. 

Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  an  Amer- 
ican diplomatist;  born  in  Salem, 
Mass.,  Jan.  24,  1832.  He  is  a  descen- 
dant of  John  Choate,  who  came  from 
England  in  1640.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1852 ;  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Boston  in  1855 ;  removed 
in  1856  to  New  York,  where  he  be- 
came a  partner  in  the  law  firm  of 
Evarts,  Choate  &  Beaman.  His  abil- 
ity as  a  lawyer  and  public  speaker 
gave  him  a  reputation  seldom  equaled 
among  leaders  of  the  New  York  bar. 
In  1899-1905  he  was  Ambassador  to 
Great  Britain.  He  died  May  14, 
1917. 

Choate,  Ruf  us,  an  American  law- 
yer ;  born  in  Essex,  Mass.,  Oct.  1, 
1799;  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1819;  taught  there  for  one 
year ;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
began  practice  in  Danvers  in  1823 ; 
removed  to  Salem  in  1828;  was  a 
member  of  Congress  in  1830-1834,  re- 
signing in  the  latter  year;  removed  to 
Boston ;  was  successor  of  Daniel  Web- 
ster in  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1841-1845;  returned  to  Boston  in  the 
latter  year  and  resumed  practice.  He 
traveled  in  Europe  in  1850 ;  was  a 
delegate  to  the  Whig  National  Con- 
vention in  Baltimore  in  1852.  After 
Webster's  death  Mr.  Choate  was  ac- 
knowledged the  leader  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts bar.  He  made  many  political 
speeches,  the  most  brilliant,  while  a 
United  States  Senator,  including  those 
on  the  Oregon  Boundary,  the  Tariff, 
the  Fiscal  Bank  Bill,  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  the  Annexation  of 
Texas.  He  gave  much  attention  to  lit- 
erary studies.  He  died  in  Halifax, 
N.  S.,  Julv  13,  1858. 

Chocolate,  a  preparation  of  the 
seeds  of  Tneobroma  Cacao,  made  by 
grinding  the  seeds  mixed  with  water 
to  a  very  fine  paste.  It  was  intro- 
duced from  America  to  Europe  by  the 
Spaniards.  It  is  highly  nutritious, 
containing  a  large  proportion  of  nitro- 
genous flesh-forming  material.  On  this 
account  it  is  used  as  portable  food  by 
many  mountaineers.  In  the  solid 
form,  mixed  with  much  sugar,  cream, 
and  various  confections,  Chocolate  is 
largely  used  as  a  sweetmeat,  and  is 
introduced  in  pastry. 


Choctaw* 


Chorazln 


Choctaws,  an  Indian  tribe  that 
now  occupies  a  reservation  in  the  S. 
E.  portion  of  Oklahoma;  area,  10,450 
square  miles.  The  chief  and  legisla- 
ture are  chosen  by  popular  vote. 
Grain,  cotton  and  fruit  are  raised  bv 
the  tribe,  which  maintains  schools 
and  orphan  homes.  They  number 
aboiit  18,456.  A  number  of  denom- 
inations maintain  mission  schools. 
The  tribe's  trust  funds  aggregate 
over  $549,500.  There  are  numerous 
Choctaw  physicians,  lawyers  and 
clergymen,  but  the  tribe  is  not  as 
civilized  as  some  others. 

Choir,  an  organized  body  of  singers 
in  church  services.  In  ecclesiastical 
architecture  the  choir  is  the  part  of 
the  building  in  a  cathedral  or  colle- 
giate chapel  set  apart  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  ordinary  daily  ser- 
vice. 

Choke-cherry,  a  species  of  cherry, 
so  called  from  the  astringent  nature  of 
the  fruit ;  it  is  indigenous  to  North 
America,  the  true  choke-cherry  being 
the  Prunus  Virginiana ;  the  fruit  is 
smfll  and  hangs  in  racemes. 

Choke-damp,  the  name  given  by 
miners  to  the  fire-damp  resulting  from 
an  explosion  of  gas  in  mines. 

Choking,  the  effect  caused  by  a 
morsel  of  food,  liquid,  or  other  obstruc- 
tion, passing  into  the  larnyx  or  up- 
per opening  of  the  windpipe,  instead 
of  the  gullett.  It  results  generally 
from  a  breath  being  suddenly  drawn  in 
coughing  or  laughing,  while  food  or 
fluid  is  in  the  mouth ;  and  a  violent  fit 
of  coughing  follows  till  the  offending 
substance  is  expelled  from  the  wind- 
pipe. Sometimes,  however,  a  larger 
mass  is  drawn  into  the  opening  of  the 
windpipe,  completely  blocking  it  and 
arresting  respiration  altogether.  This 
condition  is  one  of  extreme  danger  and 
the  sufferer,  if  not  at  once  relieved, 
will  certainly  and  quickly  die  of  suffo- 
cation. 

Cholera,  a  Greek  term  now  univer- 
sally employed  in  medicine  as  indicat- 
ing one  of  two  or  three  forms  of  dis- 
ease, characterized  by  vomiting  and 
purging,  followed  by  great  prostration 
of  strength,  amounting  in  severe  cases 
to  fatal  collapse.  The  milder  forms  of 
Cholera  occur  almost  every  summer 
and  autumn,  even  in  temperate  lati- 
tudes, while  the  more  devastating  and 


fatal  forms  of  the  disease  are  general- 
ly supposed  to  originate  only  in  tropi- 
cal countries.  The  very  fatal  forms  of 
the  disease  are  commonly  called  Asia- 
tic, Oriental,  or  Epidemic  Cholera. 

What  is  called  Cholera  morbus  is  a 
bilious  disease,  long  known  in  most 
countries,  and  is  characterized  by  co- 
pious vomiting  and  purging,  with  vio- 
lent griping,  cramps  of  the  muscles  of 
the  abdomen  and  lower  extremities, 
and  great  depression  of  strength.  It 
is  the  most  prevalent  at  the  end  of 
summer  or  the  beginning  of  autumn. 
Cholera  infantum  (infants'  cholera) 
is  the  name  sometimes  given  to  a  se- 
vere and  dangerous  diarrhoea  to  which 
infants  are  liable  in  hot  climates  or 
in  the  hot  season. 

Cliolos,  in  Peru,  the  name  for  those 
who  are  partly  of  white,  partly  of 
Indian  parentage,  the  most  numerous 
class  of  the  community. 

Cholnla,  a  decayed  town  of  the 
Mexican  State  of  Puebla.  Cortes 
found  in  it  40,000  houses  and  400 
temples,  including  the  great  Teocalli. 
Now  the  place  only  contains  9,000  in- 
habitants. It  was  a  great  center  of 
the  Aztec  religion. 

Chonos  Archipelago,  a  group  of 
islands  lying  off  the  W.  coast  of  Pata- 
gonia. Two  are  large,  but  they  are  all 
barren  and  scantily  inhabited. 

Chopin,  Frederic  Francois,  a 
Russian  pianist  and  musical  composer, 
of  French  extraction  ;  born  in  Warsaw, 
March  1,  1809;  died  Oct.  17,  1894  in 
Paris,  where  the  best  part  of  his  life 
was  spent.  His  characteristic  piano- 
forte compositions  include  Nocturnes, 
Polonaises,  Valses,  and  Preludes. 

Chop-sticks,  the  Chinese  substi- 
tute for  a  knife,  fork,  and  spoon  at 
meals,  consisting  of  two  smooth  sticks 
of  bamboo,  wood,  or  ivory. 

Chorale,  or  Choral,  the  psalm  or 
hymn  tune  of  the  German  Protestant 
churches. 

Choral  Music,  vocal  music  in 
parts ;  music  written  or  arranged  for 
a  choir  or  chorus,  and  including  ora- 
torios, cantatas,  masses,  anthems,  etc. 

Choral  Service,  a  service  with  in- 
toned responses,  and  the  use  of  music 
throughout  wherever  it  is  authorized. 

Chorazin,  one  of  the  cities  in  which 
Christ's  mighty  works  were  done,  but 


Chord 

named  only  in  his  denunciation  (Matt 
xi:  21;  Luke  x:  13).  It  was  known 
to  St.  Jerome,  who  describes  it  as  on 
the  shore  of  the  lake,  2  miles  from 
Capernaum. 

Chord,  in  music,  the  simultaneous 
and  harmonious  union  of  different 
sounds,  at  first  intuitively  recognized 
by  the  ear,  and  afterwards  reduced  to 
a  science  by  the  invention  of  the  laws 
or  rules  of  harmony. 

Chorea,  St.  Vitus'  dance,  a  dis- 
order of  the  nervous  system  character- 
ized by  a  peculiar  convulsive  and  ir- 
regular action  of  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles. The  name  is  derived  from  St. 
Vitus,  who  is  said  to  have  had  the 
power  of  curing  persons  afflicted  with 
that  disease. 

Chorus,  originally  an  ancient  Greek 
term  for  a  troop  of  singers  and  dan- 
cers, intended  to  heighten  the  pomp 
and  solemnity  of  festivals. 

Chosen,  new  name  given  by  Japan 
to  Korea  on  annexation  of  the  latter 
in  1910. 

Chosroes  I.,  or  Khosron  the 
Great,  King  of  Persia,  succeeded 
Cabades,  A.  i>.  551.  He  was  fierce  and 
cruel,  but  possessed  many  good  quali- 
fies, and  encouraged  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences. He  concluded  a  peace  with 
the  Romans,  but  afterward  invaded 
their  territories,  but  was  defeated  by 
Tiberius.  He  died  in  579. 

Chonans,  the  name  popularly  given 
during  the  Vendean  civil  war  in 
France,  to  the  peasants  of  Brittany 
and  Lower  Maine. 

Chontean,  Auguste,  an  American 
pioneer ;  born  in  New  Orleans,  La., 
in  1739.  He  was  from  his  early  youth 
a  fur  trader,  and  with  his  brother 
Pierre  he  founded  the  city  of  St.  Louis 
in  1764.  He  died  in  St.  Louis,  Feb. 
24,  1829. 

Chontean,  Pierre,  an  American 
pioneer;  born  in  New  Orleans,  in 
1749.  With  his  brother  Auguste  he 
set  out  in  1763,  joining  a  government 
expedition.  He  stopped  in  the  heart 
of  an  unsettled  country  and  founded, 
with  his  brother,  the  city  of  St.  Louis. 
He  died  in  St.  Louis,  July  9,  1849. 

Chontean,  Pierre,  Jr.,  an  Ameri- 
can capitalist,  son  of  the  preceding; 
born  in  St.  Louis,  Jan.  19,  1789.  He 
worked  for  his  father  and  began  trad- 


Christ 

ing  in  fur  early  in  life.  After  estab- 
lishing posts  for  the  sale  of  skins 
throughout  the  trans-Mississippi  re- 
gion he  purchased  the  fur-trading  in- 
terests of  John  Jacob  Astor.  He  died 
in  St.  Louis,  Sept.  8,  1865. 

Chrism,  the  name  given  to  the  oil 
consecrated  on  Holy  Thursday,  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  Churches, 
and  used  in  baptism,  confirmation,  or- 
dination, and  extreme  unction. 

Christ,  the  name  given  as  a  title  of 
eminence  to  Jesus  our  Saviour,  whom, 
in  the  words  of  St.  Peter  (Acts  x: 
38),  "God  anointed,"  as  king,  priest, 
and  prophet,  "  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  with  power."  The  two  names, 
Jesus  Christ,  are  not  analogous  to  a 
modern  Christian  name  and  surname; 
in  reality  the  great  Being  so  desig- 
nated had  but  one  personal  appella- 
tion— Jesus ;  Christ  being  added  by 
Jesus  himself  (John  4:  26)  to  desig- 
nate His  office,  function,  or  mission. 

Christ,  Disciples  of,  a  denomina- 
tion of  Christians  in  the  United  States 
from  which  has  sprung  since  1900 
a  body  known  as  the  CHURCHES  OF 
CHBIST.  In  September,  1809,  Thomas 
Campbell,  a  Scotch  minister  of  the 
seceders'  branch  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  then  living  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, issued  a  "  Declaration  and 
Address  "  deploring  the  divided  state 
of  the  Church,  and  urging  as  the  only 
remedy  a  complete  restoration  of 
apostolic  Christianity  and  the  rejec- 
tion of  all  human  creeds  and  confes- 
sions of  faith.  The  Christian  Asso- 
ciation of  Washington,  Pa.,  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
the  principles  set  forth  in  this  "  dec- 
laration." It  was  not  the  intention 
of  the  Campbellites  to  form  a  dis- 
tinct religious  body,  but  to  effect  the 
proposed  reforms  in  the  churches. 
The  Disciples  maintained  that  having 
accepted  the  Bible  as  their  only  rule 
of  faith  and  practice,  and  the  only 
divine  basis  for  the  union  of  all 
Christians,  they  were  led  to  reject  in- 
fant baptism  and  adopt  believers'  im- 
mersion only.  They  observe  the  Lord's 
Supper  each-first  day  of  the  week,  and 
heartily  and  practically  accept  and 
exalt  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of 
Christ.  The  two  denominations  have 
8,621  ministers,  11,143  churches,  and 
1,522,821  communicants,  besides  sev 


Oh.ristadelpL.ians 


Christian  Church 


eral  universities  and  colleges  of  high 
rank,  and  a  number  of  religious  pub- 
lications. 

Cliristadelphians,  a  religious 
body  who  believe  that  God  will  raise 
all  who  love  Him  to  an  endless  life  in 
this  world  (but  that  those  who  do  not 
shall  absolutely  perish  in  death)  ;  that 
Christ  is  the  Son  of  God,  inheriting 
moral  perfection  from  the  Deity,  our 
human  nature  from  His  mother ;  and 
that  there  is  no  personal  devil.  In  the 
United  States  they  had  in  1906,  70  or- 
ganizations with  1,412  members,  scat- 
tered over  25  States  and  Territories. 
Their  founder  was  Dr.  John  Thomas, 
an  Englishman,  who  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1844. 

Christ  Church,  College  of,  a 
notable  institution  in  Oxford,  England. 
Christian  II.,  King  of  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden;  son  of  Hans 
and  grandson  of  Christian  I.,  King 
of  Denmark,  etc. ;  born  July  2,  1480. 
Upon  rebellion  breaking  out  in 
Sweden,  Christian  sent  an  army  com- 
manded by  Otto  Krumpen,  who  defeat- 
ed the  S"wedes  in  the  decisive  battle 
of  Bogesund  (Ulrikehamn),  Jan.  19, 
1520,  in  which  Steen  Sture  the  ad- 
ministrator was  killed.  Stockholm, 
under  the  command  of  the  widow  of 
Sture,  stood  a  siege  of  four  months, 
during  which  period  the  rest  of  the 
country  was  subdued,  and  on  Nov.  4, 
Christian  was  crowned  King  of 
Sweden.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
cruel  n?onsters  of  history,  and  is 
known  as  "  The  Nero  of  the  North." 
Sweden  revolted  under  Gustavus  Vasa, 
who  expelled  the  Danish  garrisons  and 
became  king  of  Sweden,  and  founder  of 
the  illustrious  house  of  Vasa.  Chris- 
tian was  dethroned  in  Denmark,  and 
died  in  1559. 

Christian  IX.  (of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg)  ;  born 
in  1818,  succeeded  Frederick  VII.  as 
King  of  Denmark,  in  1863.  The  Kings 
of  Greece,  of  Norway,  Queen  of  Great 
Britain,  Dowager  Czarina  of  Russia, 
were  his  children.  He  died  Jan.  29, 
1906. 

Christian  X.,  King  of  Denmark, 
born  Sept.  26, 1870,  son  of  King  Fred- 
erik  VIII.  and  Queen  Louisa ;  mar- 
ried Princess  Alexandrine  of  Mecklen- 
burg, April  26,  1898  ;  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  May  14,  1912 ;  heir  apparent, 
B.  34. 


Prince  Christian  Frederik,  born 
March  11,  1899. 

Christian  Church,  The,  consists 
of  those  who  have  been  baptized  in 
the  name  of  Christ  and  who  accept  His 
doctrines  and  live  in  harmony  with 
them.  The  Church,  in  its  broadest 
sense,  consists  of  true  believers  in  all 
ages ;  but  the  Christian  Church  was 
established  through  the  life  and  work 
of  Christ  Himself,  and  consists  only  of 
His  followers.  Its  first  great  increase 
was  at  Pentecost,  where  3,000  souls 
were  converted ;  shortly  afterward 
5,000  were  added  to  the  Church. 
Stephen  was  the  first  to  suffer  martyr- 
dom. Paul  made  three  great  mission- 
ary tours,  and  the  result  was  the  or- 
ganic unity  of  the  Church  in  its  firs! 
period. 

Christian  Churches  in  America.-" 
The  colonization  of  North  Americ% 
sprang  from  religious  motives.  Th« 
colonists  sought  freedom  here  because 
of  the  oppressions  at  home.  Periods 
of  American  Church  History:  (1) 
From  1607-1660,  revival  and  progress. 
(2)  1660-1720,  trial,  disputes  with 
Great  Britain,  religious  decline.  (3) 
From  1720-1750,  great  revivals.  (4) 
From  1750-1783,  political  agitation, 
freedom  from  British  rule.  (5)  From 
1783  to  the  present,  extensive  revivals, 
separation  of  Church  and  State,  abcK 
lition  of  slavery,  evangelization.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  was 
founded  by  the  James  River  Colony 
(1607)  ;  its  first  General  Convention 
was  in  1785;  it  ratified  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  in  1832.  The  Puritan 
Pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth  in  1620, 
and  began  the  development  of  Congre- 
gationalism. The  Cambridge  Plat- 
form was  established  in  1648.  The 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  was  estab- 
lished in  1628  in  New  Amsterdam 
(New  York).  The  first  independent 
organization  was  in  1771.  The  Bap- 
tists began  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  in 
1639,  through  Roger  Williams.  The 
Reformed  (German)  Church  was  or- 
ganized in  1741.  The  Lutherans  were 
established  first  in  New  York  in  1669 ; 
the  first  Synod  was  held  in  1748.  The 
Presbyterians  were  organized  at  the 
close  of  the  17th  century.  The  first 
Presbytery  was  established  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1706,  and  the  first  General 
Assembly  in  1789.  The  first  Metho- 
dist Society  in  the  United  States  was 


Christiancy 

established  in  New  York  in  1766,  and 
the  first  Conference  was  held  in  Phil- 
adelphia in  1771.  The  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized  in 
New  York  in  1873,  under  Bishop  Cum- 
mins. The  Roman  Catholic  Church 
in  the  United  States  was  first  estab- 
lished in  Maryland  through  immigra- 
tion in  1632.  The  Episcopal  See  of 
Baltimore  was  established  in  1789. 
For  statistics  of  the  American 
Churches  see  the  separate  articles. 

Christiancy,  Isaac  Peckham,  an 
American  editor  and  diplomatist ;  born 
in  Johnstown  (now  Bleeker) ,  N.  Y., 
March  12,  1812.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Republican  party.  In 
1875  be  was  chosen  United  States 
Senator  from  Michigan,  and  in  1879 
became  Minister  to  Peru.  He  died  in 
Lansing,  Mich.,  Sept.  8,  1890. 

Christian  Endeavor,  Young 
People's  Society  of,  a  society  dis- 
tinctly religious  in  all  its  features; 
organized  Feb.  2,  1881,  in  Williston 
Church,  Portland,  Me.,  by  the  Rev. 
Francis  E.  Clark,  D.  D.  From  one 
small  association  it  has  expanded  into 
over  72,000  societies,  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  with  an  aggregate  member- 
ship of  over  3,500,000.  In  addition 
to  the  main  organizations  in  the  United 
States  it  has  been  found  necessary  to 
form  branches,  among  which  are  the 
Juniors,  organized  March  27,  1884,  at 
Tabor,  la.,  by  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Cowan 
and  Miss  Belle  Smith ;  the  Intermedi- 
ate, organized  by  the  Rev.  A.  Z.  Con- 
rad, of  Worcester,  Mass. ;  and  the 
Mothers',  suggested  by  Mrs.  Amanda 
B.  Fellows,  of  Chicago,  and  organized 
in-  April,  1893,  at  Topeka,  Kan.,  by 
Mr.  F.  C.  Barton.  The  first  Chris- 
tian Endeavor  Society  in  England  was 
organized  in  1887,  and  was  followed 
by  similar  ones  in  other  countries,  and 
the  constitution  has  been  printed  in 
over  30  different  languages.  The 
movement  is  not  a  denominational  one. 
Any  society  belonging  to  an  evangel- 
ical Church,  which  adopts  the  leading 
principles  asjset  forth  in  the  constitu- 
tion, including  the  prayer-meeting 
pledge,  and  which  guarantees  these 
principles  by  the  name  Christian  En- 
deavor either  alone  or  in  connection 
with  a  denominational  name  is  admit- 
ted to  all  the  privileges  of  the  organ- 
ization. 


Christiana 

The  distinctive  features  in  the 
Christian  Endeavor  movement  are  its 
work  among  the  young  people,  leading 
them  to  consecrate  their  lives  to  the 
active  service  of  God;  the  weekly 
prayer-meetings,  which  each  member 
takes  a  solemn  pledge  to  attend  regu- 
larly (unless  unavoidably  detained), 
and  to  take  part  in ;  and  the  reconse- 
cration  meetings  held  once  a  month, 
at  which  special  efforts  are  made  to 
see  if  each  one  has  been  faithful  to  his 
pledges. 

Christian  Era,  the  era  or  epoch 
introduced  by  the  birth  of  Christ.  It 
was  calculated  back  about  the  year 
532,  by  a  monk,  Dionysius  Exiguus. 
It  is  thought  that  he  fixed  the  advent 
too  late  by  four  years,  and  that  con- 
sequently Jesus  was  born,  if  the  con- 
tradiction in  terms  can  be  permitted, 
in  B.  c.  4. 

Christiania,  a  city  and  port,  the 
capital  of  Norway,  at  the  head  of  the 
long  narrow  inlet  called  Christiania 
Fjord,  about  60  miles  from  the  open 
sea.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  brick 
and  stone,  generally  plain  buildings, 
devoid  of  architectural  pretension. 
Important  public  buildings  are  the 
royal  palace,  the  house  of  representa- 
tives or  Storthing,  the  governor's  pal- 
ace, and  the  cathedral.  The  manufac- 
tures of  the  city  consist  of  woolen 
cloth,  ironware,  tobacco,  paper, 
leather,  soap,  spirits,  glass,  etc.,  and 
there  are  extensive  breweries.  The 
exports  are  principally  timber  and 
iron.  The  environs  are  exceedingly 
beautiful.  Pop.  227,626. 

Christianity,  the  religion  of  which 
Jesus  Christ  is  not  only  the  founder, 
but  also  the  object,  since  it  is  by  Him 
and  in  Him  that  man  recovers  his 
union  with  God  by  an  effective  recon- 
ciliation. 

Christians,  a  religious  denomina- 
tion, founded  in  1810  from  threefold 
sources,  Methodist,  Baptist,  and  Pres- 
byterian, growing  out  of  secessions 
from  each  of  those  bodies.  The  de- 
nomination was  first  called  "  The  In- 
dependent Baptist  Church."  The 
members  discard  creeds  and  adhere 
closely  to  Biblical  terminology  in  stat- 
ing their  views.  The  first  General 
Convention  was  held  in  1819.  In 
1854  resolutions  in  regard  to  slavery 
were  adopted  which  were  offensive  to 


Christian  Science 


Christian  Science 


the  Southern  members,  who  withdrew, 
and  formed  a  Southern  Convention. 

Christian  Science,  a  system  of 
religion,  the  practice  of  which  consists 
in  the  overcoming  of  sin  and  the  heal- 
ing of  disease.  The  discoverer  and 
founder  of  Christian  Science  was  the 
Rev.  MAEY  BAKER  GIOVEB  EDDY  (q.v.), 
of  Concord,  N.  H.  It  was  estab- 
lished by  her  in  1866,  and  has  had 
a  remarkable  development.  It  is  based 
upon  the  Bible  and  set  forth  in  a  work 
by  Mrs.  Eddy,  entitled  "  Science  and 
Health,  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures," 
first  published  in  1875.  "  Science  and 
Health,"  pages  114  and  358,  states  that 
"  Christian  Science,  understood,  coin- 
cides with  the  Scriptures  and  sustains 
logically  and  demonstratively  every 
point  it  presents."  "Christian  Science 
explains  all  cause  and  effect  as  mental, 
not  physical.  It  shows  the  scientific 
relation  of  man  to  God."  Christian 
Science  affirms  the  spiritual  personal- 
ity of  God,  as  opposed  to  all  material 
theories.  God  is  held  to  be  the  divine 
principle  of  all  being,  matter  having  no 
actual  existence.  The  spiritual  uni- 
verse manifests  but  one  real  mind, 
God,  of  whom  man  is  the  idea  or  re- 
flection. Christian  Science  is  then  at 
once  the  science  of  God,  of  man,  and 
of  life.  God  is  absolute  good.  He  has 
not  created  nor  consented  to  any  form 
of  evil,  sickness,  or  death  ;  His  laws 
provide  for  life  only.  Sin,  sickness 
and  death  are  abnormal  conditions  of 
mortal  mind  and  have  no  existence 
outside  of  carnal  thought.  Disease  is 
a  belief,  not  a  reality.  When  man  fully 
awakes  to  the  fact  that  bodily  ills  and 
mortality  are  the  results  of  fear,  igno- 
rance and  sin,  he  will  be  in  a  position 
to  deal  with  and  master  disease  on  a 
true  scientific  basis.  Christian  Science 
is  thus  not  only  a  system  of  faith,  but 
a  method  of  healing ;  disease  being  in 
its  teaching  not  an  actual  fact,  but  a 
distorted  belief,  while  th«  cure  begins 
with  discarding  a  belief  in  the  reality 
of  disease.  In  attestation  of  its  teach- 
ings, it  points  to  cures  of  so-called  in- 
curable diseases,  such  as  cancer,  con- 
sumption, locomotor  ataxia,  etc.,  with- 
out the  aid  of  material  remedies,  but 
through  strictly  metaphysical  methods. 
Mrs.  Eddy  says  in  her  book,  "  Retro- 
spection in  Introspection,"  page  41 : 
"  I  claim  for  healing  scientifically  the 
following  advantages :  1.  It  does  away 


with  all  material  medicines  and  recog- 
nizes the  antidote  for  all  sickness,  as 
well  as  sin,  in  the  immortal  mind ; 
and  mortal  mind  as  the  source  of  all 
the  ills  that  befall  mortals.  2.  It  is 
more  effectual  than  drugs,  and  cures 
when  they  fail  or  only  relieve,  thus 
proving  the  superiority  of  metaphysics 
over  physics.  3.  A  person  healed  by 
Christian  Science  is  not  only  healed 
of  his  disease,  but  is  advanced  morally 
and  spiritually.  The  mortal  body  being 
but  the  objective  state  of  the  mortal 
mind,  this  mind  must  be  renovated  to 
improve  the  body." 

The  services  are  uniform,  consisting 
of  meetings  on  Sundays  and  on  Wed- 
nesday evenings.  No  sermons  are 
preached  by  a  personal  pastor,  but  a 
sermon  made  up  of  selections  from  the 
Bible  and  "  Science  and  Health,  with 
a  Key  to  the  Scriptures,"  written  by 
Mrs.  Eddy,  is  read  by  two  readers, 
called  the  first  and  second  readers,  gen- 
erally a  man  and  a  woman.  At  the 
Wednesday  evening  meetings  testi- 
monies of  healing  and  remarks  on 
Christian  Science  are  given  by  the 
members  of  the  congregation. 

The  absence  of  creed  and  dogma  in, 
the  Christian  Science  Church,  its  free- 
dom from  materialism,  mysticism,  and 
superstition,  also  the  simplicity,  uni- 
formity, and  impersonality  of  its  form 
of  worship  and  organization,  are 
among  the  distinguishing  features 
which  characterize  this  modern  relig- 
ious movement.  Hypnotism,  mesmer- 
ism, spiritualism,  theosophy,  faith-cure 
and  kindred  systems  are  classed  by 
Christian  Science  as  foreign  to  their 
form  of  worship.  Those  practising 
these  beliefs  are  denied  admission  to 
the  Christian  Science  Church. 

The  rapid  growth  of  this  religion, 
of  which  we  have  given  only  a  brief 
outline,  is  shown  by  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  its  adherents,  it  having 
more  than  1,000  churches  and  societies 
in  the  United  States  and  foreign  lands, 
while  its  followers  and  sympathizers  in 
this  country  are  estimated  to  be  over 
a  million.  The  First  Church  of  Christ, 
Scientist,  erected  at  Boston,  in  1894, 
has  the  enormous  membership,  resident 
and  non-resident,  of  over  40,000,  and 
the  membership  of  the  branch  churches 
is  about  the  same,  many  of  them  being 
also  members  of  the  Mother  Church. 
All  Christian  Science  churches,  other 


Chriitian  University 


Christinas  Ship 


than  the  Mother  Church  in  Boston,  are 
branches  of  that  church.  A  spacious 
auditorium  with  a  seating  capacity  of 
5,000  and  built  at  a  cost  approaching 
$2,000,000,  has  been  added  to  the 
church  at  Boston,  and  was  dedicated 
in  June,  1906,  30,000  persons  being 
present  on  that  occasion.  Magnificent 
and  costly  church  buildings  have  been 
erected  in  New  York  City,  Philadel- 
phia, Chicago  and  many  other  cities, 
including  a  beautiful  granite  edifice  in 
Concord,  N.  H.,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Eddy, 
whose  home  was  for  years  in  that  city. 
She  now  resides  in  Brookline  (New- 
ton), Mass.,  a  suburb  of  Boston. 
There  are  at  present  more  than  4,000 
practitioners  of  Christian  Science 
healing  in  the  United  States. 
Branch  churches  exist  in  many  for- 
eign countries,  including  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Canada,  Mexico,  the  Ba- 
hamas, British  West  Indies,  Cuba, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Philippine 
Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  France, 
Germany,  Norway,  Switzerland,  Italy, 
Australia,  India,  China,  and  South 
Africa. 

Besides  the  text-book  of  Christian 
Science,  Mrs.  Eddy's  principal  works 
are:  "People's  Idea  of  God"  (1886)  ; 
"  Christian  Healing  "  (1886)  ;  "  Unity 
of  Good"  (1887);  "Retrospection 
and  Introspection"  (1891)  ;  "No  and 
Yes"  (1891);  "Christ  and  Christ- 
mas" (1893);  "Pulpit  and  Press" 
(1895);  "Church  Manual"  (1895); 
'*  Miscellaneous  Writings"  (1897); 
"Christian  Science  vs.  Pantheism" 
(1898);  "Messages  to  the  Mothef 
Church  "  ( 1900-1901-1902 ) . 

The  Christian  Science  Publishing 
Society  publishes  "  The  Christian  Sci- 
ence Journal"  (monthly);  "  Der 
Herold  Der  Christian  Science" 
(monthly — German)  ;  "The  Christian 
Science  Sentinel"  (weekly);  "The 
Christian  Science  Monitor"  (a  daily 
newspaper)  ;  and  numerous  pamphlets 
and  tracts  in  English,  French  and 
German. 

Christian  University,  a  Co-edu- 
cational institution  in  Canton,  Mo. 

Christie,  William  Henry  Ma- 
honey,  an  English  astronomer ;  born 
in  Woolwich,  Oct.  1,  1845.  On  the 
retirement  of  Airy  as  Astronomer 
Royal  in  1881,  Christie  was  appointed 
his  successor,  a  position  which  he  still 


holds.  He  is  best  known  for  his  spec- 
troscopic  work  with  the  Greenwich 
Equatorial,  especially  that  relating  to 
the  motion  of  stars  in  the  line  of  sight. 

Christina,  Queen  of  Sweden ;  born 
in  1626.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the 
great  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  on  her 
father's  death,  in  1632,  was  crowned 
queen,  being  then  only  six  years  of 
age,  with  the  five  principal  ministers 
of  state  appointed  by  Parliament  her 
guardians.  Having  resolved  to  aban- 
don Protestantism,  she,  in  1654,  in  an 
assembly  of  the  states  at  Upsala,  abdi- 
cated her  crown,  reserving  to  herself 
an  annual  income  of  $200,000.  She 
forthwith  left  Sweden,  and  traveled  in 
male  attire  to  Brussels,  where  she 
made  a  secret  profession  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  At  Innsbruck,  she 
made  a  more  formal  and  public  avowal 
of  it.  She  next  rode  to  Rome,  where 
the  reception  accorded  to  her  was  an 
ovation.  There  she  did  homage  to 
Pope  Alexander  VII.,  and  received  the 
honor  of  his  name,  in  addition  to  her 
own,  being  thenceforward  styled  Chris- 
tina Alexandra.  In  1656  she  went 
to  France,  where  she  lived  principally 
at  Fontainebleau,  Compiegne,  and 
Paris.  During  the  year  following,  she 
excited  universal  horror  and  disgust 
by  the  cruel  assassination  of  her  mas- 
ter of  the  horse,  the  Marquis  Monal- 
deschi.  In  1660  her  successor  on  the 
Swedish  throne  died,  and  she  there- 
upon repaired  to  Sweden  to  claim  it 
for  herself ;  but  her  conversion  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  proved  a  bar 
to  her  resumption  of  the  crown,  and 
she  was  compelled  to  return  to  Rome, 
where  she  died  in  1689. 

Christison,  Sir  Robert,  a  Scotch 
physician,  born  in  Edinburgh,  July  18, 
1797,  attained  eminence  as  a  toxicolo- 
gist,  professor  of  medical  jurispru- 
dence, and  author.  He  died  Jan.  27, 
1882. 

Christmas,  the  festival  of  the  Na- 
tivity of  Christ,  observed  by  the  Chris- 
tian Church  yearly  on  the  25th  of  De- 
cember, commonly  accepted  as  the  date 
of  the  birth  of  Christ. 

Christmas  Ship,  popular  name 
given  to  the  United  States  naval  aux- 
iliary vessel  Jason,  which  was  sent  to 
Europe  in  November,  1914,  laden 
with  over  6,000,000  packages  of  cloth- 
ing, toys,  and  other  appropriate  ar- 


Christophe 

tides  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
contributed  for  Christmas  gifts  for 
the  children  of  war  sufferers. 

Christoplie,  Henri,  a  King  of 
Haiti,  was  an  African,  slave ;  born  in 
Grenada,  West  Indies,  in  1767,  who 
received  his  freedom  as  a  reward  of 
faithful  service.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  negro  insurrection  in  St.  Domingo, 
1801,  he  became  one  of  its  leaders. 
After  the  deposition  of  Toussaint, 
Christophe  served  under  his  successor, 
Dessalines.  In  1811  Christophe  ob- 
tained undisputed  possession  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  island  with  the  title  of 
King  of  Haiti.  He  committed  suicide 
in  1820. 

Christopher's,  St.  (commonly 
called  St.  Kitt's),  a  British  island  in 
the  West  Indies,  one  of  the  Leeward 
Islands,  23  miles  in  length,  and  in 
general  about  5  in  breadth ;  area,  65 
square  miles.  The  interior  consists  of 
many  rugged  precipices  and  barren 
mountains.  The  chief  town,  a  seaport 
with  open  roadstead,  is  Basse-Terre. 
The  island  has  a  legislature  of  its  own, 
with  an  executive  subordinate  to  the 
governor  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  It 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493. 
Pop.  (1911)  26,283. 

Christy,  Charles,  an  American 
minstrel ;  born  in  New  York  city,  in 
1828.  He  was  an  actor  from  boyhood, 
singing  on  the  minstrel  stage.  He 
died  in  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Feb.  13, 
1897. 

Chromium,  an  element  discovered 
in  the  native  chromate  of  lead  of  Si- 
beria. It  was  afterward  found  com- 
bined with  iron.  It  is  the  coloring 
matter  of  the  emerald  and  beryl,  and 
has  received  its  name  from  the  brill- 
iant colors  of  its  compounds. 

Chromium  (or  Chrome)  Steel, 
steel  in  which  the  carbon  is  replaced 
by  the  metal  chromium.  It  is  claimed 
that  this  steel  can  sustain  a  greater 
degree  of  heat  than  ordinary  steel. 

Chromo-Iithography,  the  art  of 
printing  chromo-lithographs.  Color 
printing  was  not  successful  till  it  was 
combined  with  lithography,  invented 
between  1796  and  1800  by  Alois  Sene- 
felder  of  Prague.  In  the  art  an  out- 
line drawing  is  first  traced,  then  va- 
rious stones  are  taken,  one  for  each 
color,  to  which  the  drawing  is  trans- 
ferred. 


Chronology 

Chromosphere.  During  total 
eclipses  it  is  observed  that  a  red-colored 
envelope  surrounds  the  sun,  and  shoots 
up  to  great  distances  from  the  surface. 
It  seems  to  have  been  first  recognized 
by  Secchi ;  and  the  projecting  portions 
of  it  are  commonly  described  as  "  red- 
colored  protuberances "  and  "  red 
flames."  To  this  red  envelope  the 
name  chromosphere  was  given  by  Sir 
J.  Norman  Lockyer,  and  till  1868, 
when  M.  Janssen  and  Mr.  Lockyer  al- 
most simultaneously  pointed  out  a 
method  of  viewing  it,  it  was  never 
seen  except  during  eclipses. 

Chronicle,  an  historical  account  of 
facts  or  events  disposed  chronologically 
or  in  the  order  of  time.  Most  of  the 
historians  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
chroniclers  who  set  down  the  events 
which  happened  within  the  range  of 
their  information,  according  to  the 
succession  of  years. 

In  Scriptures,  the  name  of  two 
books,  consisting  of  an  abridgement  of 
sacred  history  from  its  commencement 
down  to  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity. 

Chronograph,  the  name  given  to 
various  devices  for  measuring  and  reg- 
istering very  minute  portions  of  time 
with  extreme  precision. 

Chronology,  the  doctrine  of  sci- 
ence of  time,  or  of  computing  dates: 
the  method  of  ascertaining  the  true 
periods,  or  years,  when  past  events 
took  place,  and  arranging  them  in 
their  proper  order,  according  to  their 
dates.  The  following  are  the  leading 
systems  of  chronology  existing  among 
the  several  nations  of  the  world :  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese  Chronology:  In 
these  calculation  is  made  by  cycles  of 
60  years,  each  year  of  the  cycle  sepa- 
rately named.  Hindu  Chronology : 
(1)  Historical :  No  system  is  universal 
in  India  or  exclusive.  Two  of  the 
chief  are  the  era  of  Salivahana  (A.  D. 
77),  and  that  of  Vicramaditya  (B.  o. 
57).  (2)  Astronomical:  The  Hin- 
dus have  four  ages.  We  are  now  in 
the  Kali  Yooga,  beginning  3101  B.  o. 

Greek  Chronology :  In  the  time  of 
Herodotus,  and  subsequently  in  that 
of  Thucydides,  the  Greeks  had  no 
chronology  spanning  wide  intervals  of 
time.  It  was  not  till  B.  c.  194  that 
Eratosthenes,  the  "father"  of  Greek 
chronology,  began  to  count  by  Olym- 


Chronometer 

piads,  the  first  of  which  was  dated 
from  what  we  now  should  call  B.  c. 
776. 

Roman  Chronology:  The  method 
of  Roman  reckoning  was  by  the  con- 
sulships, which,  of  course,  could  give 
no  indication  of  time  unless  their  or- 
der was  carefully  preserved,  and  even 
then  was  clumsy.  A  much  simpler 
and  better  plan  was  by  calculating 
years  from  the  building  of  the  city. 
This  Varro  placed  in  what  would  now 
be  called  B.  c.  753,  while  Cato  pre- 
ferred 752. 

Jewish  Chronology:  Up  till  the 
15th  century  the  Jews  followed  the 
era  of  the  Seleucidae.  Since  then  they 
have  dated  from  the  creation  of  the 
world*  which  they  fix  3760  years  and 
three  months  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  era. 

Mohammedan  Chronology :  Dates 
are  counted  from  the  Hegira,  that  is, 
the  time  of  Mohammed's  flight  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  A.  D.  622. 

Christian  Chronology:  Since  the 
6th  century  dates  have  begun  to  be 
reckoned  from  the  birth  of  Christ, 
though  the  system  did  not  become  uni- 
versal in  Europe  till  many  centuries 
subsequently. 

Chronometer,  any  instrument  that 
measures  time,  as  a  clock,  watch,  or 
dial ;  but,  specifically,  this  term  is  ap- 
plied to  those  time-keepers  which  are 
used  for  determining  the  longitude  at 
sea,  or  for  any  other  purpose  where 
an  accurate  measure  of  time  is  re- 
quired, with  great  portability  in  the 
instrument. 

Chrysalis,  the  last  stage  through 
which  certain  insects  pass  before  be- 
coming a  perfect  insect.  It  is  also 
known  by  the  name,  pupa. 

Chrysanthemum,  a  genus  of  her- 
baceous or  slightly  shrubby  plants, 
represented  in  the  United  States  by 
the  well-known  ox-eye  daisy,  and  the 
corn  marigold,  besides  which  many  va- 
rieties have  been  introduced  from 
other  countries. 

Chryseis,  the  daughter  of  Chryses, 
priest  of  Apollo,  famed  for  beauty  and 
for  her  skill  in  embroidery.  She  fell 
to  Agamemnon's  lot  in  the  course  of 
the  Trojan  War,  but  was  afterward 
restored,  in  order  to  stop  a  plague 
among  the  Grecians,  which  Apollo  had 
Bent  at  the  request  of  her  father. 


Chuquisaca 

Chrysippns,  a  faraed  Greek  philos- 
opher ;  about  280-206  B.  c. ;  born  prob- 
ably at  Soli  in  Cilicia.  He  attended 
at  Athens  the  lectures  of  Cleanthes, 
the  successor  of  Zeno,  and  after  his 
death  became  head  of  the  Stoic  school. 
He  wrote  over  700  books. 

Chrysis,  the  golden  wasp,  or  ruby- 
tail  fly.  They  are  magnificently  col- 
ored with  metallic  hues.  They  are 
parasitic,  depositing  their  eggs  in  the 
nests  of  the  solitary  mason-bees,  on 
the  larvae  of  which  their  larvae  live. 

Chrysoberyl,  a  gem  almost  as  hard 
as  sapphire,  and  the  finer  specimens 
of  which  are  very  beautiful,  particu- 
larly those  which  exhibit  an  opales- 
cent play  of  light.  It  is  of  a  green 
color,  inclining  to  yellow,  semi-trans- 
parent, or  almost  transparent,  and  has 
double  refraction. 

Chrysolite,  a  green-colored  ortho- 
rhombic  mineral  of  a  vitreous  luster, 
transparent  or  translucent. 

Chrysostom,  John,  St.,  ("  golden- 
mouthed  "),  a  celebrated  Greek  father 
of  the  church ;  born  in  Antioch  about 
A.  D.  344;  died  at  Comana,  in  Pontus, 
in  407. 

Chub,  an  American  fish,  of  the 
genus  carp.  It  is  indifferent  food,  and 
rarely  attains  the  weight  of  5  pounds. 
Allied  European  species  receive  the 
same  name. 

Chubut,  or  Chnpat,  a  colony  in 
Patagonia,  so  named  from  a  river 
which  drains  a  large  part  of  its  area. 
The  entrance  to  the  river,  about  500 
miles  S.  of  tfie  river  Platte,  is  bad, 
but  the  bar  can  be  crossed  by  vessels 
of  from  7  to  12  feet  draught.  Its 
principal  interest  lies  in  its  Welsh 
settlement,  which  has  remained  almost 
wholly  Welsh-speaking. 

Chukiang,  or  Canton  River,  the 
"  Pearl  River  "  of  the  Chinese,  is  the 
lower  part  of  the  Pekiang,  and  has  a 
navigable  channel  of  about  300  miles. 
Opposite  Canton  it  is  about  %  mile 
wide,  and  is  crowded  with  shipping. 

Chung-King,  a  Chinese  port  in 
Szechuen,  on  the  Yang-tze-Kiang,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Pei  river.  It  was 
declared  open  in  1890,  and  has  ac- 
quired a  thriving'  trade.  Pop.  (1910 
est.)  598,000. 

Chnquisaca,  or  Sucre,  a  city  of 
South  America,  the  former  capital  of 


Church. 

Bolivia ;  well  situated  on  a  plateau' 
between  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata 
rivers,  9,343  feet  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
(1915)  29,686.  The  province  of  Chu- 
quisaca  has  an  area  of  36,132  square 
miles;  pop.  (1915)  333,226. 

Church,  Benjamin,  an  American 
soldier ;  born  in  Duxbury,  Mass.,  in 
1639.  He  commanded  forces  with  dis- 
tinction in  King  Philip's  War  and  in 
the  famous  battle  of  1675  with  the 
Narragansetts  won  renown.  He 
killed  King  Philip  in  1676;  died  in 
January,  1718. 

Church,  Benjamin,  an  American 
physician ;  born  in  Massachusetts, 
about  1710.  He  was  a  leader  in  the 
"  Boston  tea-party."  He  secretly 
corresponded  in  cipher  with  the  Brit- 
ish, and,  being  detected,  failed  to  ex- 
culpate himself.  He  sailed  for  the 
West  Indies  in  1776,  and  was  lost  at 
sea. 

Church,  Francis  Pharcellus,  an 
American  editor ;  born  in  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  22,  1839 ;  died  in  1906. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin,  an 
American  landscape-painter ;  born  in 
Hartford,  Conn.,  May  4,  1826.  His 
"  View  of  Niagara  Falls  from  the 
Canadian  Shore,"  is  regarded  by  many 
as  the  most  successful  representation 
of  the  great  cataract.  He  died  in 
New  York  city,  April  7,  1900. 

Church,  William  Conant,  an 
American  journalist ;  born  in  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  Aug.  11,  1836. 

Church  Army,  an  English  relig- 
ious organization,  founded  in  London 
in  1882  having  for  its  objects  the 
training  of  working  men  for  ecclesi- 
astical service  among  the  laboring 
classes. 

Church  Discipline,  the  practice 
of  the  Christian  Church  in  dealing 
with  such  of  its  office-bearers  and 
members  as  have  by  public  scandal 
caused  hindrance  to  its  common  spir- 
itual life. 

Church  Government,  the  regula- 
tion and  ordering  of  spiritual  matters, 
or  those  pertaining  to  the  discipline 
and  work  of  the  Church. 

Churchill,  Randolph  Henry 
Spencer,  Lord,  third  son  of  the  sev- 
enth Duke  of  Marlborough  ;  born  Feb. 
13,  1849 ;  entered  the  British  Parlia- 
ment in  1874,  and  became  a  leader  of 
the  Conservative  party.  On  the  defeat 


Church 

of  Gladstone's  Irish  Bill  in  1886 
Churchill  became  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons  and  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, posts  which  he  unexpectedly 
resigned  in  December,  1886.  Died  in 
London,  Jan.  24,  1895.  Lord  Ran- 
dolph married,  in  1874,  Miss  Jennie, 
daughter  of  the  late  Leonard  Jerome, 
of  New  York  City.  In  1900,  Lady 
Randolph  married  George  Cornwallis 
West. 

Churchill,  Winston,  an  Ameri- 
can author ;  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
Nov.  10,  1871.  He  was  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1894,  and  became  an  editor  of 
the  "Army  and  Navy  Journal."  He 
wrote  "Richard  Carvel;"  "The  Cri- 
sis;" "The  Crossing;"  "  Coniston." 

Churchill,  Winston  Leonard 
Spencer,  an  English  author,  army 
officer,  and  public  official ;  son  of  the 
preceding ;  born  Nov.  30,  1874 ;  was 
educated  at  Harrow  and  Sandhurst; 
entered  the  army  in  1895 ;  served  in 
Cuba  (1895),  India  (1897-8),  Egypt 
(1898),  South  Africa  (1899),  and  in 
France  (1915-17)  ;  was  elected  to 
Parliament  in  1900 ;  became  Parlia- 
mentary Secretary  for  the  Colonies, 
1905 ;  was  Under  Secretary  for  the 
Colonies,  1905-8;  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  1908-10 ;  Home  Sec- 
retary, 1910-11;  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  1911-15 ;  re-entered  the 
army  on  the  changes  in  the  cabinet. 

Churchill  River,  a  river  of  the 
Northwest  Territories  of  Canada, 
which  rises  in  La  Crosse  Lake  and 
discharges  into  Hudson  Bay. 

Church  of  God,  a  Christian  sect 
which  originated  in  1830,  in  a  move- 
ment in  which  John  Winebrenner, 
previously  a  minister  in  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  was  most  promi- 
nent. It  holds  the  doctrines  of  the 
Evangelical  churches,  with  baptism 
by  immersion  only,  subsequent  to 
faith ;  feet-washing ;  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  even- 
ing; all  the  instrumentalities  of  revi- 
vals ;  and  protests  against  the  traffic 
in  intoxicating  drinks.  According  to 
the  census  of  1910  the  sect  had  in  the 
United  States  in  1906,  518  organiza- 
tions with  24,356  members. 

Church,  States  of  the,  or  Papal 
States,  a  territory  that  stretched 
from  the  Po  to  near  Naples,  and  in 
1869  had  an  area  of  15,774  square 


Church-warden 


Cilia 


miles  and  a  pop.  of  3,000,000.  The 
war  of  1859  and  the  popular  vote  of 
1860  left  the  Pope  only  the  Comarca 
of  Rome,  the  legation  of  Velletri,  and 
the  delegations  of  Civita  Vecchia,  j 
Frosinone,  and  Viterbo,  4,493  square 
miles  in  extent,  with  a  pop.  of  about 
700,000,  the  rest  being  united  with 
Italy,  and  in  1870  the  remnant  of  the 
Pope's  temporal  possessions  were  an- 
nexed to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  of 
which  Rome  became  the  capital.  The 
Pope  is,  however,  still  permitted  to 
keep  up  the  state  of  a  sovereign  with- 
in the  precincts  of  the  Vatican. 

Church-warden,  one  of  two  Epis- 
copalian parochial  officers  chosen  an- 
nually at  the  Easter  vestries,  one  by 
the  minister  and  one  by  the  parish- 
ioners. Also  the  colloquial  name  of  a 
very  long  stemmed  clay  pipe  for  smok- 
ing. 

Chnrros,  the  resinous  exudation  of 
the  leaves  and  flowers  of  Indian  hemp. 
It  is  used  by  the  natives  of  India  as 
an  intoxicating  drug. 

Chnrnbnsco,  Battle  of,  fought  in 
Mexico,  Aug.  20,  1847.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Contreras,  fought  on  the  same 
day,  Santa  Ana,  with  some  27,000 , 
men,  made  a  stand  at  this  hamlet,  on 
the  river  Churubusco,  6  miles  S.  of  the  ; 
City  of  Mexico,  to  resist  the  advance 
of  the  United  States  army  under  Gen. 
Scott  Of  8,000  United  States  troops 
in  the  two  actions  there  were  139 
killed  and  926  wounded ;  the  Mexicans 
lost  4,000  killed  and  wounded,  3.000 
prisoners,  37  guns,  and  much  ammuni- 
tion. 

Chnsan,  the  principal  of  the  group 
of  islands  known  as  the  Chusan  Archi- 
pelago ;  lies  about  a  mile  off  the  E. 
coast  of  China,  opposite  Ningpo.  It 
has  an  area  of  over  230  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  200,000  to  250,- 
000. 

Gibber,  Colley,  an  English  dram* 
atist ;  born  in  London,  Nov.  6,  1671 ; 
was  one  of  the  most  successful  stagers 
of  plays  in  the  history  of  the  theater. 
In  1730,  he  was  appointed  Poet  Laure- 
ate. His  autobiographic  "  Apology  "  is 
his  best  work.  He  died  Dec.  12,  1757. 

Cibitu,  or  Sibutu,  a  southern 
Philippine  island,  14  miles  long  and  2 
miles  wide.  It  is  flat,  with  a  conical 
mountain  in  the  center,  500  feet  high. 
It  was  sold  by  Spain  (with  Caygay- 


an)  to  the  United  States  in  1900, 
upon  payment  of  $100,000,  having 
been  overlooked  in  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  of  peace.  Pop.  (1903)  280. 

Cicely,  a  popular  name  applied  to 
several  umbelliferous  plants.  Sweet 
Cicely  is  found  hi  North  American 
woods  from  Canada  to  Virginia. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tnllrns,  a  Ro- 
man orator ;  born  in  Arpinum,  in  the 
year  of  Rome  647  (106  B.  c.).  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  orators  the 
world  has  known,  and  a  statesman  and 
patriot  of  singularly  pure  conduct  and 
motives.  He  was  executed  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Triumvirate — Octavian- 
us,  Antony  and  Lepidus,  B.  c.  43. 

Cid,  The,  Don  Rodrigo  (Ruy) 
Diaz,  Count  of  Bivar;  born  in  1026. 
The  model  of  the  heroic  virtues  of  his 
age,  and  the  flower  of  Spanish  chiv- 
alry, styled  by  his  enemies,  the  Moors 
of  Spain,  cid  (the  lord),  and  by  his 
king  and  countrymen  Campeador 
(champion),  he  continues  to  live  in 
the  poetry  of  his  country.  The  Cid 
died  at  Valencia,  in  the  74th  year  of 
his  age  (1099).  What  this  hero  won, 
and  for  many  years  defended,  the 
united  power  of  Leon  and  Castile  was 
scarcely  able  to  preserve  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  infidels.  His 
dead  body  was  mailed  and  mounted  on 
his  favorite  steed  and  marched  out 
against  the  enemy,  who  fled  at  its  ap- 
proach. 

Cider,  a  liquor  made  from  the  juice 
of  apples. 

Cienfuegos,  a  port  and  town  of 
Cuba,  on  the  S.  coast,  at  the  mouth  of 
lagua  bay,  140  miles  from  Havana. 
Cienfuegos  is  the  center  of  the  Cuban 
sugar  trade.  Pop.  (1914)  81,502. 

Cigar,  a  small  roll  of  manufactured 
tobacco  leaves  carefully  made  up,  and 
intended  to  be  smoked  by  lighting  at 
one  end  and  drawing  the  smoke  through 
it.  The  cigars  of  Havana,  Cuba,  are 
considered  the  best  brands. 

Cilia,  the  hair  which  grows  from 
the  margin  of  the  eyelids.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  microscopic  fila- 
ments, or  plates  which  project  from 
animal  membranes  and  are  endowed 
with  quick  vibratile  motion.  In  most 
of  the  lower  animals  the  respiratory 
function  is  effected  by  means  of  the 
vibratile  cilia. 


Cillcia 


Cinchonisae 


Cilicia,  an  ancient  division  of  Asia 
Minor,  now  included  in  the  Turkish 
province  of  Adana.  In  early  ages 
Cilicia  was  ruled  by  its  own  kings,  the 
people,  who  were  probably  akin  to 
Syrians,  and  Phoenicians,  being  notori- 
ous pirates.  The  country  fell  succes- 
sively under  Persian,  Macedonian, 
Syrian  and  Roman  rule. 

Cimarrones,  a  name  used  in  the 
Spanish  colonies  of  America  for  fugi- 
tive slaves,  of  whom  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury many  hundreds  collected  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  they  built 
walled  towns,  attacked  the  Spanish 
settlements,  and  became  a  terror  ail 
over  the  country.  They  finally  be- 
came amalgamated  with  the  Indian 
tribes. 

Cimarosa,  Dpmenico,  an  Italian 
composer ;  born  in  Aversa,  Dec.  17, 
1749.  He  became  famous  when  21 
with  a  comic  opera,  "  The  Pretended 
Parisian."  In  the  ensuing  30  years 
he  wrote  over  80  comic  operas.  As  a 
writer  of  comic  operas  Cimarosa  has 
never  been  surpassed.  He  died  in 
Venice,  Jan.  11,  1801. 

Cimbri,  a  Celtic  tribe,  inhabiting 
Jutland,  having  joined  with  the  Teu- 
tons, and  which  entered  Illyria,  where 
they  defeated  Cn.  Papirius  Carbo,  at 
the  head  of  a  consular  army,  B.  C.  113. 
Marius  collected  a  large  army  and 
went  to  oppose  them.  The  Cimbri 
and  Teutones  separated  into  two  bod- 
ies, the  former  taking  the  road  through 
Helvetia,  and  the  latter  pressing  for- 
ward to  assail  the  Roman  army.  Their 
intention  was  to  reunite  their  forces 
on  the  Lombard  plains.  The  Teu- 
tones were  attacked  and  overwhelmed 
by  the  Romans,  and  100,000  men  are 
said  to  have  perished  on  that  occasion, 
B.  c.  102.  The  Cimbri  in  the  mean- 
time had  reached  the  valley  of  the 
Adige,  where  they  defeated  the  Roman 
army  under  Quintus  Catulus.  He 
formed  a  junction  with  Marius  and 
allured  them  into  an  unfavorable  po- 
sition, in  which  they  were  defeated 
and  exterminated,  B.  c.  101. 

Cimmerian  Bosphorns,  an  an- 
cient name  for  the  Strait  of  Kaffa. 

Cimmerii,  or  Cimmerians,  a  no- 
madic race,  inhabiting  the  Crimea  and 
parts  of  the  neighboring  country,  hav- 
ing been  expelled  by  the  Scythians, 
passed  along  the  shores  of  the  Euxine, 


invaded  Asia  Minor,  and  pillaged  Sar- 
dis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  B.  c.  635. 
In  that  country  they  were  said  to  have 
remained  until  about  B.  c.  617,  when 
they  were  defeated  and  driven  out  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Cimon,  an  ancient  Athenian  gen- 
eral and  statesman,  was  a  son  of  the 
great  Miltiades.  He  fought  against 
the  Persians  in  the  battle  of  Salamis 
(480  B.  c.),  and  shared  with  Aristides 
the  chief  command  of  the  fleet  sent  to 
Asia  to  deliver  the  Greek  colonies  from 
the  Persian  yoke.  He  died  shortly 
after,  in  449,  while  besieging  Citium 
in  Cyprus. 

Cinchona,  a  genus  of  trees  found 
exclusively  on  the  Andes  in  Peru  and 


CINCHONA. 

adjacent  countries,  and  recently  intro- 
duced into  India,  producing  a  medic- 
inal bark  of  great  value  known  as  Pe- 
ruvian bark. 

Cinchona  Bark,  the  bark  of  sev- 
eral species  of  trees  used  in  medicine, 
or  for  the  extraction  of  the  alkaloids, 
quinine,  cinchonine,  etc.,  which  they 
contain. 

Cinchonism,  a  group  of  symptoms, 
chiefly  connected  with  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, produced  by  the  presence  of  qui- 
nine in  the  system.  There  are  noises 
in  the  ears.  These  noises  are  accom- 


Cincinnati 

panied  with  more  or  less  deafness. 
Affections  of  sight  are  less  common. 
These  symptoms  usually  pass  away  iu 
a  few  days  after  discontinuing  the 
drug. 

Cincinnati,  a  city  and  county-seat 
of  Hamilton  Co.,  O.  It  is  the  second 
city  in  the  State  in  population  and 
the  thirteenth  in  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  census  of  1910.  It  is 
built  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Ohio  river, 
directly  opposite  Covington,  Ky. ;  and 
is  connected  with  the  Kentucky  shore 
by  five  bridges ;  area  75  square  miles ; 
pop.  (census  est.  1916)  410,476. 

The  city  owns  an  extensive  water- 
works system,  costing  $10,291,722. 
The  principal  park  in  Cincinnati  is 
Eden  Park,  situated  on  a  hill  over- 
looking the  city  and  the  Ohio  river.  It 
contains  216  acres  and  two  reservoirs, 
so  constructed  as  to  resemble  natural 
lakes.  Burnet  Woods,  in  the  N.  part 
of  the  city,  contains  170  acres  of 
woodland.  Hopkins,  Lincoln,  and 
Washington  are  smaller  parks,  form- 
ing magnificent  pleasure  grounds. 
Spring  Grove  Cemetery  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  in  the  West,  and  con- 
tains about  600  acres,  well  wooded, 
and  many  handsome  monuments  and 
mausoleums. 

The  public  buildings  include  the  (U. 
S.)  Government  Building,  of  granite, 
cost  $5,200.000;  (U.  S.)  Marine  Hos- 
pital ;  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Building,  cost, 
$201,063;  the  County  Court  House, 
and  jail,  built  in  Romanesque  style; 
the  City  Hospital;  the  City  Hall, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  over  $1,000,000; 
and  the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Cin- 
cinnati is  also  celebrated  as  the  site 
of  one  of  the  earliest  astronomical  ob- 
servatories in  the  United  States, 
founded  about  the  same  time  as  that 
of  Harvard  University  and  the  Naval 
Observatory  at  Washington.  The  ob- 
servatory has  since  been  moved  to 
Mount  Lookout,  a  suburb  of  Cincin- 
nati, and  a  much  better  site  than  that 
first  selected.  The  institution  is  best 
known  for  the  work  done  there  by 
Prof.  Ormond  Stone,  one  of  its  former 
directors,  on  the  measurement  of 
double-stars  and  the  discovery  of  many 
new  ones.  It  contains  an  11-inch  re- 
fractor and  a  new  meridian  circle.  The 
University  of  Cincinnati,  opened  in 
1874.  had  in  the  school  year  1914-15, 
2,292  students,  with  229  instructors, 


Cincinnati 

and  an  equipment  and  endowment  val- 
ued at  over  $3,000,000. 

The  Federal  census  of  1910  reported 
2,124  manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  $150,254,000  capital  and 
70,473  persons;  paying  $101,932,000 
for  stock  used  and  $43,860,000  for 
wages ;  of  products  and  value  $194,- 
516,000.  The  Rookwood  Pottery 
(q.  v.)  is  famous  for  its  porcelain. 

There  are  many  beautiful  churches 
and  fine  public  schools.  Among  mu- 
nicipal benevolent  and  penal  institu- 
tions are  the  City  Infirmary,  the 
Work  House  and  the  House  of  Ref- 
uge for  incorrigible  or  homeless  boys 
and  girls.  Besides  large  public  hospi- 
tals, there  are  several  private  ones,  and 
many  orphan  asylums  and  homes. 

Cincinnati,  named  in  honor  of  the 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  was  first 
settled  by  white  men  in  1780,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1819.  Mounds 
containing  various  relics  show  that  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  the  city  was  an- 
ciently occupied.  The  first  steamboat 
descending  from  Pittsburg  visited  the 
town  in  1811 ;  the  Miami  canal  was 
completed  in  1830;  the  first  railway 
was  opened  in  1845. 

Cincinnati,  a  society  or  order  in 
the  United  States,  established  by  the 
officers  of  the  Revolutionary  army  in 
1783,  "to  perpetuate  their  friendship, 
and  to  raise  a  fund  for  relieving  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had 
fallen  during  the  war."  The  badge 
of  the  society  is  a  bald  eagle  suspended 
by  a  dark-blue  ribbon  with  white  bor- 
ders, symbolizing  the  union  of  France 
and  the  United  States.  On  the  breast 
of  the  eagle  there  is  a  figure  of  Cin- 
cinnatus  receiving  the  military  ensigns 
from  the  senators,  round  the  whole  are 
the  words  "Omnia  reliquit  servare 
rempublicam."  Membership  descends 
to  the  eldest  lineal  male  descendant, 
and,  in  failure  of  direct  male  descent, 
to  male  descendants  through  interven- 
ing female  descendants.  The  general 
society  is  composed  of  the  general  of- 
ficers and  five  delegates  from  each 
State  society,  and  meets  triennially.  In 
1854  it  ruled  that  proper  descendants 
of  Revolutionary  officers  who  were 
entitled  to  original  membership,  but 
who  never  could  avail  themselves  of  it, 
are  qualified  for  hereditary  member- 
ship, if  found  worthy,  on  due  applica- 
tion. 


Circe 


Cincinnatns,  Lucius  Quinctius, 
a  wealthy  patrician  in  the  early  days 
of  the  Roman  Republic,  born  about 
519  B.  c.  He  succeeded  Publicola  in 
the  consulship,  and  then  retired  to 
cultivate  his  small  estate  beyond  the 
Tiber.  The  messengers  of  the  senate 
found  him  at  work  on  his  farm  when 
they  came  to  summon  him  to  the  dicta- 
torship. He  rescued  the  army  from 
its  peril,  and  then  returned  quietly  to 
his  farm.  At  the  age  of  80  he  was 
again  appointed  dictator  to  oppose  the 
-ambitious  designs  of  Spurius  Maelius. 

Cinematograph,  a  device  for 
showing  pictures  of  men,  animals,  etc., 
in  motion. 

Cinnabar,  red  sulphide  of  mercury; 
the  principal  ore  from  which  that  met- 
al is  obtained,  occurring  abundantly  in 
California,  China,  etc.  It  is  of  a 
cochineal-red  color,  and  is  used  as  a 
pigment  under  the  name  of  vermilion. 

Cinnamic  Acid,  an  acid  which  ex- 
ists in  the  free  state  in  the  balsams  of 
tolu  and  Peru,  in  liquid  storax,  and  in 
gum  benzoin. 

Cinnamon,  an  aromatic  substance 
consisting  of  the  bark  of  a  tree,  from 
which  the  essential  oil  of  Cinnamon  is 
distilled.  The  oil  has  aromatic  car- 
minative, and  stimulant  properties. 

Cinqne  Port*,  (Five  Ports),  the 
sea-port  towns  of  Dover,  Sandwich, 
Hastings,  Hythe,  and  Romney,  Eng- 
land ;  to  which  three  others  were  af- 
terward added,  viz.,  Winchelsea,  Rye, 
and  Seaford.  These  towns  are  incor- 
porated, with  peculiar  privileges ;  are 
under  the  government  of  a  lord  war- 
den, to  whom  writs  for  the  election  of 
members  to  parliament  from  them  are 
directed ;  and  the  members  so  elected 
are  termed  Barons  of  the  Cinque 
Ports. 

Cintra,  a  town  in  Portugal,  15 
miles  W.  N.  W.  Lisbon,  finely  situated 
on  the  slope  of  the  Sierra  de  Cintra. 
The  kings  of  Portugal  have  a  palace 
with  fine  gardens  at  Cintra.  The  town 
is  celebrated  for  the  convention  en- 
tered into  there  in  1808,  by  which  the 
French,  after  their  defeat  at  Vimeira, 
were  conveyed  to  France.  Pop.  4,751. 

Ciphers,  signs  used  to  represent 
numbers,  whether  borrowed  signs,  as 
letters,  with  which  the  Greeks  desig- 
nated their  numbers,  or  peculiar  char- 


acters, as  the  modern  or  Arabic  ones. 
The  ciphers,  such  as  they  are  at  pres- 
ent, 1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  0,  did  no* 
come  into  common  European  use  until 
the  llth  century. 

Cipher  Writing,  a  method  of 
sending  important  intelligence  in  a 
manner  so  effectually  disguised  that 
only  those  for  whom  the  news  is  in- 
tended can  understand  the  meaning  of 
what  is  written.  By  this  method  one 
word  may  be  used  to  represent  an  en- 
tire sentence  and  thus  not  only  is  the 
cost  of  transmitting  a  message  mate- 
rially reduced,  but  the  contents  be- 
come known  only  to  the  person  for 
whom  it  is  intended  or  to  the  possessor 
of  a  key.  Cipher  codes  are  employed 
by  the  State  Departments  of  all  gov- 
ernments and  frequently  changed.  The 
special  code  is  entrusted  to  the  per- 
sonal custody  of  diplomatic  officials 
embarking  on  a  mission,  who  retain 
possession  of  it  and  destroy  it  if  their 
lives  are  endangered. 

Cipriani,  Giambattista,  an  Ital- 
ian history-painter  and  designer ;  born 
in  Florence  in  1727,  of  an  old  Pistoja 
family.  He  died  in  Hammersmith, 
England,  Dec.  14,  1785. 

Circassia,  or  Tcherkessia,  a 
mountainous  region  in  the  S.  E.  of 
European  Russia,  lying  chiefly  on  the 
N.  slope  of  the  Caucasus,  partly  also 
on  the  S.,  and  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  Black  Sea,  and  now  forming  part 
of  the  Lieutenancy  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  mountains  are  intersected  every- 
where with  steep  ravines  and  clothed 
with  thick  forests.  Its  climate  is 
temperate,  its  inhabitants  healthy  and 
long-lived. 

The  Circassians,  properly  so  called, 
have  been  estimated  to  number  from 
500.000  to  600,000. 

Circe,  a  daughter  of  Sol  and  Perse, 
celebrated  for  her  skill  in  magic  and 
poisonous  herbs,  who  lived  on  an  is- 
land called  ^Ea,  on  the  coast  of  Italy. 
Ulysses,  on  his  return  from  the  Trojan 
war,  visited  her  coast;  and  all  his 
companions,  who  ran  headlong  into 
pleasure  and  voluptuousness,  were 
changed  by  Circe's  potions  into  swine. 
Ulysses,  fortified  against  all  enchant- 
ments by  an  herb  called  moly,  which 
he  had  received  from  Mercury,  de- 
manded from  Circe  the  restoration  of 
his  companions  to  their  former  state. 
She  complied,  loading  the  hero  with 


Circle 

honors;  and,  for  one  whole  year,  he 
forgot  his  glory  in  his  devotion  to 
pleasure. 

Circle,  a  plane  figure  contained  by 
one  line,  which  is  called  the  circumfer- 
ence, and  is  such  that  all  straight  lines 
drawn  from  a  certain  point  (the  cen- 
ter) within  the  figure  to  the  circum- 
ference are  equal  to  one  another. 

Circle,  Magic,  a  space  in  which 
sorcerers  were  wont  to  protect  them- 
selves from  the  fury  of  the  evil  spir- 
its they  had  raised.  This  circle  was 
usually  formed  on  a  piece  of  ground 
about  9  feet  square,  in  the  midst  of 
some  dark  forest,  churchyard,  vault, 
or  other  lonely  and  dismal  spot.  In- 
side the  outer  circle  was  another  some- 
what less,  in  the  center  of  which  the 
sorcerer  had  his  seat.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  circles,  as  well  as  between 
the  parallel  lines  which  inclosed  the 
larger  one,  were  fillled  with  all  the 
holy  names  of  God,  and  a  variety  of 
other  characters  supposed  to  be  po- 
tent against  the  powers  of  evil.  With- 
out the  protection  of  this  circle,  the 
magician,  it  was  believed,  would  have 
been  carried  off  by  the  spirits. 

Circuit  Court,  a  court  in  the 
United  States  next  in  rank  to  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court.  The 
country  now  has  nine  circuits,  each 
consisting  of  several  States,  and  each 
is  allotted  to  one  of  the  nine  justices 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  who  must  at- 
tend at  least  one  term  of  court  in  each 
district  of  his  circuit  every  two  years. 
The  judges  of  each  circuit  and  the  jus- 
tice of  the  Supreme  Court  for  the  cir- 
cuit constitute  a  Circuit  Court  of  Ap- 
peals. 

Circular  Notes,  notes  or  letters  of 
credit  furnished  by  bankers  to  persons 
about  to  travel  abroad. 

Circular  Numbers,  numbers  whose 
powers  end  on  the  same  figures  as 
themselves ;  as  0,  1,  5,  etc. 

Circulation,  in  anatomy  and 
physics,  the  term  used  to  designate 
the  course  of  the  blood  from  the  heart 
to  the  most  minute  blood-vessels  (the 
capillaries),  and  from  these  back  to 
the  heart. 

Circulation  of  Sap,  in  plants,  its 
ascent  from  the  root  to  the  leaves  and 
bark,  and  its  partial  descent  after  the 
elaboration,  which  it  undergoes  in 
these  organs. 


Circus 

Circumcision,  an  operation  con- 
sisting in  removing  circularly  the  pre- 
puce of  infants.  God  commanded 
Abraham  to  use  circumcision  as  a  sign 
of  his  covenant ;  and  in  obedience  to 
this  order,  the  patriarch  at  99  years 
of  age  was  circumcised,  as  also  his  son 
Ishmael,  and  all  the  males  of  his 
household  (Gen.  xvii :  10-12).  God 
repeated  the  precept  to  Moses,  and  or- 
dered that  all  who  intended  to  partake 
of  the  Paschal  sacrifice  should  receive 
circumcision,  and  that  this  rite  should 
be  performed  on  children  on  the  eighth 
day  after  their  birth  (Ex.  xii:  44). 
The  Jews  and  all  the  other  nations 
sprung  from  Abraham,  as  the  Ishmael- 
ites,  the  Arabians,  etc.,  have  always 
been  very  exact  in  observing  this  cere- 
mony. At  the  present  day  it  is  an  es- 
sential rite  of  the  Mohammedan  reli- 
gion, and  though  not  enjoined  in  the 
Koran,  prevails  wherever  this  religion 
is  found. 

Circumference,  or  Periphery, 
the  curve  which  incloses  a  circle,  el- 
lipse, oval,  or  other  plane  figure. 

Circumnavigator,  one  who  sails 
round  the  globe.  The  first  European 
known  to  have  circumnavigated  the 
globe  was  Magellan  or  Magalhaens,  a 
Portuguese,  who  accomplished  the  feat 
in  A.  D.  1519.  From  him  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  derive  their  name. 

Circnmpolar  Stars,  those  that  ap- 
pear to  move  around  the  pole  and  per- 
form their  circles  without  setting. 

Circumstantial  Evidence,  evi- 
dence obtained  from  circumstances, 
which  necessarily  or  usually  attend 
facts  of  a  particular  nature,  from 
which  arises  presumption ;  any  evi- 
dence not  direct  and  positive. 

Circnmvallation,  or  Line  of 
Circumvallation,  in  military  affairs 
a  line  of  field-works  consisting  of  a 
rampart  or  parapet,  with  a  trench 
surrounding  a  besieged  place,  or  the 
camp  of  a  besieging  army. 

Circus,  among  the  Romans,  a 
nearly  oblong  building  without  a  roof, 
in  which  public  chariot-races  and  ex- 
hibitions of  pugilism  and  wrestling, 
etc.,  took  place.  The  modern  circus  is 
a  place  where  horses  and  other  animals 
are  trained  to  perform  tricks,  and 
where  exhibitions  of  acrobats  and  va- 
rious pageantries,  including  a  large 
amount  of  buffoonery,  are  presented. 


Cirrhosis 


City 


Cirrhosis,  a  chronic  nonsuppura- 
tive  inflammation.  The  term  was  orig- 
inally applied  to  the  liver,  and  was 
due  to  alcoholic  indulgence. 

Cirta,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
Massylii  in  Numidia.  After  the  defeat 
of  Jugurtha  it  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Romans,  and  was  restored  by 
Constantine,  who  gave  it  his  own 
name. 

Cisalpine  Republic,  a  former 
State  in  North  Italy.  After  the  bat- 
tle of  Lodi,  in  May,  1796,  General 
Bonaparte  proceeded  to  organize  two 
States  —  one  on  the  S.  of  the  Po,  the 
Cispadane  Republic,  and  one  on  the 
N.,  the  Transpadane.  These  two  were 
on  July  9,  1797,  united  into  one  under 
the  title  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
which  embraced  Lombardy,  Mantua, 
Bergamo,  Brescia,  Cremona,  Verona, 
and  Rovigo,  the  duchy  of  Modena,  the 
principalities  of  Massa  and  Cararra, 
and  the  three  legations  of  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  the  Romagna.  The  re- 
public had  a  territory  of  more  than 
16,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  3,500,000.  Milan  was  the  seat  of 
the  government  or  Directory.  In  1802 
it  took  the  name  of  the  Italian  Re- 
public, and  chose  Bonaparte  for  its 
president.  A  deputation  from  the  re- 
public in  1805  conferred  on  the  Em- 
peror Napoleon  the  title  of  King  of 
Italy ;  after  which  it  formed  the  king- 
dom of  Italy  till  1814. 

Cisleithania,  or  Cisleithan 
Provinces,  Austria  proper  or  Austria 
W.  of  the  river  Leitha,  which  partly 
forms  the  boundary  between  it  and 
Hungary. 

Cisneros-Betanconrt,  Salvador, 
a  Cuban  patriot ;  born  in  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe in  1832.  During  the  Revolution 
of  1868-1878,  he  was  president  of  the 
Cuban  House  of  Representatives,  and 
during  a  part  of  the  time  president  of 
the  Cuban  Republic.  In  1895  he  was 
re-elected  president  of  the  new  Cuban 
Republic.  He  died  Oct.  22, 1910. 

Cissoid,  a  curve  in  geometry,  the 
locus  of  the  vortex  of  a  parabola  roll- 
ing upon  equal  parabola. 

Cist,  a  place  of  interment  of  an 
early  or  prehistoric  period,  consisting 
of  a  rectangular  stone  chest  or  inclos- 
ure  formed  of  rows  of  stones  set  up- 
right, and  covered  by  similar  flat 
stones. 


Cistercian,  a  monastic  order  in 
connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Cistern,  a  tank  for  holding  water. 
Cisterns  differ  from  wells  in;  that  they 
do  not  get  their  water  from  natural 
sources,  such  as  springs,  but  through 
channels  made  by  the  hand  of  man. 

Citation,  a  summons  or  official  no- 
tice given  to  a  person  to  appear  in  a 
court  as  a  party  or  witness  in  a  cause. 

Cithern,  or  Cittern,  an  old  instru- 
ment of  the  guitar  kind,  strung  with 
wire  instead  of  gut. 

Cities  of  Refuge.  Moses,  at  the 
command  of  God,  set  apart  three  cities 
on  the  E.  of  Jordan,  and  Joshua  added 
three  others  on  the  W.,  whither  any 
person  might  flee  for  refuge  who  had 
killed  a  human  creature  inadvertently. 
The  three  on  the  E.  of  Jordan  were 
Bezer,  Ramoth,  and  Golan ;  the  three 
on  the  W.  were  Hebron.  Shechem,  and 
Kedesh.  (Deut.  iv:  43;  Josh,  xx:  1-8.) 

Cities  of  the  Plain,  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  chief  of  those  five  cities 
which,  according  to  the  commonly  re- 
ceived account,  were  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  and  their  sites  over- 
whelmed by  the  waters  of  the  Dead 
Sea. 

Citizen,  a  member  of  a  State  or 
community,  an  inhabitant  of  any  State 
or  place.  "  All  persons  born  or  natu- 
ralized in  the  United  States,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  cit- 
izens of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
State  wherein  they  reside." — Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  Amend,  xiv., 
Sec.  1. 

Citric  Acid,  is  a  very  widely  dis- 
tributed acid,  being  present  in  most 
common  fruits,  such  as  gooseberries, 
currants,  lemons,  citrons,  cherries,  and 
many  others. 

Citron,  a  tree  of  the  genus  Citrus. 
A  small  evergreen  shrub  introduced 
into  the  S.  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

City,  a  municipal  organization  char- 
tered by  the  sovereign  authority,  and 
endowed  with  certain  powers  of  self 
government.  In  remotely  ancient 
times  a  city  was  usually  itself  a  cen- 
ter of  sovereign  power.  This  feature 
survives  only  in  cities  like  Hamburg 
and  Bremen.  It  does  not  exist  in 
American  or  English  cities,  which  are 
as  much  under  the  control  of  the  State 


City  Manager 

as  the  smaller  village,  and  which  are 
in  effect  simply  corporations  organized 
for  the  better  management  of  corpor- 
ate affairs,  the  protection  of  health, 
the  general  safety,  and  so  forth. 

City  Manager,  title  of  a  newly- 
created  official  in  American  cities, 
individually  responsible  for  the  entire 
administrative  machinery  of  a  munic- 
ipality, the  director  of  public  affairs 
under  the  form  of  a  commission  gov- 
ernment. He  appoints  the  various 
department  heads,  subject  to  ratifica- 
tion by  the  commission,  and  they  are 
accountable  only  to  him  and  may  be 
removed  by  him  at  any  time.  The  in- 
novation is  developing  a  unique  group 
of  public  servants,  not  politicians  or 
transplanted  business  men,  but  a  new 
type  of  specially  qualified  adminis- 
trators. Up  to  June  15,  1916,  forty- 
two  cities  under  commission  govern- 
ment had  adopted  the  city  manager 
plan,  and  seventeen  others  not  under 
commission  government  had  done  so. 
See  COMMISSION  GOYEBNMENT. 

City  Planning,  a  movement  for 
municipal  betterment  that  has  devel- 
oped wide-spread  interest  and  civic 
activities  in  many  of  the  large  cities 
of  the  United  States,  especially  since 
1910.  It  is  claimed  that  city  plan- 
ning is  the  application  of  wise  fore- 
sight to  the  control  of  a  city's  destiny. 
It  attracts  industries,  commerce,  and 
visitors ;  it  produces  better  transpor- 
tation facilities,  improved  hygienic 
conditions,  more  adequate  and  less  ex- 
pensive living  quarters  ;  and  it  includes 
not  only  the  aesthetic  beautification 
of  the  city,  but  the  construction 
and  co-ordination  of  all  the  elements 
which  go  to  make  the  modern  city 
a  practical  operative  mechanism.  The 
straightening  of  old  crooked  roads,  the 
elimination  of  unsightly  buildings, 
and  particularly  the  rebuilding  of  mu- 
nicipal and  other  public  buildings  in  a 
center  approachable  from  any  direc- 
tion by  straight,  broad,  attractive 
boulevards,  are  among  the  first  provi- 
sions. Chicago,  Boston,  Kansas  City, 
Lios  Angeles,  and  New  York  have 
taken  the  lead  in  this  movement,  and 
by  1917  nearly  100  cities  had  begun 
or  were  planning  civic  betterments. 

Civics,  School,  a  feature  of  educa- 
tional methods  recently  introduced 
into  many  of  the  public  and  other 
schools  of  the  United  States,  especially 


Civil  Service 

designed  to  impart  to  youth  a  prac- 
tical conception  of  the  science  of  gov- 
ernment. To  render  the  course  of 
study  and  practice  as  realistic  as 
possible,  a  portion  of  the  students 
is  organized  into  a  body  similar  to 
that  which  governs  their  own  city,  or 
in  advanced  instances,  those  under 
commission  government.  Ordinarily 
there  are  a  mayor,  councilmen  or  com- 
missioners, heads  of  the  usual  execu- 
tive departments,  and  representatives 
of  the  leading  public  activities.  These 
officials  are  elected  by  the  students 
from  ^  among  their  number,  and  are 
then  instructed  in  the  various  duties 
and  responsibilities  that  pertain  to 
their  elder  prototypes. 

Cindad-Rodrigo,  a  fortress  in 
Spain,  in  Leon,  on  the  river  Aguada. 
In  the  Peninsular  War  it  was  taken 
by  storm  by  the  British  under  Wel- 
lington, after  a  siege  of  11  days.  The 
Cortes  gave  him  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Ciiidad-Rodrigo. 

Civil  Service,  that  branch  of  the 
public  service  which  includes  the  non- 
military  servants  of  the  government. 
In  January,  1883,  the  United  States 
Congress  passed  a  law  to  prevent  the 
abuse  of  the  appointing  power  of  the 
officers  of  government.  The  Presi- 
dent was  authorized  to  appoint,  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
three  civil  _  service  commissioners, 
whose  duty  is  to  aid  the  President  in 
preparing  suitable  rules  which  shall 
provide  for  open  competitive  examina- 
tions for  testing  the  fitness  of  appli- 
cants for  the  public  service,  such  ex- 
aminations to  be  practical  in  their 
character,  and  so  far  as  may  be  relat- 
ing to  those  matters  which  will  fairly 
test  the  relative  capacity  and  fitness 
of  the  persons  examined  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  the  service.  All  the 
places  arranged  in  classes  are  to  be 
filled  by  selections  according  to  grade 
from  among  those  standing  highest  as 
the  result  of  such  examinations.  m  The 
appointments  to  the  public  service  in 
the  departments  at  Washington  are  to 
be  proportioned  upon  the  basis  of  pop- 
ulation of  the  several  States  and  Ter- 
ritories and  the  District  of  Columbia. 
The  law  provides  a  period  of  probation 
before  any  absolute  appointment  is 
made,  and  exempts  all  persons  in  the 
public  service  from  all  obligation  to 
contribute  to  any  political  fund  or  to 
render  any  political  service.  It  for- 


Civil  War 

bids  any  person  in  the  public  service 
using  his  official  authority  to  coerce 
the  political  action  of  any  other  person 
or  body.  Non-competitive  examina- 
tions in  all  proper  cases  are  provided 
for  after  notice  given  of  a  vacancy, 
the  appointing  power  to  give  notice  in 
writing  to  the  civil  service  commission 
of  the  persons  selected  for  appointment 
among  those  who  have  been  examined. 
Power  is  given  this  commission  to 
make  regulations  for,  and  to  have  con- 
trol of,  such  examinations,  subject  to 
the  rules  made  by  the  President.  The 
civil  service  commission  is  required  to 
report  annually  to  the  President,  for 
transmission  to  Congress,  its  own  ac- 
tion, the  rules  and  regulations,  and 
the  exceptions  thereto  in  .force,  the 
practical  objects  thereof,  and  any  sug- 
gestions for  the  more  effectual  accom- 
plishment of  the  purposes  of  the  law. 
Provision  is  made  for  holding  exami- 
nations at  convenient  places  twice  each 
year  in  every  State  and  Territory  of 
the  United  States. 

The  statute  punishes  by  fine  and 
imprisonment  all  in  the  public  service 
who  wilfully  defeat,  obstruct,  or  de- 
ceive any  person  in  respect  to  his  or 
her  right  of  examination,  or  who  shall 
corruptly  and  falsely  mark,  or  report 
upon  the  proper  standing  of  any  per- 
son examined,  or  aid  in  so  doing,  or 
who  shall  furnish  to  any  person  any 
special  or  secret  information  for  the 
purpose  of  either  improving  or  injur- 
ing the  prospects  of  any  person  so  ex- 
amined appointed,  employed,  or  pro- 
moted. It  was  provided  that  after  six 
months  from  the  passing  of  the  act, 
no  officer  or  clerk  was  to  be  appointed 
until  after  passing  examination,  unless 
specially  exempted  by  the  act ;  and  no 
person  in  the  habit  of  using  intoxicat- 
ing beverages  to  excess  is  to  be  ap- 
pointed to  or  retained  in  any  employ- 
ment to  which  the  act  applies. 

Civil  War,  American,  the  war  in 
the  United  States,  caused  by  the  at- 
tempt of  the  Southern  States  to  estab- 
lish an  independent  government  under 
the  name  of  the  Confederate  States  of 
America. 

The  result  of  the  war  was  to  estab- 
lish the  fact  that  the  United  States  is 
a  nation,  and  that  no  State  has  the 
right  to  secede  from  the  Union.  It 
also  resulted  in  the  abolition  of  slav- 
ery, and  the  13th  Amendment  to  the 


Clairvoyance 

Constitution,  adopted  after  the  war, 
extinguished  slavery  in  the  United 
States.  During  the  Civil  War  there 
were  2,778,304  men  mustered  into  ser- 
vice on  the  Union  side  and  about  600,- 
000  on  the  Confederate.  The  number 
of  casualties  in  the  volunteer  and  regu- 
lar armies  of  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  war,  according  to  a  statement 
prepared  by  the  Adjutant-General's  of- 
fice, was  as  follows :  Killed  in  battle, 
07,058;  died  of  wounds,  43,012;  died 
of  disease,  199,720 ;  other  causes,  such 
as  accidents,  murder,  Confederate  pris- 
ons, etc.,  40,154;  total  died,  349,944; 
total  deserted,  199,105.  Number  of 
soldiers  in  the  Confederate  service  who 
died  of  wounds  or  disease  (partial 
statement),  133,821.  Deserted  (par- 
tial statement),  104,428.  Number  of 
United  States  troops  captured  during 
the  war,  212,608;  Confederate  troops 
captured,  476,169.  Number  of  United 
States  troops  paroled  on  the  field,  16,- 
431 ;  Confederate  troops  paroled  on 
the  field,  248,599.  Number  of  United 
States  troops  who  died  while  prisoners, 
30,156;  Confederate  troops  who  died 
while  prisoners,  30,152. 

Claflin,  Mary  Bucklin,  an  Amer- 
ican prose-writer ;  born  in  Hopkinton, 
Mass.,  July,  1825.  She  was  the  wife 
of  Governor  Claflin,  of  Massachusetts. 
For  18  years  she  was  a  trustee  of  Bos- 
ton University ;  and  of  Wellesley  Col- 
lege from  its  foundation  till  her  death, 
which  occurred  in  Whitinsville,  Mass.. 
June  13,  1896. 

Claflin  University,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  in  Orangeburg,  S. 
C. ;  organized  in  1869,  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  exclusively  for  the  colored 
race. 

Clairvanx,  a  village  of  France,  on 
the  Aube,  10  miles  S.  E.  of  Barsur- 
Aube ;  is  remarkable  as  the  site  of  the 
once  famous  Cistercian,  Abbey,  founded 
in  1115  by  St.  Bernard,  who  presided 
over  it  till  his  death  in  1153,  when  he 
was  buried  in  the  church. 

Clairvoyance,  defined  as  the  power 
of  perceiving  without  the  use  of  the 
organ  of  vision  or  under  conditions  in 
which  the  organ  of  vision  with  its  nat- 
ural powers  alone  would  be  useless.  It 
comprises  the  sight  of  things  past, 
present,  or  future,  and  various  meth- 
ods are  observed  in  its  performance. 


Clam 

Clam,  the  popular  name  of  certain 
bivalvular  shell-fish  of  various  genera 
and  species.  The  giant  clam  has  the 
largest  shell  known,  and  the  animal  is 
used  as  food  in  the  Pacific.  The  com- 
mon American  clam  is  found  in  gravel- 
ly mud,  sand,  and  other  soft  bottoms, 
especially  between  high  and  low  water 
mark.  They  are  largely  used  for  bait, 
and  are  a  much-relished  article  of 
food. 

Clan,  a  tribe  or  number  of  families, 
bearing  the  same  surname,  claiming  to 
be  descended  from  the  same  ancestor 
and  united  under  a  chieftain  repre- 
senting the  ancestor. 

Clapboard,  a  thin,  narrow  board 
commonly  used  for  covering  the  sides 
of  wooden  buildings. 

Clapperton,  Hugh,  an  African 
traveler ;  born  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, in  1788.  He  was  the  first  Euro» 
pean  who  traversed  the  whole  of  Cen- 
tral Africa  from  the  Bight  of  Benin 
to  the  Mediterranean.  He  died  in  Af- 
rica in  April,  1827. 

Claque,  a  body  of  hired  applause- 
makers,  openly  employed  in  France 
and  sometimes  secretly  resorted  to 
elsewhere. 

Clare,  St.,  bora  in  1193,  of  a  noble 
family  of  Assisi ;  in  1212  retired  to  the 
Portiuncula  of  St.  Francis,  and  in  the 
same  year  founded  the  order  of  Fran- 
ciscan nuns.  She  died  Aug.  11,  1253. 
THE  NUNS  OF  THE  OEDEE  OF  ST. 
CLARA  (also  called  the  Poor  Clares) 
at  first  observed  the  strictest  Benedic- 
tine rule,  but  the  austerity  of  this  rule 
was  mitigated  by  St.  Francis  in  1224, 
and  further  modified  by  Urban  IV. 
in  1265.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
nuns  adopted  Urban's  rule. 

Clarence,  Duke  of.  See  GEORGE. 
DUKE  OF  CLARENCE. 

Clarendon,  Constitutions  of,  a 
code  of  laws  adopted  in  the  10th  year 
of  Henry  II.  (1164),  at  a  council  of 
prelates  and  barons  held  in  the  village 
of  Clarendon,  in  Wiltshire,  in  Janu- 
ary of  the  above  year.  Ten  of  the  ar- 
ticles were  condemned,  and  six  allowed 
by  Pope  Alexander  III.  The  six  arti- 
oles  approved  of  were  of  comparatively 
slight  importance,  mostly  confirming 
the  privileges  of  the  ecclesiastical 
order. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl 
of,  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England ; 


Clark 

born  in  Dinton,  Wiltshire,  in  1608. 
During  the  civil  wars  he  zealously  at- 
tached himself  to  the  royal  cause,  was 
made  successively  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer and  privy  councillor.  After 
the  failure  of  the  royalist  arms  he  took 
refuge  in  Jersey,  and  then  joined 
Prince  Charles  in  Holland.  He  con- 
tributed to  the  Restoration,  accom- 
panied Charles  II.  to  London,  and  was 
made  Lord  Chancellor.  His  daughter 
Anne  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterward  James  II.,  and  two 
daughters,  Anne  and  Mary,  both  as- 
cended the  English  throne.  He  died  in 
Rouen  in  1674. 

Claret,  a  name  given  to  wines  of  a 
light-red  color. 

Clarification,  the  act  or  process 
of  making  any  liquor  clear  and  bright 
by  freeing  it  from  visible  impurities. 
It  differs  from  purification  in  that  a 
liquid,  though  clear  to  the  sight,  may 
still  contain  a  large  amount  of  im- 
pure matter. 

Clarinet,  or  Clarionet,  a  musical 
instrument.  It  consists  essentially  of 
a  mouth-piece  furnished  with  a  single 
beating  reed,  a  cylindrical  tube  ending 
in  a  bell,  and  provided  with  18  open- 
ings in  the  side,  half  of  which  are 
closed  by  the  fingers  and  half  by  the 
keys. 

Clark,  Abraham,  an  American 
patriot ;  born  in  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
Feb.  15,  1726.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Continental  Congress  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. He  aided  in  framing  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  Rahway,  N.  J.,  Sept.  15,  1794. 

Clark,  Alexander,  an  American 
clergyman  and  writer ;  born  in  Jeffer- 
son county,  Ohio,  in  1834.  Died  in 
Georgia,  July  6,  1879. 

Clark,  Alonzo  Howard,  an  Amer- 
ican scientist:  born  in  Boston,  April 
13,  1850.  Since  1881  he  has  been  con- 
nected with  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion. 

Clark,  Alvan,  an  American  astro- 
nomical-instrument maker ;  born  in 
As.hfield,  Mass.,  March  3,  1804.  He 
was  at  one  time  a  portrait  painter. 
His  attention  was  turned  to  telescope 
making  and  he  achieved  a  world-wide 
reputation.  He  died  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1887.  His  son,  Alvan 
Graham  Clark,  born  in  Fall  River, 


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